Stress Concentration In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and torsion, it was assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member under consideration. But it is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes in the cross sections of the members. Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearings can be properly seated and so that they will take thrust loads; and the shafts must have key slots machined into them for securing pulleys and gears. A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which account for abrupt changes in the cross section. Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds. Any discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the neighborhood of the discontinuity so that the elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in the part at these locations. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they occur are called areas of stress concentration. The distribution of elastic stress across a section of a member may be uniform as in a bar in tension, linear as a beam in bending, or even rapid and curvaceous as in a sharply curved beam. Stress concentrations can arise from some irregularity not inherent in the member, such as tool marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads. The nominal stress is said to exist if the member is free of the stress raiser. This definition is not always honored, so check the definition on the stress-concentration chart or table you are using. A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to relate the actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factors are defined by the equations Kt =
max 0
K ts =
max 0
(348)
where Kt is used for normal stresses and Kts for shear stresses. The nominal stress 0 or 0 is more difficult to define. Generally, it is the stress calculated by using the elementary stress equations and the net area, or net cross section. But sometimes the gross cross section is used instead, and so it is always wise to double check your source of Kt or Kts before calculating the maximum stress. The subscript t in Kt means that this stress-concentration factor depends for its value only on the geometry of the part. That is, the particular material used has no effect on the value of Kt. This is why it is called a theoretical stress-concentration factor. The analysis of geometric shapes to determine stress-concentration factors is a difficult problem, and not many solutions can be found. Most stress-concentration factors are found by using experimental techniques.8 Though the finite-element method has been used, the fact that the elements are indeed finite prevents finding the true maximum stress. Experimental approaches generally used include photoelasticity, grid methods, brittle-coating methods, and electrical strain-gauge methods. Of course, the grid and strain-gauge methods both suffer from the same drawback as the finite-element method. Stress-concentration factors for a variety of geometries may be found in Tables A15 and A16.
The best source book is W. D. Pilkey, Petersons Stress Concentration Factors, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997.
Figure 329 Thin plate in tension or simple compression with a transverse central hole. The net tensile force is F = wt, where t is the thickness of the plate. The nominal stress is given by F w
0 = = (w d )t (w d )
3.0 d 2.8
2.6 Kt 2.4
2.2
2.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
d/w
An example is shown in Fig. 329, that of a thin plate loaded in tension where the plate contains a centrally located hole. In static loading, stress-concentration factors are applied as follows. In ductile ( f 0.05) materials, the stress-concentration factor is not usually applied to predict the critical stress, because plastic strain in the region of the stress is localized and has a strengthening effect. In brittle materials ( f < 0.05), the geometric stressconcentration factor Kt is applied to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength. Gray cast iron has so many inherent stress raisers that the stress raisers introduced by the designer have only a modest (but additive) effect.
EXAMPLE 313
Be Alert to Viewpoint On a spade rod end (or lug) a load is transferred through a pin to a rectangular-crosssection rod or strap. The theoretical or geometric stress-concentration factor for this geometry is known as follows, on the basis of the net area A = (w d)t as shown in Fig. 330. d/w Kt
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
7.4
5.4
4.6
3.7
3.2
2.8
2.6
2.45
As presented in the table, Kt is a decreasing monotone. This rod end is similar to the square-ended lug depicted in Fig. A15-12 of appendix A. max = K t 0 Kt F F = Kt max = A (w d)t
(a) (b)
It is insightful to base the stress concentration factor on the unnotched area, wt . Let F max = K t (c) wt By equating Eqs. (b) and (c) and solving for K t we obtain K t =
A power regression curve-fit for the data in the above table in the form K t = a(d/w)b gives the result a = exp(0.204 521 2) = 1.227, b = 0.935, and r 2 = 0.9947. Thus 0.935 d K t = 1.227 (e) w
w t
which is a decreasing monotone (and unexciting). However, from Eq. (d),
0.935 d 1.227 K t = 1 d/w w
(f )
Form another table from Eq. ( f ):
d/w
Figure 330
K t
A round-ended lug end to a
rectangular cross-section rod. The maximum tensile stress in the lug occurs at locations A and B. The net area A = ( w d) t is used in the definition of K t , but there is an advantage to using the total area wt.
which shows a stationary-point minimum for K t . This can be found by differentiating
Eq. ( f ) with respect to d/w and setting it equal to zero: (1 d/w)ab(d/w)b1 + a(d/w)b d K t = =0 d(d/w) [1 (d/w)]2 where b = 0.935, from which
b d 0.935 = = = 0.483 w b1 0.935 1
with a corresponding K t of 4.687. Knowing the section w t lets the designer specify the strongest lug immediately by specifying a pin diameter of 0.483w (or, as a rule of thumb, of half the width). The theoretical K t data in the original form, or a plot based on the data using net area, would not suggest this. The right viewpoint can suggest valuable insights.
314 po
dr r
pi
ri
ro
Stresses in Pressurized Cylinders
Cylindrical pressure vessels, hydraulic cylinders, gun barrels, and pipes carrying fluids at high pressures develop both radial and tangential stresses with values that depend upon the radius of the element under consideration. In determining the radial stress r and the tangential stress t , we make use of the assumption that the longitudinal elongation is constant around the circumference of the cylinder. In other words, a right section of the cylinder remains plane after stressing. Referring to Fig. 331, we designate the inside radius of the cylinder by ri, the outside radius by ro, the internal pressure by pi, and the external pressure by po. Then it can be shown that tangential and radial stresses exist whose magnitudes are9 t =
Figure 331
pi ri2 po ro2 ri2ro2 ( po pi )/r 2
ro2 ri2
pi ri2 po ro2 + ri2ro2 ( po pi )/r 2
r = ro2 ri2
A cylinder subjected to both
internal and external pressure. 9
(349)
See Richard G. Budynas, Advanced Strength and Applied Stress Analysis, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999, pp. 348352.
bending. 0 = Mc/I, where c = d/2, I = td 3 /12, and t is the thickness.
w/d =
2.6
r M
1.5
1.05
2.2 1.02
Kt 1.8
1.4
1.0
Figure A155
0.05
0.10
0.15 r /d
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.25
0.30
3.0
Rectangular filleted bar in
tension or simple compression. 0 = F/A, where A = dt and t is the thickness.
D/d = 1.50 2.6
D 1.10 2.2 Kt
1.05 1.8 1.02 1.4
1.0
Figure A156
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
3.0 r
Rectangular filleted bar in
bending. 0 = Mc/I, where 3 c = d/2, I = td /12, t is the thickness.
2.6
1.05
3 2.2
1.1 1.3
Kt 1.8
D/d = 1.02
1.4
1.0
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
0.25
0.30
(continued)
*Factors from R. E. Peterson, Design Factors for Stress Concentration, Machine Design, vol. 23, no. 2, February 1951, p. 169; no. 3, March 1951, p. 161, no. 5, May 1951, p. 159; no. 6, June 1951, p. 173; no. 7, July 1951, p. 155. Reprinted with permission from Machine Design, a Penton Media Inc. publication.
Figure A1512 Plate loaded in tension by a pin through a hole. 0 = F/A, where A = (w d)t . When clearance exists, increase Kt 35 to 50 percent. (M. M. Frocht and H. N. Hill, Stress Concentration Factors around a Central Circular Hole in a Plate Loaded through a Pin in Hole, J. Appl. Mechanics, vol. 7, no. 1, March 1940, p. A-5.)
0.05
0.10
0.15 d/D
0.20
0.25
0.30
11
h/w = 0.35 w
Kt 5 h/w = 0.50 3 h/w 1.0 1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 d/w
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
(continued)
*Factors from R. E. Peterson, Design Factors for Stress Concentration, Machine Design, vol. 23, no. 2, February 1951, p. 169; no. 3, March 1951, p. 161, no. 5, May 1951, p. 159; no. 6, June 1951, p. 173; no. 7, July 1951, p. 155. Reprinted with permission from Machine Design, a Penton Media Inc. publication.
Table A15 Charts of Theoretical Stress-Concentration Factors K*t (Continued)
Figure A1513
3.0 r
1.15
Grooved round bar in tension.
0 = F/A, where A = d 2 /4.
2.6 D
1.05
2.2 Kt 1.02
D/d = 1.50
1.8
1.4
1.0
Figure A1514
3.0
Grooved round bar in
bending. 0 = Mc/l, where 4 c = d/2 and I = d /64.
2.6
0.05
0.10
0.15 r /d
0.20
0.25
0.30
1.05 2.2 Kt D/d = 1.50
1.02 1.8
1.4
1.0
Figure A1515
0.05
0.10
0.15 r /d
0.20
2.6
Grooved round bar in torsion.
0 = Tc/J, where c = d/2 4 and J = d /32.
0.25
0.30
r T
2.2
1.8
1.05
Kts
D/d = 1.30 1.4 1.02 1.0
0.05
0.10
0.15 r/d
0.20
0.25
0.30
*Factors from R. E. Peterson, Design Factors for Stress Concentration, Machine Design, vol. 23, no. 2, February 1951, p. 169; no. 3, March 1951, p. 161, no. 5, May 1951, p. 159; no. 6, June 1951, p. 173; no. 7, July 1951, p. 155. Reprinted with permission from Machine Design, a Penton Media Inc. publication.
Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors Kts for a Round Bar or Tube Having a Transverse Round Hole and Loaded in Torsion Source: R. E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Factors, Wiley, New York, 1974, pp. 148, 244.
The maximum stress occurs on the inside of the hole, slightly below the shaft surface. The nominal shear stress is 0 = T D/2Jnet , where Jnet is a reduced value of the second polar moment of area and is defined by Jnet =
A(D 4 d 4 ) 32
Values of A are listed in the table. Use d = 0 for a solid bar.
