Yousuf P Report

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Innovative sectional profiles and stiffening arrangements for

cold-steel beams
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1General
In steel structures two primary types of structural steel member are: Hot-Rolled steel members
and Cold-formed steel members
The hot-rolled steel members are formed at elevated temperature whereas the cold-formed steel
members are formed at room temperature .until recently the hot-rolled steel members have been
recognized as the most popularly and widely used steel group. But because of its several
advantages over the hot-rolled steel sections, the use of cold-formed high strength steel structural
members has rapidly increased lately. However the structural behavior of this light gauge high
strength steel members characterized by various buckling modes such as local buckling,
distortional buckling, flexural torsional buckling is not yet fully understood, hence there is lot of
scope for future research in this area. open cold formed steel sections such as C,Z ,hat sections
are commonly used because of their simple forming and easy connections, but they suffer from
certain buckling modes due their mono symmetric or point symmetric nature, high plate
slenderness ,eccentricity of shear center to centroid and low torsional rigidity.
It is therefore important that this buckling mode are either delayed or eliminated completely to
increase the ultimate load carrying capacity of cold-formed steel members
The present study is therefore aimed at developing an innovative cold formed steel beam sections
along with appropriate stiffening arrangement which not only has high load carrying capacity but
at the same time is more stable and efficient than the conventional sectional profile for beam
sections.
This chapter discusses the significance and importance of this dissertation work under the
heading of conventional cold formed steel section type, objective and justification of research
program and methodology adopted.

cold-steel beams
1.2 conventional cold formed steel section type

The use of cold formed steel is increasing rapidly around the world .the main use of cold formed
steel is found in the construction of residential buildings and other low rise buildings such as
commercial industrial and institutional buildings the figure 1 illustrates some of the commonly
used cold formed section types.in the above application they include channel(C) section, Zsection, angel section , hat section, and tubular section such as rectangular hollow section and
square hallow section.
These sections are commonly used but they are more susceptible to structural instability due to
their geometrical shapes. The characteristics due to point symmetric nature of these sections are
normally encountered in doubly symmetric sections such as I-sections or tubular sections.
Therefore combining the advantages of Hot-rolled I-sections(better stability) and conventional
cold formed steel sections such as C and Z sections(high strength to weight ratio) can produce an
improved cold formed steel section that can be made, using modern technologies available in the
cold formed steel industries complex structural shapes may now be formed in two or more parts
and then assembled to a single shape this may have the advantage of combing the different
material qualities and thickness into single component, however the use of higher strength steel
is inevitably accompanied by reduction in thickness of the section and may result in more slender
section which could be structurally instable.
Structural behavior of the commonly used cold-formed steel sections has been well researched in
the past However, only limited research has been carried out to investigate the structural
performance of other cold formed steel member type, therefore there is an urgent need in the cold
formed steel industries to look beyond, the conventional cold formed steel sections and generate
new or innovative cold formed steel beam sections which are structurally very efficient and
economical.

cold-steel beams
Figure 1 conventional light gauge sectional profiles.
1.3 Problem with hot rolled steel

The main drawback of the conventional hot-rolled steel sections is they are available in certain
standard predefined sectional shapes. When this sections are used in case where only light loads
are encountered, this sections are under-stressed (most of its sectional capacity is not mobilized).
This not only leaves most of the section capacity un-utilized but also adds to the self-weight of
the structure which requires heavy foundations which in turn increases the cost of the facility.
Hence there is an urgent need to come up with new sections in which the section capacity is fully
utilized.
This need can be catered by replacing the conventional hot rolled steel sections with light gauge
steel sections.

cold-steel beams
1.4 advantages of light gauge steel sections

Some of the main advantages of cold rolled sections, as compared with their hot-rolled
counterparts are as follows:
Cross sectional shapes are formed to close tolerances and these can be consistently repeated for
as long as required.
Cold rolling can be employed to produce almost any desired shape to any desired length.
Pre-galvanised or pre-coated metals can be formed, so that high resistance to corrosion, besides
an attractive surface finish, can be achieved.
All conventional jointing methods, (i.e. riveting, bolting, welding and adhesives) can be
employed.
High strength to weight ratio is achieved in cold-rolled products.
They are usually light making it easy to transport and erect.
It is possible to displace the material far away from the neutral axis in order to enhance the load
carrying capacity (particularly in beams). There is almost no limit to the type of cross section that
can be formed. In Table 1 hot rolled and cold formed channel section properties having the same
area of cross section are shown. From Table 5.1, it is obvious that thinner the section walls, the
larger will be the corresponding moment of inertia values (Ixx and Iyy) and hence capable of
resisting greater bending moments. The consequent reduction in the weight of steel in general
applications produces economies both in steel costs as well as in the costs of handling
transportation and erection. This, indeed, is one of the main reasons for the popularity and the
consequent growth in the use of cold rolled steel. Also cold form steel is protected against
corrosion by proper galvanizing or powder coating in the factory itself.

cold-steel beams
Comparison of hot rolled and cold rolled sections
1.5 Objective
To replace the hot rolled I-section with innovative sectional profiles for beams by using light
gauge steel.
Having discussed the problems with conventional hot-rolled steel for their use as beam sections,
there is a great need to focus on the development of structurally efficient beam sections.
The objectives of this study are as listed under.
Experimental validation of proposed innovative sectional profiles for their efficient use
as a beam.
Development of the most appropriate stiffening arrangement for various innovative beam
sections to avoid their pre-mature stability mode of failure.
1.5.1Overall objective: - To reduce the self-weight of the structural member, thereby

making it economical.
1.5.2Specific objective:-To either delay or completely eliminate the local buckling

phenomenon in the innovative sectional profiles using judicious stiffening arrangements.

cold-steel beams
1.6 Justifications of sectional profiles chosen and their stiffening

arrangements
The main problem encountered in the light gauge steel is its stability failure. This stability
failure occurs well before the material has reached its yield strength (which leaves the section
un-utilized to its full capacity) hence the need of the hour is to come up with new innovative
sectional profile and stiffening arrangements which would either delay or completely
eliminate this stability failure so that the section is utilized to its full load carrying capacity.
As we all know in the conventional hot-rolled steel. The section which is most efficient
under flexure is I- section.
Thus to propose a replacement for the conventional I-section, some similar section has to be
proposed. But forming I- section in light gauge steel can only be done by connecting two
channel sections back to back.
But channel section without edge stiffener would again show local buckling; hence the
section had to be stiffened using edge stiffeners/ lip stiffeners. But this showed torsional
failure (due to in-evitable eccentricity in loading) hence sectional profile A as shown in the
figure 1.2 had to be proposed but this showed only marginal improvement in the load
carrying capacity. Thus stiffing arrangement had to be made in the section. To increase the
load carrying capacity to some more extent the section modulus had to be increased which
was done by proposing sectional profile B as shown in the figure 1.2. But the problem with
sectional profile A and B is that when provided with stiffening arrangement the acute
angel corners were left un-attended, thus the sectional profile C was proposed with 900
corner in which angel section can be used as stiffener which would more efficiently serve as
a stiffening arrangement.

cold-steel beams
CWOES
CWES
Figure 1.2 sectional profiles
1.7 Methodology
In the first phase of this study, independent reading and literature review was undertaken to gain
background knowledge required in this research field. Following the literature review and using
concepts of beam behaviour, various innovative cross-sectional profiles for beam were worked
out there shapes were analytically evaluated for their efficient use as a beam section so as to
short list promising profile for experimental validation, laboratory experiments were carried out
to understand the flexural behavior of innovative beams. The laboratory experiments included a
series of tests on this new innovative section profile and relevant stiffening arrangements to
determine their moment carrying capacity. The tests were conducted on innovative beams by
keeping the member lengths and steel grades constant for the models. In addition to this the
quantity material used in each sectional profile is all most same.

cold-steel beams
Chapter2
Literature review.
2.1 General
Due to increasing interest among researchers, a large number of publications dealing with the
cold-formed steel structural members are in existence. However, the so called innovative shapes
for flexure members are not well researched until recently and therefore their publications are
limited. This chapter aims to provide a brief review of previous research investigations on the
cold-formed steel beams.
2.2 Special Characteristics and Design Considerations of Cold formed Steel

Members
Unlike conventional hot-rolled steel members, there are certain unique characteristics related to
cold-formed steel members, particularly due to their forming process and the use of thinner
material. Some of these special characteristics and design issues are discussed in the following
sections.
2.2.1 Methods of Forming

In general, two manufacturing methods are used to produce various shapes of cold formed steel
sections (see Figures 2.1 and 2.2), and they are cold roll-forming and press brake operations.
2.2.1.1 Cold Roll-forming

The cold roll-forming process consists of feeding a continuous steel strip through a series of
opposing rolls (see Figure 2.1 (a)) to deform the steel plastically to form the desired shapes. The
process involved in cold-forming a Z- section is illustrated in Figure 2.1(b). A simple section
may be produced by as few as six pairs of rolls but a complex section may require as many as 15
sets of rolls (Yu, 2000). This method is usually used to produce cold-formed steel sections where
a large quantity of a given shape is required.

cold-steel beams
(a) Cold Roll-forming Machines
(b) Roll-forming Sequence for a Z Section
Figure 2.1: Cold Roll-Forming Processes

cold-steel beams
However, a significant limitation of this method is the time taken to change rolls for different
size sections. Consequently, adjustable rolls are often used which allow a rapid change to a
different section width or depth. From a structural point of view,roll-forming may produce a
different set of residual stresses in the section and hence the section strength may be different in
case where buckling and yielding interact.
2.2.1.2 Press Braking

The equipment used in the press brake operation essentially consists of a moving top beam and a
stationary bottom bed that produce one complete fold at a time along the full length of the
section (see Figure 2.2). This method is normally used for low volume production where a
variety of shapes are required and the roll-forming Tooling costs cannot be justified. However,
this method has a limitation that it is difficult to produce continuous lengths exceeding
approximately 5 meters.
Figure 2.2 Press Breaking
2.2.2 Common Section Profiles and Their Applications

Cold-formed steel shapes can broadly be classified into two groups: individual structural frame
members, and panels and decks. The former includes sections shapes such as, I, L, C and Z,
which are commonly used in engineering practices of cold formed steel construction. However
with the improvement of industrial cold forming processes, more complex section types are
possible (see Figure 2.3) and offer competitive solutions to achieve structural weight reduction
and high strength. There are wide range of applications for these section types: typical Z or C
sections are used as purlins and bracings in roof and wall systems in residential, commercial and
industrial buildings, C- or tubular sections are normally used as shelf beam and upright frames in
steel racks, and circular, square or rectangular hollow sections are used for structural members
such as chords and webs in plane and space trusses. The panels and decks are used mostly for
roof decks, floor decks, and wall panels.

cold-steel beams
Figure 2.3: Various Shapes of Cold-formed Steel Sections

cold-steel beams
2.2.3 Special Design Criteria

A set of unique problems pertaining to cold-formed steel design has evolved mainly due to the
thinner materials and cold-forming process used in the production of cold formed sections.
Hence, unlike the usually thicker conventional hot-rolled steel members, the design of coldformed steel members must be given special considerations during the design phase of such
members. A brief summary of such considerations is listed next.
2.2.3.1 Local Buckling and Post Buckling Strength

Individual elements forming cold-formed steel members are usually thin with respect to their
width. Therefore, they are likely to buckle at a lower stress than yield point when they are
subjected to compression, bending, shear or bearing forces. However, unlike one-dimensional
structural elements such as columns, stiffened compression elements will not collapse when the
buckling stress is reached, but they often continue to carry increasing loads by means of
redistribution of stresses (Winter, 1970).The ability of these locally buckled elements to carry
further load, known as post buckling strength, is allowed in the design to achieve an economic
solution. Figures 2.4. Illustrate a case of local buckling of thin-walled box. The applied sagging
bending moment induces longitudinal compressive stresses in the top flange plate, causing local
buckling in the top flange. Detailed descriptions of local buckling effects on the behavior of
cold-formed steel members are presented in Section 2.3.1.
Figure 2.4: Local Buckling of Compression Flanges

cold-steel beams
2.2.4 Connection
The generally used connection types in the cold-formed steel construction include; welds, bolts,
screws, rivets and other special devices such as clinching, nailing and structural adhesives (see
Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.5: Generally Used Cold-formed Steel Fasteners

Due to the comparative low thickness of the material, connection technology plays an important
role in the development of structures using cold-formed steel members. Although the above
mentioned conventional methods of connections are available and used in cold-formed steel
constructions, they are practically less appropriate for thin-walled member connections in terms
of cost, quality and construction efficiency The self-piercing riveting introduced commercially
by HENROB is a recently discovered connection type with many advantages compared with
other conventional methods used in cold-formed steel connections (Voelkner, 2000, see Figure
2.10). Therefore, the choice of connection type is an important decision in cold-formed steel
manufacturing, because it affects the combinations of cost, quality and construction efficiency of
the whole project.
Figure 2.6: Cross section of a Self-piercing Rivet (Voelkner, 2000)

cold-steel beams
2.3. Local Buckling

The individual plate components forming cold-formed steel sections are normally thin compared
with their width. This may lead to local buckling of plate elements in cold-formed sections
before yield stress is reached. Local buckling in plate elements involves flexural displacements,
with the line junctions between plate elements remaining straight (see Figure 2.7). The local
buckling failure in thin walled sections can occur under compression, bending or shear loading.
Previous researchers (Bleich, 1952: Allen and Bulson, 1980 and Troitsky, 1976) have extensively
investigated and summarized the elastic critical stress for local buckling. The elastic critical
stress for local buckling (f cr ) of a plate element is determined using Bryans (1891) equation
based on small deflection theory;(2.1)Bryans differential equation has been developed based on
a rectangular plate of width w, length a and thickness t, with in plane stress fx acting on the plate
as shown in Figure 2.6. The solution of Bryans differential equation for the elastic critical local
buckling stress (fcr) is given by;
Figure 2.7: Rectangular Plate Subjected to Compression Stress (Hancock, 1998)

cold-steel beams
Figure 2.8 local buckling in Z-section

The elastic critical local buckling stress (fcr) is a function of the elastic material properties (E,V),
plate slenderness ratio w/t, and the restraint conditions along the longitudinal boundaries
represented by the value k, where k, E and are called as plate local buckling coefficient, elastic
modulus and the Poissons ratio, respectively. For example, a steel plate with simply supported
edges on all four sides and subjected to uniform compression will buckle at a half-wavelength
equal to the plate width (w) with a plate buckling coefficient (k) of 4.0. A plate element is defined
as slender if the elastic critical local buckling stress (fcr) calculated using Equation 2.2 is less
than the material yield stress (fy). A slender section will buckle locally before the squash load
(Py) or the yield moment (My) is reached. If the elastic critical buckling stress (fcr) exceeds the
yield stress fy, the compression element will buckle in the inelastic range (Yu, 2000). Equation
2.2 can be used for the local buckling of plates subjected to bending and shear (Trahair and
Bradford, 1988). A summary of local buckling coefficients, k with corresponding half
wavelengths of the local buckles for a long rectangular plate subjected to different types of stress
(compression, shear, or bending) and boundary conditions (simply supported, fixed, or free edge)
is given in Table 2.1.

cold-steel beams
Table 2.1: Local Buckling Coefficient (Hancock, 1998)
Note: L=Plate length, b=Plate width

Although local buckling occurs at a stress level lower than the yield stress of steel, it does not
necessarily represent the collapse of the members. In the case of considerably low (b/t) ratios,
failure is governed by post-buckling strength which is generally much higher than local buckling
strength. For example, a plate subjected to uniform compressive strain between rigid frictionless
platens will deform after buckling, and will redistribute the longitudinal membrane stresses from

cold-steel beams
uniform compression to those shown in Figure 2.8. Although the stiffness reduced to 40.8% of
the initial linear elastic value for a square stiffened element and to 44.4% for a square unstiffened
element, the plate element will continue to carry load (Bulson, 1970). The theoretical analysis of
post buckling and failure of plates is extremely difficult, and generally requires a sophisticated
computer analysis to achieve an accurate solution (Hancock, 1998)
Figure 2.9: Redistribution of Stress after Post buckling of Uniformly Compressed

Plate Element (Hancock, 1998)

cold-steel beams
2.4 Summary of Literature Review Findings

An extensive literature review as described in this chapter has enabled the accumulation of the
required knowledge in the following topics: types of cold formed steel sections used for flexural
members, special design criteria for cold-formed steel design, and failure modes of cold-formed
steel beams, current cold-formed steel design standards and procedures, and experimental
investigations of cold-formed steel beams. The main focus of all the above topics was based on
the flexural members. A summary of the literature review is presented next. Typically used coldformed steel sections for flexural members, such as C-, Z and hat sections, are found to be more
susceptible to structural instabilities due to their inappropriate profile geometry. However, the
characteristics due to mono symmetric nature of the C- sections and the point symmetry nature
of Z-sections are not normally encountered in doubly symmetric sections such as I-sections and
tubular sections (i.e. RHS, CHS, and SHS). Therefore, the recently proposed cold-formed steel
section known as innovative beams, are considered to be structurally more efficient than
conventional sections such as C and Z- sections.
Local buckling and post-buckling strength of cold-formed steel members subjected to
compression or flexural actions play an important role in the design of cold-formed steel
structures. The inclusion of these buckling effects in cold formed steel design is important to
achieve more structurally efficient cold formed structures in an economical manner.
Experimental researches have also been carried out by previous researchers to investigate the
flexural behavior of conventional C-Z shapes and sometimes to validate finite element models.
This literature review showed that the uniform bending moment distribution within a selected
span is the common practice for buckling tests, since these conditions allow comparing
experimental and theoretical results accurately. Two explicit methods have been used by previous
researchers to generate uniform moment conditions over a span of the beam. In the first method,
two equal overhang loads are applied at an equal distance outside the supports to generate a
uniform bending moment between the supports. In the second method, two equal loads at an
equal distance from the supports but within the span are applied to generate uniform bending
moment between the loading positions.

cold-steel beams
Chapter 3
Analysis, design and fabrication
3.1 Theoretical background
In comparison with the conventional steel construction, where standard hot rolled shapes are
used, the cold formed light gauge steel structures are a relative new development. Light gauge
steel section are cold-formed in rolls by rolling the material in cold condition or by bending the
steel sheets or strips in press break; cold-rolling being used for mass production while press
brakes are used for economical production of small quantities of special shapes (as in the case of
this study). These are widely used in structures subjected to light or moderate loads or for
members of short span lengths. For such structures the use of conventional hot rolled shapes is
often uneconomical because the stresses developed in the smallest available shape may be very
low. Further, a verity of light gauge members can be formed in the cold state with and the
material can be used in the most effective manner. While cold-formed steel products are used in
automobile bodies, kitchen appliances, furniture, and hundreds of other domestic applications,
the emphasis in this thesis is on structural members used for buildings. Cold-formed structures
have been produced and widely used in the United States for at least a century. Corrugated sheets
for farm buildings, corrugated culverts, round grain bins, retaining walls, rails for stair case, and
other structures have been around for most of the 20th century. Cold-formed steel for industrial
and commercial buildings began about mid-20th century, and widespread usage of steel in
residential buildings started in the latter two decades of the century.
3.2 Material testing

Three tensile test specimens including three specimens from each steel sheet and thickness were
taken same as that of steel sheet that was used in the section and member capacity tests. This
allowed the determination of an accurate stress-strain relationship for each steel sheet and
thickness used in the tests that can be used in the section and member capacity calculations of
innovative beams. The material properties of cold reduced steels have been shown to be
anisotropic (Wu et al., 1995, Dhalla and Winter, 1971). Hence all the tensile test specimens were
cut in the longitudinal direction with respect to the rolling direction of steel sheets, as it was the
same longitudinal direction along which the test beams used for section and member capacities
were made. Specimen size and shape are important variables which can affect its behavior.

cold-steel beams
Accurate and consistent fabrication procedures were used for all specimens included in this test
program to ensure that test specimens were of near identical size and shape. Various standards
exist which specify the requirements for the testing of tensile specimens. Tensile specimens for
this test program were prepared in accordance with IS 1608-2005. As shown in figure 3.1
Figure 3.1 nominal size of the tensile test specimen

All the tensile tests were conducted on precision universal testing machine as shown in the figure
3.2. To record the deformation dial gauge was mounted and the deformation was noted as every
0.4KN. The typical stress strain curve of tensile test is as shown in the figure3.3 all three tensile
test coupons showed an approximate yield stress of about 260.3N/mm 2.The pattern of yielding of
the test coupons can be seen in figure 3.4.

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.2 Tensile test coupon in the U.T.M.

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.3 Typical load displacement curve of tensile test

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.4 Test specimens after tensile test

cold-steel beams
3.3 Analysis and design of innovative sections for load carrying capacity.
1
Analysis of beam section (CWOES) for moment carrying capacity
Figure 3.3.1 channel without lip stiffener

Basic design stress f=0.6fy=0.6*250=150N/mm2 (for stiffened compression elements)
But according to clause 6.2 of IS 801-1975.
Allowable compression stress in unstiffened element is (in S.I. units)

For
w 165
t fy
f c =0.6 f y

cold-steel beams
For
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
c= f
y 0.76710
( wt ) f ]
y
f
For
25>
f c=
w 375
>
t fy
54200
2
w
t
( )
For
60>
w
>25
t
f c =1341.93
( wt )
Where w=width of the flange; t= thickness of the flange.

fy=yield stress. fc=allowable compressive stress.
Hence from the above clause
60 165
2 250
60>
=30>10.43
w
>25
t
f c =1341.93
( wt )

cold-steel beams
.
Hence allowable compressive stress is given by
f c =1341.93
( wt )
f c =1341.93
( 302 )
=76.1N/mm2
To find effective design width
( wt ) lim 446
f
(Clause 5.2.1.1 of IS 801-1975)
Where w=width of the flange; t= thickness of flange.
( wt ) lim 446
150
=39.268
w/t=60/2=30<39.268
Hence b=w=60mm.
Sectional properties.
Ixx=1.9125x106 mm4
M=
Ixx
f y
y
Where Ixx=moment of inertia of section horizontal axis passing through centroid of the section.

cold-steel beams
Y= distance of extreme fiber in compression from neutral axis.
M=
1.9125106
76.1=1.94 kNm
75
For beam under single point load
p=
p=
4M
l
41.94
=7.76 kN =0.7 T
1
Analysis of beam section (CWES) for moment carrying capacity

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.3.2 channel with lip stiffener

But according to clause 6.2 of IS;-: 801-1975.
( wt ) lim 446
f
(Clause 5.2.1.1 of IS 801-1975)
( wt ) lim 446
150
=39.268
w/t=60/2=30<39.268

cold-steel beams
Hence b=w=60mm.
Design for edge/lip stiffener.
According to clause 5.2.2 of I.S. 801-1975
The edge stiffener must have minimum moment of inertia equal to
I min=1.83 t 4
[(
w 2 27590
t
fy
4
> 9.2 t
Where the stiffener lip consists of a simple lip bent at right angel to stiffened element, the
required overall depth dmin of such lip is
d min =2.8 t
(
6
w 2 27590
t
fy
Hence
I min=1.83 24
[( )
60 2 27590
2
250
> 9.2 2
I min=822.8 mm >148 mm
d min =2.82
(
6
60 2 27590
=17 mm
2
250
d= 3 I min12
d= 3 82312=22 mm
d=25mm

cold-steel beams
Ixx=1.9215x106 mm4
M=
Ixx
f y
y
1.921510
M=
150=3.843 kN m
75
p=
41.94
=15.372 kN=1.54 T
1
p=
4M
l

cold-steel beams
Analysis of beam sectional profile A for moment carrying capacity
Figure 3.3.3 Sectional profile A

For
w 165
t fy
f c =0.6 f y

cold-steel beams
For
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
c= f
y 0.76710
( wt ) f ]
y
f
For
25>
f c=
w 375
>
t fy
54200
2
w
t
( )
For
60>
w
>25
t
f c =1341.93
( wt )

30 165
2 250
=15>10.43
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
375 30 165
> >
250 2 250
=23.717>15>10.435.

cold-steel beams
c= f y 0.767103
( wt ) f ]
y
c= 250 0.767103
( 302 ) 250]
=132.46N/mm2
( wt ) lim 446
f
(Clause 5.2.1.1 of IS 801-1975)
(w/t) lim
( wt ) lim 446
150
=36.4
w/t=30/2=15<36.415
Hence
b=w=30mm.
Ixx=3.02x106 mm4
M=
Ixx
f y
y

cold-steel beams
3.02106
M=
132.46=3.81 kN m
105
p=
p=
4M
l
43.81
=15.24 kN=1.52 T
1
Analysis of beam sectional profile C for moment carrying capacity

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.3.4 Sectional profile C

For
w 165
t fy
f c =0.6 f y
For
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
c= f
y 0.76710
( wt ) f ]
y

cold-steel beams
For
25>
f c=
w 375
>
t fy
54200
w 2
t
( )
For
60>
w
>25
t
f c =1341.93
( wt )

30 165
2 250
=15>10.43
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
375 30 165
> >
250 2 250
=23.717>15>10.435.
c= f y 0.767103
f
( wt ) f ]
y

cold-steel beams
c= 250 0.767103
( 302 ) 250]
=132.46N/mm2
( wt ) lim 446
f
(Clause 5.2.1.1 of IS 801-1975)
(w/t) lim
( wt ) lim 446
150
=36.4
w/t=30/2=15<36.415
Hence
b=w=30mm.
Ixx=3.45x106 mm4
M=
Ixx
f y
y

cold-steel beams
M=
3.45106
132.46=4.08 kN m
112
p=
p=
4M
l
44.08
=16.32 kN=1.63 T
1
Analysis of beam sectional profile B for moment carrying capacity

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.3.5 Sectional profile B

For
w 165
t fy
f c =0.6 f y
For
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y

cold-steel beams
c= f
y 0.76710
( wt ) f ]
y
f
For
25>
f c=
w 375
>
t fy
54200
2
w
t
( )
For
60>
w
>25
t
f c =1341.93
( wt )

30 165
2 250
=15>10.43
375 w 165
> >
f y t f y
375 30 165
> >
250 2 250
=23.717>15>10.435.

cold-steel beams
c= f y 0.767103
( wt ) f ]
y
c= 250 0.767103
( 302 ) 250]
=132.46N/mm2
( wt ) lim 446
f
(Clause 5.2.1.1 of IS 801-1975)
(w/t) lim
( wt ) lim 446
150
=36.4
w/t=30/2=15<36.415
Hence
b=w=30mm.
Ixx=6.372x106 mm4
M=
Ixx
f y
y

cold-steel beams
M=
6.37210
132.46=5.944 kNm
142
p=
p=
4M
l
45.944
=23.776 kN =2.4 T
1
3.4 Fabrication of innovative sectional profiles

To fabricate the required beam modes the steel sheets where cut to required width using sheet
shearing machine as shown in figure 3.5
Once the sheet was cut to required dimension marking was done on the sheet as to where the
sheet had to be pressed to get the required sectional profile, after the marking was done the sheet
was pressed using bending machine. As shown in the figure 3.6.

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.5 sheet shearing machine

cold-steel beams
Figure 3.6 sheet bending machine

cold-steel beams
Chapter 4
Performance evaluation of experimental setup
4.1 General
Before carrying out the serious experimental work for achieving well defined objectives form
high precision experimental testing, it is essential to critically evaluate the performance of the
experimental set up being used for the purpose. This is necessary to have confidence in the
accuracy and reliability of experimentally measured data. This chapter will discuss the various
aspects of existing 40T loading capacity universal testing machine so as to understand its
capabilities as a load testing facility in performing the high precision experimental work. For
checking the performance of the experimental set up, the best course of action is to perform
preliminary testing on a trial model. This would not only help in identifying the shortcoming (if
any) in the experimental set-up but will also provide clues in making changes (if required) in the
loading arrangement, to obtain better results from the experiments.
4.2 Salient features of the existing 40T loading capacity universal testing
machine and its potential as an efficient loading facility.
Universal testing machine of 40T capacity having least count of 8kg/div was used conduct the
tests this universal testing machine was manufactured by precision machines New Delhi India
(figure 4.1).
This came with a beam testing attachment whose span is 1m which governed the beam models
span.

cold-steel beams
Figure 4.1 universal testing machine.
4.3 Loading arrangement and data recording system

4.3.1 Two point load arrangement
Initially the beam was intended to be tested under two point load arrangement as shown in the
figure. This two point loading was simulated by using a spreader beam, this spreader beam was
made of I-section with attachments for rollers placed at 0.46m apart thus the distance between
the two point loads applied was 0.46m (figure4.2). This whole two point load arrangement had a
weight of 0.16KN (approximately). But when the beam model was tested under this two point
load arrangement the beam model underwent torsion at a very lower load this was because some
inevitable eccentric loading incorporated by the two point load assembly. Hence this loading
assembly had to be discarded.

cold-steel beams
Figure 4.2 Two point load arrangement
4.3.2 Single point load arrangement

Since two point load arrangement had inevitable eccentricity in loading which made the beam
model to fail in torsion. Thus beam models hereafter were tested under single point load as
shown in the figure 4.3. By using single point load assemble it was ascertained that the load
applied was concentric which would ensure the beam models failed under flexure.

cold-steel beams
Figure 4.3 Single point load arrangement
4.3.3 Data recording system

The data to be recorded in this study is deflection of the beam model at mid span. To do so dial
gauges having a least count of 0.01mm were used. Initially two dial gauges were used that is one
under each flange at mid span of the beam to see if the beam model was going into torsion under
the loading. But at a later stage since single point load arrangement was used which showed
flexural failure so only one dial gauge was placed at the mid span to record the data.

cold-steel beams
4.4 Preliminary testing on the model

To ascertain that the testing facility and all the dial gauges used for data recording were in
proper working condition the beam sample was loaded and re-loaded again and again with in
elastic limit to see if the data recorded was almost same every time.
4.5 Important lessons learnt from preliminary testing

The lessons learnt from preliminary testing are as follows
1. Two point load assemble had some evitable eccentricity which made the beam model to
fail under torsion
2. Hence the loading arrangement had to be changed to single point loading which ensured
that the loading was not eccentric and thus making sure that the beam model showed
flexural behaviour.
3. To ascertain the beam was not undergoing torsion tow dial gauges one under each flange
were mounted at mid span of the beam.
4. Since single point load arrangement exhibited flexure behaviour now only one dial gauge
at the mid span was enough to record the data.

cold-steel beams
Chapter 5
Detailed testing of innovative beam models.
5.1 Need for experimental Investigation
Experimental methods are the base and a necessity for scientific research even though they are
very time-consuming and expensive. The mathematical formulae can only be used to predict the
capacities of idealized structures where a number of assumptions have been made. Experimental
results can be used to verify the numerical models and innovative concepts that can then be used
to expand the results to enable a full understanding of the structural behaviour and the
development of design rules.
5.2 Testing of unstiffened channel models and data collection

The fabricated models were mounted on the loading frame as shown in the figure 5.1 Necessary
arrangements for ensuring simple supported end conditions were made and necessary checks for
horizontal and vertical alignment were carried out. The selected loading arrangement (single
point load) was assembled for application of the load at the mid span of the beam model. The
dial gauge was mounted at the mid span of the beam model.
A proving ring of 20 T capacity was mounted between the loading jack and frame (as shown in
figure5.1) to record the load applied. The model was loaded at constant rate of loading and the
dial gauge readings were recorded at every 5 division increment in the proving ring up to failure
(local buckling of the top flange as shown in the figure5.2). The subsequent data analysis and
result interpretations are covered in the next chapter.

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.1 CWOS test set-up

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.2 local buckling in the top flange
5.2.1 Testing of unstiffened sectional profile A and data collection

The fabricated models were mounted on the universal testing machine with flexure test
assembly as shown in the figure 5.3. Necessary arrangements for ensuring simple supported end
conditions were made and necessary checks for horizontal and vertical alignment were carried
out. The selected loading arrangement (single point load) was assembled for application of the
load at the mid span of the beam model. The dial gauge was mounted at the mid span of the
beam model.
The universal testing machines scale was set to a least count of 0.2 KN/ division with maximum
load of 10 KN. The model was loaded at constant rate of loading and the dial gauge readings
were recorded at every 5 division (that is at every load increment of 1 KN) up to failure. The
subsequent data analysis and result interpretations are covered in the next chapter.

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.3 Test set-up of sectional profile A without stiffening arrangements

cold-steel beams
5.2.2 Testing of unstiffened sectional profile C and data collection

assembly as shown in the figure5.4. Necessary arrangements for ensuring simple supported end
beam model.
were recorded at every 5 division (that is at every load increment of 1 KN) up to 11 KN. The
Figure 5.4 Test set-up of sectional profile C.

cold-steel beams
5.2.3 Testing of unstiffened sectional profile B and data collection

assembly as shown in the figure 5.5. Necessary arrangements for ensuring simple supported end
beam model.
were recorded at every 5 division (that is at every load increment of 1 KN) up to 11 KN. The

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.5 Test set-up of sectional profile B.
5.6 Testing of stiffened channel models and data collection

The beam models which were tested as mentioned above showed pre determined mode of
failure which is nothing but pre-mature stability mode of failure by exhibiting local buckling in
the flange portion under the point load. As mentioned earlier in chapter 1 of this thesis one of the
objectives of this study program is to overcome this premature failure which in this study is done
by providing judicious stiffening arrangement at required locations, this can be seen in the figure
5.6, once this stiffening arrangement was provided. The fabricated models were mounted on the
universal testing machine with flexure test assembly as shown in the figure 5.6. Necessary

cold-steel beams
A proving ring of 20 T capacity was mounted between the loading jack and frame (as shown in
figure5.1) to record the load applied. The model was loaded at constant rate of loading and the
dial gauge readings were recorded at every 5 division increment in the proving ring up to failure.
The subsequent data analysis and result interpretations are covered in the next chapter.
Figure5.6 test set-up of channel with edge stiffeners
5.6.1 Testing of stiffened sectional profile Aand data collection

failure which is nothing but pre-mature failure by exhibiting local buckling in the flange portion
under the point load. As mentioned earlier in chapter 1 of this thesis one of the objectives of this
study program is to overcome this premature failure which in this study is done by providing
judicious stiffening arrangement at required locations., this can be seen in the figure 5.7 , once
this stiffening arrangement was provided. The fabricated models were mounted on the universal
testing machine with flexure test assembly as shown in the figure 5.7. Necessary arrangements
for ensuring simple supported end conditions were made and necessary checks for horizontal and

cold-steel beams
vertical alignment were carried out. The selected loading arrangement (single point load) was
assembled for application of the load at the mid span of the beam model. The dial gauge was
mounted at the mid span of the beam model.
were recorded at every 5 division (that is at every load increment of 1 KN) up to failure (as
shown in figure5.8).
Figure 5.7 failure of sectional profile A (after stiffening)

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.8 Failure in the flange and web region (sectional profile after stiffening)
5.6.2 Testing of stiffened sectional profile C and data collection

judicious stiffening arrangement at required locations, this can be seen in the figure 5.9 , Once
testing machine with flexure test assembly as shown in the figure 5.9. Necessary arrangements
for ensuring simple supported end conditions were made and necessary checks for horizontal and
vertical alignment were carried out. The selected loading arrangement (single point load) was

cold-steel beams
assembled for application of the load at the mid span of the beam model. The dial gauge was
mounted at the mid span of the beam model.
shown in figure 5.10-5.11). The subsequent data analysis and result interpretations are covered in
the next chapter.
Figure 5.9 test set-up of sectional profileC (after stiffening)

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.10 failure of sectional profile C

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.11 failure of sectional profile C by web buckling
5.6.3 Testing of stiffened sectional profile B and data collection

judicious stiffening arrangement at required locations, this can be seen in the figure 5.12. After
testing machine with flexure test assembly as shown in the figure 5.12-5.13. Necessary
shown in figure 5.14). The subsequent data analysis and result interpretations are covered in the
next chapter.

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.12 test set-up of sectional profile B (after stiffening)
Figure 5.13 Test set-up of sectional profile B (after stiffening)

cold-steel beams
Figure 5.14 Failure of sectional profile B by web buckling
Chapter 6
Data analysis, result interpretation and
discussion.
The experimental data recorded during testing of different beam models with variation in there
sectional profile and stiffening arrangements needs to be analyzed to facilitate the meaningful
interpretation of the experimental results. This chapter presents the detailed of the data recorded
during the testing of each model with specific purpose. This will be followed by necessary
interpretation and discussion about the experimental results.
6.1 Data analysis and observations

Graphical representation of load v/s. deflection data is helpful to get physical feel about the
structural response to applied loading. Such a data recorded in tabular form is not of much help;

cold-steel beams
therefore, it is transformed in graphical form for all the models. The important observations and
salient points worth noting will also be presented here.
Figure 6.1 shows typical load displacement plots of sectional profile C models. The purpose of
these plots wherein graph of actual recorded data as well as the corresponding best fit curve is
shown is to assess how closely best fit curve represents the plot of actual data
.
Figure 6.1 Load deflection graph plot with best fit curve
Observation and comments

It is clear from such typical plots for all the models that actual data points almost coincide with
the best fit curve hence, the best fit curve is close representation of the physically measured
behaviour of the corresponding model. In view of the above referred close match, only best fit

cold-steel beams
curves are used in all the remaining plots to represent the corresponding structural action of each
model.
6.2 Load displacement curve for channel without stiffeners

Figure 6.2.1 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for channel without stiffeners
measured at mid span of the beam model.
Observations and comments

The salient points are described as under
Smooth increasing trend of the curve confirms the beam action of the model.
The signs of failure absorbed during testing were in the terms of local buckling of the flange and
the web portion under the point of load application. The maximum load recorded was 32 KN and
corresponding maximum deflection was 8.8 mm at the mid span of the beam.

cold-steel beams
Figure 6.2.1 Load vs. deflection curve for CWOS
6.2.1 Load displacement curve for sectional profile Amodel without stiffeners
Figure 6.2.2 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile A without
stiffeners measured at mid span of the beam model.
Observations and comments

The salient points are described as under
The following observations can be made from the load vs. deflection curve shown in figure 6.2.2

cold-steel beams
The load v/s. deflection is linear from origin to point A, the slope of the curve changes beyond
point A and remains constant till point B and beyond point B the curve is almost flat.
Comments
The beam model behaves linearly from origin and up to point A that is up to a load of
20KN
The rate of deformation then increases beyond point A and remains constant up to point B
this increases in the rate of deformation could be due to the initiation of local buckling in
the top flange at the point of application of load.
The rate of deformation has increased abruptly beyond point B and the deformation
continues to increase at constant load of 33KN this can be attributed to the local
buckling of the flange in the compression zone under the point of loading

cold-steel beams
Figure 6.2.2 Load deflection curve for sectional profile A without stiffeners

cold-steel beams
6.2.2 Load displacement curve for sectional C without stiffeners

Figure 6.2.3 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile C without
stiffeners measured at mid span of the beam model.
Observations and comments:The salient points are described as under

Comments
8KN

cold-steel beams
Figure 6.2 .3 Load deflection curve for sectional profile c without stiffeners

cold-steel beams
6.2.3 Load displacement curve for sectional profile B without stiffeners

Figure 6.2.4 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile B without
stiffeners, deflection was measured at mid span of the beam model.

Comments
10KN

cold-steel beams
B
A
Figure 6.2.4 Load deflection curve for sectional profile B without stiffeners
6.3 Load displacement curve for channel model with judicious stiffening
arrangements
Figure 6.3.1 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for CWES, deflection was
measured at mid span of the beam model.

the web portion under the point of load application and adjacent to stiffeners. The maximum load
recorded was 32 KN and corresponding maximum deflection was 8.2 mm at the mid span of the
beam.

cold-steel beams
Figure 6.3.1 Load vs. deflection plot of CWES
6.3.1 Load displacement curve for sectional profile A with judicious

stiffening arrangements
Figure 6.3.2 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile A with
stiffeners, deflection was measured at mid span of the beam model.


cold-steel beams
Comments
70KN
this increases in the rate of deformation could be due to the initiation yielding in the
flanges at the supports.
continues to increase at constant load of 80KN this can be attributed to the regional
buckling of the flange and the web portion in the compression zone under the point of
loading (see figure 5.8).
the web portion under the point of load application and adjacent to stiffeners. The maximum load
recorded was 80 KN and corresponding maximum deflection was 9.21 mm at the mid span of the
beam.

cold-steel beams
B
A
Figure 6.3.2 Load displacement sectional profile A with stiffeners
6.3.2 Load displacement curve for sectional profiles C with judicious

Figure 6.3.3 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile C with
judicious stiffening arrangement. Deflection was measured at mid span of the beam model.


cold-steel beams
Comments
50KN
buckling of the web portion at the support (see figure 5.8).
The signs of failure absorbed during testing were in the terms of bearing failure of the web
portion at the support location. The maximum load recorded was 60 KN and corresponding
maximum deflection was 8 mm at the mid span of the beam.

cold-steel beams
Figure 6.3.3 Load displacement sectional profile C with stiffeners
6.3.3 Load displacement curve for sectional profile B with judicious

Figure 6.3.4 shows the graphical plot of load vs. displacement for sectional profile 3with
judicious stiffening arrangement. Deflection Measured at mid span of the beam model.

Comments
80KN

cold-steel beams
buckling of the web portion at the support (see figure 5.8).
The signs of failure absorbed during testing were in the terms of bearing failure of the web
portion at the support location. The maximum load recorded was 92 KN and corresponding
maximum deflection was 5 mm at the mid span of the beam.
B
A
Figure 6.3.4 Load displacement sectional profile B with stiffeners

cold-steel beams
6.4 Single load vs. displacement plot for all models with judicious stiffening
arrangement and important observations.
To get a better understanding of the behaviour of different sectional profiles a graphical
comparison is made by plotting load vs. deflection of all the profiles in one single curve, as

cold-steel beams
shown in figure 6.4
Figure 6.4 comparison of Load vs. deflection curves of all beams

cold-steel beams
Important observations: It is clear from the plot that sectional profile B has more load carrying capacity than sectional
profile A , and sectional profile A has more load carrying capacity than sectional profile C,
and the channel with edge stiffeners has the least load carrying capacity.
6.5 Result interpretation and discussion

So far the discussion on the experimental results as to which sectional profile is more efficient in
carrying the load has been qualitative. It will be interesting to express the said qualitative results
in quantitative form of meaning full interpretation. The expected and failure loads of the models
in the consolidated for are given in table 6.4.1 which clearly indicates that the load carrying
capacity decreases in the following order.
Sectional profile B> Sectional profile A > Sectional profile C >>> CWES > CWOS.
Note:-
Sectional profile A
sectional profile B

cold-steel beams
sectional profile C
CWES (channel with edge stiffeners)
CWOS (channel without edge stiffeners).

cold-steel beams
TABEL 6.4.1
Result interpretation
Sectional
profiles/
dimension
s
Weight Z
in
(10^4
kg/m
mm)
Max load
Expected
(KN)
Max load
Carried
(KN)
CWOS
CWES
Sectional
profile A
Sectional
profile C
Sectional
profile B
9.45
11.02
9.45
2.55
2.55
3.17
7.76
15.4
15.2
32
32
80
Moment
increases Remarks(failure
carrying
in
mode)
capacity(KN) moment
carrying
capacity
8
---------- Mainly torsion
8
---------- Mainly torsion
20
2.5
Mainly flexural
10.23
3.112
16.3
59
14.75
1.84
13.4
4.48
24
92
23
2.875
Chapter 7
Conclusions and future scope.
Bearing failure
of web
Bearing failure
of web

cold-steel beams
As mentioned earlier one of the main objective of this study was to come up with an innovative
sectional profile and appropriate stiffening arrangements for beam sections using coldformed/light gauge steel, which would not only serve as a replacement for conventional hotrolled steel sections, but also be structurally very efficient and economical than the conventional
cold-formed steel sections.
When the innovative sectional profiles were tested after appropriate stiffening arrangements, the
results so obtained through experimental investigations were promising, and when the hot-rolled
section was designed for the same load carrying capacity there was increase in the self-weight of
section of about 3-5.5 kg/m length, thus this confirms the accomplishment of objective of
replacement of conventional hot-rolled sections with innovative cold-formed steel sections.
The judicious stiffening arrangement not only delayed the local buckling of the sectional
elements but also was able to transform the local buckling of flange to regional buckling of
flange and web portion. This in turn enhanced the load carrying capacity of the section by
making the material reach close to its yield strength. This confirms the accomplishment of
another objective of this study that is to delay the local buckling of the sectional elements so as
to enhance the sections load carrying capacity.
Having been able to achieve the above said objectives and from experimental validation of the
same it can be concluded that this innovative sectional profiles with appropriate stiffening
arrangements is an promising replacement to conventional hot-rolled steel.
Appendix
Design of hot-rolled sections
1) Ultimate load = 80 KN (sectional profile A).

cold-steel beams
Pl
Ultimate load = Mu= 4
Mu =
801
4
(point load at mid span).
=20 KN-m.
Mu
Design moment Md= 1.5
Zp required =
20
= 1.5
=13.33 KN-m.
Mum
fy
f y = yield stress of material

M u=ultimate moment
m= factor of safety
6
Zp required =
20 10 1.1
250
= 88000 mm3 = 88 cm3
For laterally unrestrained beam Zp required= 1.5 Zp required(restrained)

Zp required=1.588=132 cm3.
From steel table selecting a section having the above Z p required is
ISJB 225
Weight=12.557 kg/m.
Zp=134.15 cm3.
The weight of the sectional profile A = 9.45 kg/m.
Therefore the difference in weight = 12.557-9.45=3.1 kg/m.
2) Ultimate load = 92 KN (sectional profile C).

cold-steel beams
Pl
Ultimate load = Mu= 4
Mu=
921
4
=23 KN-m.
Mu
Design moment Md= 1.5
Zp required =
(point load at mid span).
23
= 1.5
=15.33 KN-m.
Mum
fy
f y = yield stress of material

M u=ultimate moment
m= factor of safety
Zp required =
23 106 1.1
250
= 101200 mm3 = 101.2 cm3
For laterally unrestrained beam Zp required= 1.5 Zp required(restrained)

Zp required=1.5101.2=151.8cm3.
From steel table selecting a section having the above Z p required is
ISMB 175
Weight=18.933 kg/m.
Zp=166.08 cm3.
The weight of the sectional profile C = 13.4 kg/m.
Therefore the difference in weight = 18.933-13.4=5.533 kg/m.

cold-steel beams

cold-steel beams
Contents
Chapter 1..........................................................................................................................................1
1.1General....................................................................................................................................1
1.2 conventional cold formed steel section type..........................................................................2
1.3 Problem with hot rolled steel.................................................................................................3
1.4 advantages of light gauge steel sections................................................................................4
1.5 Objective................................................................................................................................5
1.5.1Overall objective..............................................................................................................5
1.5.2Specific objective.............................................................................................................5
1.6 Justifications of sectional profiles chosen and their stiffening arrangements........................6
1.7 Methodology..........................................................................................................................7
Chapter2...........................................................................................................................................8
2.1 General...................................................................................................................................8
2.2 Special Characteristics and Design Considerations of Cold formed Steel Members............8
2.2.1 Methods of Forming........................................................................................................8
2.2.2 Common Section Profiles and Their Applications........................................................10
2.2.3 Special Design Criteria..................................................................................................12
2.2.4 Connection.....................................................................................................................13
2.3. Local Buckling....................................................................................................................14
.2.4 Summary of Literature Review Findings............................................................................18
Chapter 3........................................................................................................................................19
3.1 Theoretical background........................................................................................................19
3.2 Material testing....................................................................................................................19
3.3 Analysis and design of innovative sections for load carrying capacity................................24
3.4 Fabrication of innovative sectional profiles........................................................................39
Chapter 4........................................................................................................................................41
4.1 General.................................................................................................................................41
4.2 Salient features of the existing 40T loading capacity universal testing machine and its
potential as an efficient loading facility.....................................................................................41
4.3 Loading arrangement and data recording system................................................................42
4.3.1 Two point load arrangement..........................................................................................42

cold-steel beams
4.3.2 Single point load arrangement.......................................................................................43

4.3.3 Data recording system...................................................................................................44
4.4 Preliminary testing on the model.........................................................................................45
4.5 Important lessons learnt from preliminary testing...............................................................45
Chapter 5........................................................................................................................................46
5.1 Need for experimental Investigation....................................................................................46
5.2 Testing of unstiffened models and data collection(Channel without stiffenner)..................46
5.2.1 Testing of unstiffened models and data collection(sectional profile A)......................48
5.2.2 Testing of unstiffened models and data collection(sectional profile C).....................50
5.2.3 Testing of unstiffened models and data collection(sectional profile B).....................51
5.6 Testing of stiffened models and data collection(channel with edge stiffeners)...................52
5.6.1 Testing of stiffened models and data collection(sectional profile A)..........................53
5.6.2 Testing of stiffened models and data collection............................................................54
5.6.3 Testing of stiffened models and data collection............................................................57
Chapter 6........................................................................................................................................59
6.1 Data analysis and observations............................................................................................59
6.2 Load displacement curve for channel section without stiffeners........................................61
6.2.1 Load displacement curve for sectional profile A without stiffeners..........................62
6.2.2 Load displacement curve for sectional profile C without stiffeners...........................64
6.2.3 Load displacement curve for sectional profile B without stiffeners...........................65
6.3 Load displacement curve for channel model with judicious stiffening arrangements.........67
6.3.1 Load displacement curve for for sectional profile A with judicious stiffening
arrangements..........................................................................................................................68
6.3.2 Load displacement curve for sectional profile C with judicious stiffening
arrangements..........................................................................................................................70
6.3.3 Load displacement curve for sectional profile B with judicious stiffening
arrangements..........................................................................................................................72
6.4 Single load vs. displacement plot for all models with judicious stiffening arrangement and
important observations...............................................................................................................74
6.5 Result interpretation and discussion....................................................................................75
Chapter 7 conclusion ....................................................................................................................78

cold-steel beams

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Innovative sectional profiles and stiffening arrangements for

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1.2 conventional cold formed steel section type

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Figure 1 conventional light gauge sectional profiles.

1.3 Problem with hot rolled steel

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1.4 advantages of light gauge steel sections

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Comparison of hot rolled and cold rolled sections

1.5.1Overall objective: - To reduce the self-weight of the structural member, thereby

1.5.2Specific objective:-To either delay or completely eliminate the local buckling

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1.6 Justifications of sectional profiles chosen and their stiffening

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Figure 1.2 sectional profiles

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2.2 Special Characteristics and Design Considerations of Cold formed Steel

2.2.1 Methods of Forming

2.2.1.1 Cold Roll-forming

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(a) Cold Roll-forming Machines

(b) Roll-forming Sequence for a Z Section

Figure 2.1: Cold Roll-Forming Processes

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2.2.1.2 Press Braking

Figure 2.2 Press Breaking

2.2.2 Common Section Profiles and Their Applications

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Figure 2.3: Various Shapes of Cold-formed Steel Sections

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2.2.3 Special Design Criteria

2.2.3.1 Local Buckling and Post Buckling Strength

Figure 2.4: Local Buckling of Compression Flanges

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Figure 2.5: Generally Used Cold-formed Steel Fasteners

Figure 2.6: Cross section of a Self-piercing Rivet (Voelkner, 2000)

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2.3. Local Buckling

Figure 2.7: Rectangular Plate Subjected to Compression Stress (Hancock, 1998)

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Figure 2.8 local buckling in Z-section

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Table 2.1: Local Buckling Coefficient (Hancock, 1998)

Note: L=Plate length, b=Plate width

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Figure 2.9: Redistribution of Stress after Post buckling of Uniformly Compressed

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2.4 Summary of Literature Review Findings

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3.2 Material testing

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Figure 3.1 nominal size of the tensile test specimen

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Figure 3.2 Tensile test coupon in the U.T.M.

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Figure 3.3 Typical load displacement curve of tensile test

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