Lab Minerales

2
LAB
Minerals
OBJECTIVES
To learn the definition of a mineral
To become familiar with the physical

properties of minerals
To determine these properties for
unknown minerals
To develop a logical and systematic

approach to mineral identification
To become familiar with some
common minerals and ones used
as resources
he importance of minerals in geology and other

geosciences should become clear as you read and
work through this lab. Some minerals are valuable
resources, which we use as raw materials to make products. Some are economically important, some are vital
to specific technologies, and some cause pollution when
mined. Minerals are also the principal building blocks
of rocks and make up the very surface on which we live.
In their purest form, minerals can grow into beautiful
crystals ( Figure 2.1). In this lab we identify minerals
through their properties and then we look at some of
their uses and discuss the impact of mining.
DEFINITION OF A MINERAL
Many people think of a mineral as something contained
in a multivitamin capsule. Mineral in this sense is really
an abbreviation of mineral salt, something that is
derived from a mineral. Geologists define a mineral as
a naturally occurring, usually inorganic, crystalline solid
with a strictly defined chemical composition and characteristic physical properties.
Lets first consider the idea that a mineral is crystalline. In a crystalline solid, atoms occur in an orderly
arrangement with a distinct structure. In contrast, an
amorphous solid such as glass has haphazardly arranged
atoms. A crystal is a single grain of a mineral in which
the structural planes of atoms extend in the same directions throughout the grain. The orderly arrangement
of atoms controls many of the properties of a mineral, such as the external shape of well-formed crystals
(Figure 2.1) and the way a mineral breaks. It even influences the hardness and density of a mineral. We can use
these properties and several others to help distinguish
and identify different minerals.
PROPERTIES
In the process of exploring the large variety of minerals
that exist in nature, mineralogists recognized that various properties help to distinguish minerals, so we begin
with mineral properties.
Crystal Habit
When a crystal grows freely, its external shape reflects
its internal order, and it may display crystal habit, as
seen in Figure 2.1. The nature and symmetry of specific
crystal habits help us identify minerals. Figure 2.2
illustrates some common terms used to describe singlecrystal habits. When you describe the habit of a crystal, first determine the external shape of the individual
crystals from Figure 2.2, especially their relative lengths,
widths, and heights. If the crystal is grouped with others, the sample is an aggregate. In this case, the next
step is to determine the aggregate type; Figure 2.3
illustrates some of these.
M i ner al s
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19
Claudia Owen
(b)
Diane Pirie
Parvinder Sethi
(a)
(c)
Figure 2.1
Crystals
(a) Crystal aggregate of stilbite on mordenite, showing sheaf-like groups of pink stilbite crystals. (b) Chemically zoned tourmaline crystals
growing with quartz. (c) Teal colored dioptase (hydrous copper silicate) and white calcite (calcium carbonate) crystals.
1. Look at an aggregate of several crystals in

a hand sample your instructor provides.
Acicular
(needle-like)
Bladed
(like a knife blade)
Tabular
(like a tablet of paper)
a. Describe the shape of the individual

crystals, using the shapes and terms
illustrated in Figure 2.2.
b. Describe the aggregate type by referring
to Figure 2.3.
Equant or stubby
(nearly equal width,
depth, height)
Blocky
(block-shaped)
Columnar or prismatic
(column-shaped)
Figure 2.2
Single-Crystal Habits
Determine the crystal habit of an individual grain by observing the
relative length, width, and height of the crystal.
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2. Examine additional samples showing a

variety of crystal habitssome individual
crystals and some aggregates. List each
sample number and one or more terms from
Figures 2.2 and 2.3. Keep in mind that
single crystals will only have habits from
Lab 2
Micaceous foliate
Reticulate
Acicular radiating
Fibrous
Equant aggregate
Desert rose (tabular rosette)
Geode
Dogtooth
Dendritic
Botryoidal
Bladed aggregate
Diane Pirie and Claudia Owen
Granular massive
Figure 2.3
Mineral Aggregate Habits

Samples with multiple crystals: micaceous foliate muscovite schist; reticulate jamesonite needles; granular massive green olivine in peridotite
and pink calcite in marble; bladed aggregate of blue kyanite crystals; acicular radiating aggregate of the zeolite mineral natrolite; brous asbestos;
equant aggregate of pyrite crystals; desert rosegypsum; quartz geode; dogtooth calcite; dendritic pyrolusite; and botryoidal hematite.
Figure 2.2, but for aggregates you should

consider both figures.
3. The aggregate habit of the pink mineral,

stilbite, in Figure 2.1a is called sheaf-like.
What is the single-crystal habit of this
mineral (use Figure 2.2)?
________________________ What
single-crystal habit do the colored
tourmaline crystals in Figure 2.1b display?
________________________
Luster
Luster describes how light reflects from a fresh surface.
Although you can see some aspects of luster in the
photographs in Figures 2.8 and 2.9, on pages 2629,
photographs do not reproduce luster very well. You should
look at actual samples to see luster properly. Luster has
two broad classifications: metallic and nonmetallic.
Lusters of each type are listed in the exercise below. You
will understand the various luster terms better after you
do the next exercise in which you associate each lusters
appearance with simple descriptions.
4. Examine the set of samples provided to demonstrate luster. In the blank following each
luster description, record the number of the
sample that has that luster. Remember that
you are looking for surface shine or appearance
rather than color, transparency, or opaqueness.
Metallic lusters include metallic (galena and
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Table 2.1
__________). Nonmetallic lusters include

vitreous (quartz, shines like glass __________),
splendent (biotite, a bright shine like patent
Mohs Hardness
of plastic __________), adamantine (garnet,
1
2
3
4
5
gem-like shine __________), greasy (com-
leather __________), resinous (sulfur, shines

like hardened tree sap, similar to some types
mon opal __________), waxy (shines as wax

shines __________), pearly (talc crystals,
shine like pearls __________), silky (satin spar
gypsum __________), and dull/earthy (kaolin
__________).
Color
On a fresh, unaltered surface, color might help you to identify a mineral, but beware: color is a very unreliable property to use in identifying many minerals. Impurities within
a mineral may give rise to a variety of colors. Quartz, for
instance, has many varieties: amethyst (purple), rock crystal
(colorless), rose quartz (pink), smoky quartz (gray), citrine
(yellow or orange), and milky quartz (white) (Figure 2.8jt,
p. 27). In some cases a single crystal can display color
variation that develops as the mineral grows (Figure 2.1b). In
addition, more than one mineral may have the same color.
For example, both amethyst and some varieties of fluorite are
purple (Figures 2.8n and 2.9g, pp. 27 and 29). Also, quartz,
K feldspar, calcite, and gypsum all have pinkish varieties.
5. Examine labeled samples of a mineral with

more than one color. What mineral is it?
______________
List the colors and numbers of these samples.
Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching (abrasion). In Mohs scale of hardness (H 1 to 10), minerals
with higher hardness will scratch minerals of lower hardness ( Table 2.1). Determine the hardness of samples by
scratching them with an object of known hardness. For
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Mohs Scale of Hardness
7
8
9
10
Mineral
Common Object
Talc
Gypsum
Calcite
Fluorite
Apatite
Orthoclase
(a feldspar)
Quartz
Topaz
Corundum
Diamond
Claudia Owen
pyrite, shiny metal __________) and submetallic (magnetite and graphite, dull metal shine
Note: Hardness may vary in some minerals (1/2 to 2 points) from

crystal face to crystal face as seen in kyanite, which has a hardness
of 5 parallel to its length and 7 across the length.
example, if a mineral scratches glass (H 5.5), its hardness is greater than 5.5 (>5.5). If glass scratches it, its
hardness is less than 5.5. You can narrow down the range
of possible hardnesses by testing against additional objects
of known hardness (Table 2.1). When you think you see a
scratch, check to make sure that you have not simply left
powder from the scratching object behind; wipe away any
powder and look at the surface closely. Also, the physical
nature of a mineral specimen may prevent correct determination of hardness if, for example, a mineral is splintery
or granular and falls apart when tested. When you start
identifying minerals later in this lab, you will have many
opportunities to practice testing their hardness.
Imagine that you are recording the properties of a sample you think is fluorite. You may have noticed that fluorite
has a hardness of 4 on the Mohs scale. However, this does
not mean you should record 4 for its hardness. Instead,
you should use the evidence obtained by the scratching
tests to provide a range of possible hardness. Do not jump
to conclusions when testing minerals, but carefully record
your observations. What if you thought the mineral was a
purple variety of quartz instead of fluorite and decided
knowing the hardness of quartz is 7that you would just
write down 7? This conclusion would mislead you in the
mineral identification. In fact, this is an example of changing the data to fit a hypothesisa definite scientific no-no.
Refer to Appendix A for a discussion of scientific methods.
Streak
Streak is the color of a mineral when powdered
( Figure 2.4). The color of the powder is less variable
than the color of a mineral, so streak is a more reliable
property than color. Use a porcelain streak plate to
obtain a small amount of powder from a specimen.
Look at the example of the streak for hematite shown
Lab 2
One cleavage
Claudia Owen
Two cleavages at 90
Two cleavages not at 90
Figure 2.4
Streak
Gypsum (white streak), malachite (green streak), hematite (red-brown
streak), galena (gray streak), and chalcopyrite (greenish-black streak)
each have a different streak, which is the color of the powder left on
a piece of porcelain called a streak plate.
Three cleavages at 90
in Figure 2.9f on page 28. Notice that even though one

sample of hematite is silvery gray, both samples have a
reddish brown streak. Since the hardness of porcelain is
about 7 on the Mohs scale, the streak of a mineral with a
hardness greater than 6 cannot be easily determined and
can be said to have no streak. Softer minerals should
have streak, but keep in mind that it may be hard to see a
white streak on a white streak plate. Make sure that you
have powdered the mineral rather than the streak plate.
Three cleavages not at 90
Four cleavages
Broken Surfaces of Minerals

The broken surfaces of a mineral often have characteristics that can help in mineral identification.
Cleavage If a mineral breaks along parallel repetitive
planes, the mineral has cleavage. A cleavage plane is a
plane of weakness in the atomic structure of the mineral
( Figure 2.5). A mineral may have many or no cleavage
planes, and these planes may be perfectly planar, as in muscovite, or slightly irregular, as in pyroxene or hornblende.
A mineral with no planes of weakness (such as quartz) will
fracture. This does not necessarily mean that the mineral
is exceptionally hard or tough, only that the inherent weaknesses in the crystal structure are not planar.
It is easy to detect cleavage if you look for reflections
off the minerals surface. Because cleavage planes are
parallel to atomic planes and this arrangement repeats
in the mineral, multiple reflections from the same cleavage direction will light up simultaneously, even though
the surfaces are at different levels. These different level
steps may appear similar to a miniature staircase.
A complete description of cleavage includes the
number of cleavage directions (planes with different
orientations) and an expression of the angles between
planes, if more than one direction. For instance, galena
Six cleavages
Figure 2.5
Types of Cleavage
Different minerals have different numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, and 6) and
angles (90 or not) of their cleavage directions. A mineral with
3 cleavages at 90 has cubic cleavage; one with 4 cleavages has
octahedral cleavage and with 6 has dodecahedral cleavage. Five
cleavage directions are not possible in minerals.
and halite both have three cleavage planes at 90 to each

other (Figure 2.9c and h, on pp. 28 and 29, which is
equivalent to cubic cleavage (Figure 2.5). In some cases,
the angle between the cleavages helps to distinguish
minerals. Augite (pyroxene group) and hornblende
(amphibole group) have similar hardnesses, color, and
luster; both have two cleavages, but the angle between
the cleavages is near 90 for augite and much more
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oblique (90; in this case 56 and 124) for hornblende

(Figure 2.8c and d inset on p. 26).
Table 2.2
Cleavage and Fracture
Fracture If the broken surfaces of a mineral are irregular

and nonplanar, the mineral is said to have fracture. Fracture should be described with one of the following terms:
Samples with
Cleavage
Cleavage Describe the Cleavage
Samples with
Fracture
Fracture Describe the Fracture
Conchoidal: A smooth, curved surface that looks like

the inside of a clam shell ( Figure 2.6).
Fibrous: Fracture surface has the appearance of many
fine threads lying parallel to each other. A good example
is asbestos (fibrous habit in Figure 2.3); another is satin
spar gypsum (Figure 2.9b right, on p. 28).
Hackly: A sharp, irregular surface, the same as jagged.
Both garnet (Figure 2.8b on p. 26) and wollastonite
(Table 5.1, p. 98) may produce a hackly fracture.
Uneven/Irregular: General terms that can be applied
to the fracture of many different minerals that otherwise
defy definition.
Parting: Generally not a common characteristic, parting is a roughly planar break in a mineral that is not as
well developed as cleavage. The deformation of a mineral can produce it. A clear example of parting can most
often be seen in hand specimens of corundum.
Distinguishing Cleavage
from Crystal Faces
A crystal face is a planar surface of a well-formed crystal
that grew as the crystal grew (Figures 2.1, 2.8b left, and
2.8j and n, pp. 2627). A student may mistake a wellformed crystal of quartz that has flat crystal faces for a
sample displaying cleavage. This is incorrect. By now you
realize that quartz has conchoidal fracture, not cleavage.
The flat surfaces on quartz did not break along planes of
weakness, but grew that way when the mineral formed.
How can you tell the difference between cleavage
and crystal faces? Since cleavage is an inherent planar
weakness in the mineral, you will almost always see multiple examples of a particular cleavage plane exhibited.
These may appear as a step-like surface feature (augite,
Figure 2.8c, p. 26; and galena, Figure 2.9c, p. 28). Look
closely at samples for these stepsyou may want to use
a hand lens.1
7. Examine the two samples provided for this

exercise. On a separate piece of paper, sketch
each sample and indicate any cleavage steps
in your sketch. Label crystal faces with the
letters XL, fracture surfaces with the letters
FR, and cleavage steps with the letters CL.
Write the sample number next to each sketch.
Diane Pirie
6. Examine the samples with unknown fracture

or cleavage. In the appropriate place in
Table 2.2, list the minerals that show
cleavage; then list those minerals that have
fracture. Describe the cleavage using one of
the choices in Figure 2.5 and describe the
fracture using one of the fracture terms above.
Figure 2.6
Conchoidal Fracture
The curved, shell-like, broken surfaces on this sample are a good
example of conchoidal fracture. Rock crystal is the name for clear
colorless samples of quartz such as this.
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When using a hand lens, touch the lens to your eye lashes,
then move the sample close until it is in focus. Tilt your
head back to let in light.
Lab 2
Density (Specic Gravity)

Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.
Another way to express this property is specific gravity: the
ratio of the weight of a mineral specimen to the weight of an
equal volume of water. In hand specimens, we are usually
concerned more with relative density, comparing the density
of one mineral specimen to another. You can make general
comparisons of hand samples by using the heft test, in
which you compare two specimens of about the same size by
picking them up to determine which is heavier.
8. Examine and heft the samples provided.

While looking at them, judge their relative
density. Looking at the samples allows your
eyes to judge the size while your hands judge
the weight; together, the two give you an estimate of the density. Now rank the samples in
order of their density from most dense to least
dense and record the samples in order below:
Magnetism The mineral is attracted to a magnet.

Magnetite (Fe3O4) is strongly magnetic (Figure 2.9e,
p. 28). Magnetism is especially useful in distinguishing
magnetite from other common rock-forming minerals.
Hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite often occur together in
specular hematite samples; what looks like a pure hematite sample may be magnetic as a result.
Feel Some minerals have a diagnostic feel (such as the
greasy feelnot greasy lusterof graphite).
Fluorescence Minerals may fluoresce when they are
placed under ultraviolet (UV) light. The short-wave radiation of the UV is absorbed by the mineral and radiated
back as longer-wave visible radiation. One mineral that
often shows fluorescence is calcite; another is fluorite.
Double Refraction Visible in clear calcite crystals, double
refraction occurs when light entering a crystal is broken
into two rays ( Figure 2.7). You see a double image when
looking through the crystal. If you rotate the crystal, one
image will stay fixed and the other will move around it.
Smell Some minerals, such as sulfur, possess a distinctive odor.
Taste A few minerals have a characteristic taste. Halite
tastes salty. Sylvite tastes bitter. Taste is a valid mineral property and can be quite helpful in identifying some minerals.
When you work on mineral identification next, be
sure to look for special properties.
Special Properties
Some minerals have special properties, such as effervescence in acid, magnetism, unusual visual properties, or
a distinctive smell, taste, or feel. Special properties are
those that only a few minerals possess.
Effervescence Effervescence, seen in carbonates (primarily calcite; Figure 2.9a, p. 28), is a fizzing or bubbling
that takes place when a dilute solution of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) is applied. This property is especially useful in distinguishing calcite from other common rockforming minerals. Dolomite will effervesce only when
it is powdered. The chemical reaction that occurs when
HCl is applied to calcite (CaCO3) is:
2H
(from HCl)
CO3
H 2O
CO2
(from CaCO3)
(water)
(escaping gas
in fizzing)
MINERAL IDENTIFICATION
Now that you are familiar with mineral properties, you
are ready to start testing and identifying minerals. By
approaching mineral identification systematically and
logically, even a beginner can distinguish a surprising number of minerals. The identification tables ( Table 2.3, on
pp. 3034) will help to guide you in your search through
properties to find the name of a mineral.
Recognizing common rock-forming minerals is necessary to distinguish and interpret rocks correctlya
skill needed for the upcoming three labs. Your instructor
Diane Pirie
9. Check your density rankings using an appropriate reference or with densities provided
by your instructor. Table 2.3 (on pp. 3034)
includes the density measurements of minerals. List these numbers after your answers for
the previous exercise.
Figure 2.7
Double Refraction
Calcite (Iceland spar) displays double refraction.
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Strategy for Mineral Identication
Diane Pirie
Mineral identification is most successful when done systematically, using multiple properties of minerals in combination with mineral identification tables such as Tables 2.3.
(b) Almandine garnet: Left: a trapezohedral single

crystal, equant habit. Right: a broken sample showing
hackly fracture and adamantine and waxy luster.
(c) Augite (pyroxene): a fragment showing two

cleavages at nearly 90.
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
Claudia Owen
(a) Olivine: an aggregate of grains showing the typical

olive green color.
Minerals generally have no fingerprint, or single property

that sets them apart from others, but you can tell them
apart by combinations of physical properties. Use of photographs, such as those in Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9,
cannot replace close examination of a minerals physical
properties. In nature (and perhaps in your tests or quizzes),
different specimens of the same mineral can display quite
a wide variety of appearances, but many of their specific
physical properties will remain the same.
Diane Pirie
may even ask you to identify a few minerals you have

never seen before to determine how well you have mastered the techniques of mineral identification.
Diane Pirie
Claudia Owen
Diane Pirie
(d) Hornblende (amphibole): fragments illustrating vitreous luster and two cleavages at an oblique angle (inset).
(e) Biotite mica (black) has splendent luster and one

perfect cleavage. The white grains in this sample are quartz.
(f) Muscovite mica: Top surface has pearly luster; bottom

shows cleavages on edge. Inset: thin cleavage sheets
illustrate the one perfect cleavage of mica.
Figure 2.8
Silicate Minerals
26
Lab 2
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
(h) Plagioclase feldspar of different chemical

compositions: darker ones are usually Ca-rich. Upper right:
dark gray Ca-rich. Left: light gray Na-Ca. Lower right: white
Na-rich with twinning (stripes of reected light). Twinning, if
visible, distinguishes plagioclase from potassium feldspar.
(i) Kaolin: an extremely ne-grained aggregate showing

earthy luster and no visible cleavage.
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
(g) Potassium feldspar (orthoclase or microcline)

varies in color from white to salmon pink and has two
cleavages at 90.
(j) Quartz: hexagonal colorless quartz crystals:

(rock crystal) with columnar habit.
(k) milky quartz
(m) smoky quartz beads

(n) amethyst beads
(p) blue lace
(q) aventurine
agate
(o) rose
quartz
(r) citrine
(m) smoky
quartz
(n) amethyst
(s) golden
tigers eye
(t) red
tigers eye
Claudia Owen
(m) smoky quartz crystal
(kt) Varieties of quartz.

Figure 2.8
Silicate MineralsContinued
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Claudia Owen
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
(b) Gypsum: common habits. Top: massive aggregate,

alabaster; lower left: a single crystal cleavage fragment,
selenite, showing a scratch made by ngernail; lower right:
brous satin spar with silky luster.
(a) Calcite: a broken fragment showing three cleavages at an

oblique angle. The bubbles result from reaction with dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Diane Pirie
(d) Pyrite: three samples showing brassy color and metallic

luster. Upper left: granular massive aggregate of pyrite. Right:
aggregate of crystals. Lower left: pyrite cube.
Diane Pirie
(c) Galenalead ore: a fragment with three cleavages at 90

(cubic cleavage). Left side: metallic luster shows where sample is
freshly cleaved. Right side: weathered surfaces are submetallic.
(e) Magnetiteiron ore: granular aggregate, strongly

magnetic with submetallic luster.
(f) Hematiteiron ore. Left: oolitic hematitean aggregate

of spheres of ne-grained hematite crystals. The grains and
streak are deep reddish brown. Right: specular hematite is
silvery yet has a reddish brown streak, although darker than
the oolitic sample.
Figure 2.9
Nonsilicate Minerals
28
Lab 2
Diane Pirie
Diane Pirie
(g) Fluorite showing four cleavages and displaying a variety of

colors. Its colors and vitreous luster are similar to quartz, but
its cleavage distinguishes it from that harder mineral.
(h) Halite: transparent to translucent with three cleavages at

90 (cubic cleavage).
Figure 2.9
Nonsilicate MineralsContinued
A useful strategy is to use mineral identification

tables methodically (Table 2.3, Sections A through E on
pp. 30 through 34):
1. Test mineral properties as the headings in Table 2.4
indicate.
2. Then follow the arrows, starting on the left of Table 2.3
to find the mineral name.
Materials needed:
Assorted unknown minerals

Mineral testing kit
Squeeze bottle of 10% hydrochloric acid solution. (Use as little acid as possibleone drop is
enoughand clean off the sample with a tissue
or paper towel when you finish.)
10. Fill in the mineral table (Table 2.4 on

pp. 3536) with the samples you are given by
testing and analyzing in the following
manner:
a. Begin testing the mineral properties of
an unknown sample (one with a number
only) and filling in the properties in the
Mineral Identification Chart in Table 2.4
on pages 3536. If you can guess the
mineral name based on your observations
of Figures 2.8 and 2.9, you may lightly
pencil it in, but remember that this is
only a hypothesis (see Appendix) and may

change as you work on part b.
b. Next, use Table 2.3 to discover the mineral name. Then go back to part a for the
next mineral sample.
c. After filling in the table for all the
samples, highlight characteristic distinguishing properties of each mineral in the
mineral table (Table 2.4).
CLASSIFICATION
OF MINERALS
Recall that the definition of a mineral refers to its
strictly defined chemical composition. It is chemical
composition that we use to classify minerals. The majority of minerals belong to the mineral classes listed in
Table 2.5. Silicates are the most abundant minerals
and comprise a large proportion of the rock-forming
minerals, which make up the majority of rocks at the
Earths surface.
Minerals of only one element, such as native gold,
belong to a class called the native elements. The Periodic Table of the Elements in Table 2.6 shows which
elements are metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. Only a
few of these occur as native elements. All other minerals are chemical compounds, which we classify primarily
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Table 2.3
Minerals Identification Tables

Using the Mineral Identication Tables
The Tables 2.3 AE on the following pages will help you identify unknown mineral specimens. The two main subdivisions are
minerals with metallic luster (Table 2.3A) and minerals with nonmetallic luster (Table 2.3BE). Each section starts with the hardest
mineral and ends with the softest.
Section A: Minerals with metallic and submetallic lusters*
Table 2.3A is divided into subdivisions based on streak. Generally, minerals with metallic luster have streak colors that
are diagnostic.
Dark Streak:
green-black,
dark brown,
gray-black
L u s t e r
S t r e a k
Metallic to
Submetallic
Luster
Medium
Streak:
pale brown,
red-brown,
yellow-brown,
yellow
Light Streak:
pale brown to
light yellow
H = 66; Pale brass yellow; Fools gold; S = green-black;

D = 5.0; F = irregular; Habit = equant, cubic crystals with
striations common or pyritohedral crystals (having 12 pentagonshaped sides)
Pyrite (Fig. 2.9d)

Fe sulfide
H = 6; Black; S = black to gray-black; D = 5.2; F = irregular;

L = submetallic; Habit = equant; Strongly magnetic
Magnetite (Fig. 2.9e)

Fe oxide, major ore of iron
H = 34; Bright brass yellow where fresh; tarnishes to

iridescent purple peacock ore; S = green-black; D = 4.14.3;
brittle
Chalcopyrite (Fig. 2.4)

Cu, Fe sulfide,
major ore of copper
H = 2; Gun metal gray; CL = 3 at right angles (perfect cubic

CL); S = lead gray; D = 7.6; L = very bright metallic on fresh
surfaces, submetallic where tarnished
Galena (Fig. 2.9c)

Pb sulfide, lead ore
H = 12; Iron black/steel gray; Soils fingers; S = dark gray;

D = 2.2; L = metallic to submetallic; greasy feel
Graphite
Native element (C)
H = 56, may flake; Steel gray; L = bright metallic and steel

gray; S = red-brown to brown; D = 5.3; F = irregular; Habit =
micaceous (called micaceous hematite)
Specular hematite
(Fig. 2.9f) Fe oxide,
major ore of iron
H = 55; Dark to brown to black; S = yellow-brown;

D = 3.35.5; F = irregular; L = metallic to submetallic, luster may
be obscured by alteration. Limonite is often used to name any
hydrous iron oxide.
Limonite (mineraloid)
Hydrous Fe oxide,
ore of iron
H = 23; Shades of yellow; S = gold yellow; L = metallic; plates,

flakes, or nuggets; D = 19.3 when pure; very malleable and
ductile; color yellow becomes paler with increasing silver content
Gold
Native element (Au),
ore of gold
H = 23; Coppery (orange-red-brown) colored; Malleable

and ductile; S = copper brown; D = 8.9; L = metallic, but surface
is often tarnished and may be oxidized to blue; Habit = dendritic
Copper
Native element (Cu),
ore of copper
H = 34; Dark brown to yellow; variegated appearance common;

CL = 6 good planes, S = yellow to brown and lighter than sample;
D = 3.94.1; L = resinous, adamantine, or submetallic
Sphalerite
Zn sulfide,
ore of zinc
Nonmetallic
Luster
continue to
Table 2.3B-E
* The abbreviations are CL cleavage, P parting, F fracture, L luster, S streak, D density (in g/cm3) or specic gravity (no units),
~ approximately. Properties that are especially diagnostic are shown in bold.
30
Lab 2
Table 2.3
Minerals Identification TablesContinued

Section B: Nonmetallic minerals with cleavage or parting that are harder than glass*
H = 10, hardest natural substance; CL = 4 = 90 perfect,
(octahedral CL); Habit = equant, octahedrons; Pale yellow to
colorless, many pale shades; D = 3.5; L = adamantine to
greasy in natural crystals; high brilliance
Diamond
Native element (C)
H = 9 on a fresh surface; P = basal; Gray to brown to pink,

almost any color; D = 3.94.1; L = vitreous to adamantine;
Habit = prismatic, hexagonal crystals narrow toward the ends;
Gem varieties include ruby (red) and sapphire (blue)
Corundum
Al oxide
Go to
Table 2.3
Section A
H = 8; CL = 1, basal; Colorless, yellow, white, pink, blue, green;

D = 3.43.6; L = vitreous; semiprecious gem: transparent
golden and blue varieties
Topaz
Al, F, OH silicate with
single tetrahedra
Metallic
Luster
H = 78; CL = 1 imperfect, uneven F is more apparent;

Blue-green or yellow; D = 2.62.8; gem varieties: emerald
(deep green), aquamarine, morganite (rose beryl), and golden
beryl
Beryl
Be, Al ring silicate
H = 7 perpendicular to blades and H = 5 parallel to blades;

CL = 2 at 74; Blue to gray to green; D = 3.63.7; L = vitreous
to pearly to silky; Habit = bladed. Note different hardness in
different directions
Kyanite (Fig. 2.3)

Al silicate
H = 67; CL = 1; Colorless to brown or pale green; D = 3.2;

L = vitreous; Habit = fibrous to acicular
Sillimanite (Table 5.1)

Al silicate
H = 6; CL = 2 good planes at ~90; White, cream, gray, salmon

to dark pink; D = 2.52.6; L = vitreous. A pink color often
distinguishes K-rich feldspars. Amazonite is a rare blue-green
variety of an alkali feldspar called microcline
Alkali
Feldspars (Fig. 2.8g)
K, Na, Al
Tectosilicate
H = 6; CL = 2 good planes at ~90; White, gray, greenish or

bluish gray; D = 2.62.8; L = vitreous. An iridescent play of
colors may be seen in some plagioclases, especially
labradorite. Parallel, regular striations on a cleavage plane
(= twinning) are common in the plagioclase series. Albite
(Na-rich) and anorthite (Ca-rich) are the end members
Plagioclase
Feldspars (Fig. 2.8h)
Na, Ca, Al
Tectosilicate
H = 56; CL = 2 at ~90 (not perfectly planar); Dark green to

black; S = pale green to gray if any; D = 3.23.3; L = vitreous
(slightly duller than hornblende); Habit = stubby
Augite (pyroxene)
(Fig. 2.8c)
Single-chain silicate
H = 56; CL = 2 at approx. 120 and 60; Greenish dark gray

to black; S = pale gray if any; D = 3.03.3; L = vitreous; Habit
= prismatic with diamond-shaped cross-section
Hornblende
(amphibole) (Fig. 2.8d)
Double-chain silicate
H = 56; CL = 2 at ~120 and ~60; Medium to dark green;

S = light gray if any D = 3.13.3; L = vitreous; Habit = acicular
with diamond-shaped cross-section
Actinolite (Table 5.1)

(amphibole)
Double-chain silicate
H = 5 parallel to blades and H = 7 perpendicular to blades;

CL = 2 directions at 74; Blue to gray to green; D = 3.63.7;
L = vitreous to pearly to silky; Habit = bladed
Kyanite (Fig. 2.3)

Al silicate
H = 55; CL = 2 at 84, splintery to hackly; White, colorless to

gray; D = 2.82.9; L = vitreous to pearly; Habit = prismatic to
fibrous, splintery
Wollastonite (Table 5.1)

Ca silicate
Nonmetallic
Luster
C l e a v a g e
With
cleavage
H a r d n e s s
L u s t e r
Harder
than glass
About as
hard as
glass
Without
cleavage
Go to
Table 2.3
Sections
D and E
Softer than
glass
Go to
Table 2.3C
(Continued)
M i ner al s
31
Table 2.3

H = 4; CL = 4 = 90 perfect (octahedral CL); Highly variable
color, violet, pale green, yellow are common; S = white; D = 3.2;
L = vitreous to waxy; Transparent to translucent; Habit =
equant, cubes common; May fluoresce under black light
Fluorite (Fig. 2.9g)

Ca, F halide
Harder than
glass or
about as
hard as
glass
H = 34; CL = up to 6 good planes; Dark brown to yellow;

L = resinous to adamantine to sub-metallic; Variegated
appearance common; S = Yellow; D = 3.94.1
Sphalerite
Zn sulfide,
ore of zinc
H = 34; CL = 3 = 90, perfect rhombohedral CL; Yellowish

white to pink, gray or light brown; Color varies with impurities.
D = 2.8; L = vitreous. Effervesces in dilute HCl when
powdered (Fig. 4.15c inset p. 82).
Dolomite
Ca, Mg carbonate
H a r d n e s s
Section C: Nonmetallic minerals with visible cleavage that are softer than glass*
H = 3; CL = 3 = 90, perfect rhombohedral CL; Colors vary:

colorless to white to yellow to pink. S = white; D = 2.7;
L = vitreous; Strongly effervesces with dilute HCl; Iceland
spar: transparent with double refraction (Fig. 2.7)
Fine-grained varieties do not show cleavage, but all will
effervesce freely with dilute HCl
Calcite (Fig. 2.9a)

Ca Carbonate
H = 23, marked with fingernail by creasing sheets rather

than scratching; CL = 1 perfectly planar; Dark reddish brown to
black; S = Light Brown, may break apart when testing;
D = 2.83.2; L = splendent to vitreous; Elastic, flexible, and
transparent in thin sheets
Biotite (mica)
(Fig. 2.8e)
K, Al sheet silicates
H = 22; CL = 1 perfectly planar; Colorless to white to light

greenish brown; S = white, may break apart when testing;
D = 2.72.9; L = resinous to vitreous to pearly; Sheets elastic,
flexible; Transparent
Muscovite (mica)
(Fig. 2.8f)
K, Al sheet silicates
H = 2; CL = 3 perfect at 90 (cubic CL); Colorless to white;

S = white; D = 2.12.3; L = waxy to vitreous; Salty taste;
Transparent; Dissolves in water and on fingers; Tan to
reddish with impurities
Halite (Fig. 2.9h)

NaCl halide
H = 22; CL = 1 perfect, but flakes are small compared to

micas; Medium to dark green; S = white to pale green, may
break apart when testing; D = 2.63.3; L = vitreous to pearly.
Thin sheets are flexible but not elastic
Chlorite
Mg, Fe, OH sheet
Silicate
H = 2; CL = 3 perfect at 90 (cubic CL); Colorless to white to

pale blue; S = white; D = 2.0; L = waxy to vitreous; Bitter salty
taste; Transparent; Dissolves in water and on fingers; Yellow
or reddish with impurities; Much rarer than halite
Sylvite
KCl halide
H = 2, Can scratch with fingernail; CL = 1 perfect (in sheets),

and 2 more irregular CL; Colorless to white; S = white; D = 2.3;
L = vitreous to pearly; Flexible in thin sheets; can shave with
knife (sectile); transparent to translucent
Gypsum (selenite)
(Fig. 2.9b lower right)
Ca sulfate
Go to
Table 2.3B
C l e a v a g e
Non-metallic
Luster
(continued)
With
cleavage
(continued)
With
fracture
Continue to
Table 2.3
Sections
D and E
Softer
than glass
32
Lab 2
Table 2.3

Section D: Nonmetallic minerals with apparent fracture (without visible cleavage) that are harder than glass*
Go to
Table 2.3
Sections B
and C
Nonmetallic
Luster
(continued)
Harder
than glass
With
fracture
H a r d n e s s
F r a c t u r e
With
cleavage
Softer
than glass
H = 9 test on a fresh surface; P = basal; Gray to brown to

pink; almost any color; D = 3.94.1; L = vitreous to adamantine;
Habit = prismatic, hexagonal crystals narrow toward the ends.
Gem varieties include ruby (red) and sapphire (blue)
Corundum
Al oxide
H = 77; Red-brown to brownish black; L = resinous to

vitreous; D = 3.63.8; Habit = prismatic, obtuse angled prisms
with common crossing twins
Staurolite (Table 5.1)

Fe Al nesosilicate
H = 77; F = conchoidal; Black common, but may be green,

yellow, red, pink, or blue; D = 33.3; L = resinous to vitreous;
Habit = prismatic with triangular cross sections. Tourmaline
may be transparent and of semiprecious gem quality, e.g.,
rubellite (red or pink)
Tourmaline (Fig. 2.1b)

Chemically complex
ring silicate
H = 67; F = hackly to conchoidal; Black, dark brown, red,

tan, or green; D = 3.54.3; L = adamantine to vitreous to waxy
on parting; Habit = equant well-formed dodecahedral
(12-sided) crystals. Colors vary with composition. Almandine
is deep red to brown. Grossular garnet is often tan, pale
yellow, pink, or green
Garnet (Fig. 2.8b)

Mg, Fe, Mn, Al
nesosilicate
H = 7; F = conchoidal; Color varies widely, colorless to smoky

in common rocks; D = 2.65; L = vitreous; (waxy in microcrystalline varieties). Hexagonal crystals show striations perpendicular
to prism (Fig. 2.8j). Quartz may be colorless or have many
varieties of color (Fig. 2.8k-t)
Quartz (Fig. 2.8jt)

pure silica
tectosilicate
H = 67; F = conchoidal and may appear irregular due to

small grain size; Light to dark olive to yellow green;
D = 3.34.4; L = vitreous; Habit = good crystals rare and
equant, granular massive aggregates are usual.
Olivine (Fig. 2.8a)

Mg, Fe nesosilicate
Go to
Table 2.3E
(Continued)
M i ner al s
33
Table 2.3

Section E: Nonmetallic minerals with apparent fracture (without visible cleavage) that are softer than glass*
Go to
Table 2.3
Sections
B and C
Go to
Table 2.3
Section D
Harder than
glass
With
fracture
H a r d n e s s
Nonmetallic
Luster
(continued)
F r a c t u r e
With
cleavage
Softer
than glass
H = 5; F = conchoidal; poor basal cleavage; Variable color,

commonly green to red-brown; S = White; D = 3.13.2;
L = vitreous; Habit = hexagonal prisms or granular aggregates
Apatite
Phosphate
H = 34; F appears uneven or earthy, CL may obscure due to

small crystal size (CL = 3 rhombohedral); Yellowish white to
pink, gray, or light brown; S = White; D = 2.8; L = vitreous;
Effervesces in dilute HCl when powdered (Fig 4.15c inset
p. 82); Color varies with impurities
Dolomite (Fig. 4.15c,

p. 82)
Ca, Mg carbonate
H = 35; Light green to dark green to nearly black; color often

variegated; S = White; D = 2.52.6; L = greasy to waxy; Habit
may be fibrous = asbestos (Fig. 2.3)
Serpentine (Fig. 5.10b)

Mg OH sheet silicate
H = 25; Yellow ocher to dark brown; S = yellow-brown;

D = 3.35.5 or less if porous; F = irregular; L = earthy.
Limonite is often used to name any hydrous iron oxide
Limonite (mineraloid)
Hydrous Fe oxide
H = 23; apple green; S = pale green; D = 2.22.8; L = greasy

to waxy to earthy; ore of nickel
Garnierite
Ni Mg OH sheet silicate
H = 2; F = fibrous, cleavage is not apparent; Satin spar is the

fibrous variety; White to pink; S = White; D = 2.3;
L = silky; habit = fibrous; can shave with knife (sectile)
Gypsum (satin spar)

(Fig. 2.9b)
Ca sulfate
H = 2; F = uneven, cleavage is not apparent due to its small

crystal size; White to pink; S = White; D = 2.3; L = vitreous to
pearly and compact and massive; can shave with knife (sectile)
Gypsum (alabaster)
(Fig. 2.9b)
Ca sulfate
H = 16, Hardness is variable due to variations in grain size;

F = uneven ; Red-brown; S = Red-brown; D = 4.85.3; L = dull
to earthy; Small (egg-shaped) ooids in oolitic hematite; massive
in red ocher; major ore of iron
Oolitic hematite and

red ocher
(Fig. 2.9f)
Fe oxide
H = 12; F = uneven to conchoidal; Bright yellow (when

pure); S = Pale yellow; D = 2.1; L = resinous to vitreous;
Distinctive odor
Sulfur
Native S
H = 15; L = dull to earthy; Highly variable color even in one

sample: white, gray, yellow-brown, and red-brown; S = variable
but commonly red-brown to yellow brown; D = 22.6; Habit =
spherical concretionary grains (pisolites). Bauxite is a
mixture of 3 Al hydroxide minerals so is not a distinct mineral
but a composite.
Bauxite
Al oxides and
hydroxides, ore of
aluminum
H = 12; F = uneven; microscopically has one perfect cleavage;

White when pure, variable when impure; S = white; D = 2.6; L =
dull, earthy; Powdery clay, earthy smell; No effervescence
Kaolinite (Fig. 2.8i)

Al OH sheet silicate
H = 1; F = earthy; (CL is obscured by fine grain size); White to

tan; S = white; D = 2.5; L = earthy; Strongly effervesces with
dilute HCl; soft, powdery; fine grained and earthy
Chalk (Calcite)
(Fig. 4.14, p. 81)
Ca Carbonate
H = 1; CL = 1 perfect (may be microscopic); White to

gray-green; S = White, flakes when powdered; D = 2.72.8;
L = pearly in coarse varieties to dull when fine grained; Greasy
feel. Soapstone is a compact and massive variety. Talc
containing tremolite (H = 5-6) appears harder
Talc (Table 5.1)

Mg OH sheet silicate
on the basis of their nonmetal and metalloid elements

(Table 2.5). Notice also in Table 2.5 that all the mineral
classes ending with -ates contain oxygen, and those ending with -ides do not contain oxygen unless ox is part
of the name. In the chemical formulas of compounds,
the first part usually lists the metals; the second part,
34
the nonmetals and metalloids. You can tell a minerals

class from the second part of the formula. Table 2.7
lists some minerals (with formulas) belonging to mineral
classes that are not silicates. Many non-silicate minerals
are important resources, which we will discuss in the
last part of this chapter.
Lab 2
M i ner al s
35
Sample
Number
Record
the
number
of the
sample.
Luster,
Crystal Habit
(if applicable)
Describe the specic

metallic or nonmetallic
luster of the sample.
Also list single-crystal or
aggregate habits using
Figures 2.2 and 2.3, if
applicable.
Hardness
Test with
common
objects,
(Table
2.1) list
possible
range.
Streak
Scratch the
sample on a
streak plate and
record the color
of the powder.
Cleavage or Fracture
For samples with

cleavage, write CL:
and choose from
Fig. 2.5. For samples
without cleavage, write
FR: and choose from
conchoidal, brous,
hackly, or uneven.
Mineral Identification Chart of Unknown Samples
Table 2.4
Color
Describe
predominant
minerals
color(s).
Special Properties
and Unusual Density
List special properties

such as magnetism,
bubbling in acid, etc
(see p. 25). If density is
unusually high or low,
write high or low.
(Continued)
Mineral Name
Determine
the minerals
name by looking up its
properties in Table 2.3.
36
Lab 2
Sample
Number
Luster,
Crystal Habit
(if applicable)
Hardness
Streak
Cleavage or Fracture
Mineral Identification Chart of Unknown SamplesContinued
Table 2.4
Color
Special Properties
and Unusual Density
Mineral Name
Table 2.5
11. Look at the mineral formulas listed in

Table 2.8 and fill in the mineral class name
based on the chemical formulas. Refer to
Table 2.5.
Composition of Mineral Classes

Nonmetals, metalloids, and metal elements are listed in the
Periodic Table in Table 2.6
Mineral Classes
Chemical Makeup
Of the different mineral classes we have just studied, silicates are by far the most abundant minerals and
are therefore the most common in rocks. We next look
at the classification of silicate minerals.
Silicates
Contain silicon (Si) and oxygen (O)

at least
Carbonates
CO3 plus metal(s)
Sulfates
SO4 plus metal(s)
Suldes
S plus metal(s)
Oxides
O plus metal(s) without other nonmetals

or metalloids (no Si, C, P, S, V, or W)
Hydroxides
OH plus metal(s) without other

nonmetals or metalloids
Phosphates
PO4 plus metal(s)
Halides
F, Cl, Br, or I plus metal(s) without

other nonmetals or metalloids
Native elements
Occur in elemental form (one

element only)
SILICATE MINERALS
The most important and most complex mineral class is
the silicates. The variety of crystal structures of silicate
minerals leads to a wide variety of physical properties
seen in this large mineral class. Silicates belong to
different families based on their crystal structure, which
makes sense because this classification also groups minerals according to their properties.
Table 2.6
Periodic Table of the Elements

Only about a dozen elements are common in minerals and rocks, but many uncommon ones are important sources of natural
resources. For example, lead (Pb) is not found in many minerals, but it is present in the mineral galena, the main ore of lead. Silicon
(Si) and oxygen (O), in contrast, are important elements in most of the minerals in Earth's crust.
Hydrogen
1
Halogens
MAIN GROUP METALS
H
1
1.0079
1A
(1)
2A
(2)
Lithium
3
Beryllium
4
Li
Be
Uranium
92
METALLOIDS
NONMETALS
238.0289
6.941
9.0122
Sodium Magnesium
11
12
Na
Mg
22.9898
24.3050
Potassium
19
Calcium
20
3B
(3)
4B
(4)
5B
(5)
6B
(6)
7B
(7)
Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese

22
23
24
25
21
Helium
2
Atomic number
Symbol
Atomic mass number
8B
He
3A
(13)
4A
(14)
5A
(15)
6A
(16)
7A
(17)
4.0026
Boron
5
Carbon
6
Nitrogen
7
Oxygen
8
Fluorine
9
Neon
10
10.811
Aluminum
13
12.011
Silicon
14
14.0067 15.9994
Phosphorus Sulfur
16
15
Ne
18.9984
Chlorine
17
20.1797
Argon
18
Cl
Ar
(10)
2B
(12)
Si
(9)
1B
(11)
Al
(8)
26.9815
28.0855
30.9738
32.066
35.4527
39.948
Iron
26
Cobalt
27
Nickel
28
Copper
29
Zinc
30
Gallium
31
Germanium
32
Arsenic
33
Selenium
34
Bromine
35
Krypton
36
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
39.0983
40.078
44.9559
47.867
50.9415
51.9961
54.9380
55.845
58.9332
58.6934
63.546
65.39
69.723
72.61
74.9216
78.96
79.904
83.80
Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium

45
41
40
42
43
44
46
Silver
47
Cadmium
48
Indium
49
Tin
50
Iodine
53
Xenon
54
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
112.411
Mercury
80
114.818
Thallium
81
118.710
Lead
82
121.760
Bismuth
83
Rubidium Strontium
37
38
Rb
Sr
85.4678
Cesium
55
87.62
Barium
56
Cs
132.9054
Francium
87
TRANSITION METALS
8A
(18)
Fr
Ba
Yttrium
39
Zr
Nb
88.9059
91.224 92.9064
Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum
57
72
73
La
Hf
Ta
Mo
Tc
Ru
95.94
Tungsten
74
(97.907)
Rhenium
75
101.07
Osmium
76
Re
137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84

186.207
Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium
105
107
88
104
106
89
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
(223.02) (226.0254) (227.0278) (261.11) (262.11)
Note: Atomic masses are

1993 IUPAC values
(up to four decimal places).
Numbers in parentheses are
atomic masses or mass numbers
of the most stable isotope of
an element.
Lanthanides
Actinides
Cerium
58
Os
Rh
Pd
102.9055 106.42 107.8682

Iridium Platinum
Gold
77
79
78
Ir
Pt
Au
190.2
192.22
195.08 196.9665
Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium
108
109
110
111
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Rg
(263.12)
(262.12)
(265)
(266)
(271)
(272)
Hg
Tl
Pb
200.59
112
204.3833
113
207.2
114
1996
2004
1999
Antimony Tellurium
51
52
Bi
Te
127.60 126.9045
Polonium Astatine
85
84
Po
At
208.9804 (208.98) (209.99)
115
116
Xe
131.29
Radon
86
Rn
(222.02)
Discovered Discovered Discovered Discovered Discovered
Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium

59
60
61
63
64
62
65
1999
Erbium
68
Thulium
69
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
140.115
140.9076
144.24
(144.91)
150.36
151.965
157.25
158.9253
162.50
164.9303
167.26
168.9342
173.04
174.967
Curium
96
Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium

97
100
98
99
101
103
102
Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium

92
94
90
93
95
91
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
232.0381 231.0388 238.0289 (237.0482) (244.664) (243.061) (247.07) (247.07)
Dysprosium Holmium
66
67
2004
Cf
Es
(251.08) (252.08)
Fm
Md
(257.10) (258.10)
Ytterbium Lutetium
71
70
No
Lr
(259.10) (262.11)
From KOTZ/TREICHEL, Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, 5e. 2003 Brooks/Cole, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Reproduced by permission. www.cengage
.com/permissions
M i ner al s
37
Table 2.7
Nonsilicate Mineral Classes, Common Rock-Forming Minerals

and Some Resource Minerals
Mineral
Chemical Formula
1. Calcite1
Varieties: Iceland spar, calcite chalk
CaCO3
2. Dolomite
Malachite
Azurite
CaMg(CO3)2
Cu2CO3(OH2)
Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2
Mineral Class
Carbonates
Basic unit: (CO3)
3. Gypsum
CaSO4 2H2O
Varieties: alabaster, satin spar, selenite
Sulfates
Basic unit: (SO4)
Galena
4. Pyrite
Sphalerite
PbS
FeS2
ZnS
Suldes
S plus a metal(s)
Corundum
5. Magnetite
6. Hematite
Al2O3
Fe3O4
Fe2O3
Oxides
O plus a metal(s)
Limonite
FeO OH nH2O
Apatite
Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH)
Fluorite
7. Halite
Ag
Au
Pt
Cu
Fe
(OH) plus metal(s)
Phosphates
CaF2
NaCl
Metals:
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Copper
Iron
1
Hydroxides
Halides
Nonmetals:
Diamond
Graphite
Sulfur
C
C
S
Basic unit: PO4
Halogen element plus a metal
Native elements
Occur in elemental form
Important rock-forming minerals are numbered and shown in bold.

Limonite is not a mineralit is mainly a eld term referring to natural iron hydroxides.
Table 2.8
Class Identification
Mineral
Name
Formula
Sylvite
KCl
Chalcopyrite
CuFeS2
Sulfur
Tremolite
Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Rutile
TiO2
Anhydrite
CaSO4
Mineral Class
families in Table 2.9. These lines connect to make a

triangular pyramid called a tetrahedron, thus the name
silica tetrahedron. Imagine an oxygen atom at each corner and a silicon atom in the center. The silicate families
are based on the arrangement of the silica tetrahedra
(plural) in the atomic structure of the mineral. Silica
tetrahedra are negatively charged so the minerals incorporate positively charged ions (cations) to balance the
charge and to hold the structure together between the
isolated tetrahedra or chains or sheets. The silicate
structures shown in Table 2.9 lack the cations. To a large
extent, the internal structure of the silicates influences
each minerals physical properties, as we shall see. First
lets try to understand the structural types involved.
Materials needed:
The basic structural unit for the silicates is the silica

tetrahedron (SiO4), as shown in Figure 2.10a. This
building block is often illustrated as lines connecting the
oxygen atoms, with no atoms shown, as in Figure 2.9b
and as in each of the diagrams for the different silicate
38
Colored paperboard printed with tetrahedron

models as in Figure 2.11a, scissors, and tape
Or
Half toothpicks, stale mini-marshmallows, and

gumdrops
Lab 2
atoms and the center represents silicon.

The ratio of silicon to oxygen (a) goes up,
(b) goes down, (c) stays the same. _____
d. Look at the formulas of the chain and
cyclosilicates in Table 2.9 to assess your
idea about the silicon to oxygen ratio.
What ratio do nesosilicates have? _______
What ratio do single-chain (check diopside) and cyclosilicates have? _______
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.10
Two Ways of Illustrating a Silica

Tetrahedron
(a) This gure illustrates the conguration of the atoms (red for
oxygen and gray for silicon). Dashed lines from the center of one
oxygen atom to another show the location of the tetrahedron,
illustrated in (b). (b) Diagrammatic representation of a silica
tetrahedron: The corners are at the centers of the oxygen atoms,
and the center of the tetrahedron corresponds to the location of
the silicon atom.
12. Work together in a group. Each student

should build a model of a tetrahedron.
Then join your models together to create
the structures representing various silicate
families. As you make more complicated
structures up through phyllosilicates, either
build more tetrahedra or join yours with
those of people in other groups. The model
materials described here do not hold together
well enough to make complete tectosilicates
by themselves. If your instructor asks you to
attempt a tectosilicate model structure, you
will need additional support or a different
medium for your model. Once you have built
your models, answer the following questions:
a. What family of silicates has
isolated silica tetrahedra?
____________________________
e. As you build more complicated structures,

how does the silicon to oxygen ratio change?
_____________________ Why is this true?
13. Lets see how different silicate structures

influence a minerals properties.
Name a mineral with single chains.
_____________________
What type of cleavage does it have?
____________________________
What is an example of a sheet silicate?
_____________________
What type of cleavage does it have?
____________________________
14. Look through Table 2.3 on pages 3034.
a. What sub-tables of Table 2.3 (A, B, C,
or D) have most of the silicates (not
counting sheet silicates)? _______ This is
because the strong bonds in these silicates
make them hard.
b. What sub-tables of Table 2.3 list the sheet
silicates? _______ How do you account
for this?
b. When you make a ring or a single chain of

tetrahedra (as in Figure 2.11c), how many
corners do the tetrahedra in the middle of
the chain share? _____
c. How does this affect the number of
oxygen atoms compared to silicon atoms
in the structure? Remember that the
corners of a tetrahedron represent oxygen
c. Notice that some sheet silicates are

listed in tables with fracture rather than
cleavage. This is because they tend to
M i ner al s
39
Table 2.9
Common Rock-Forming MineralsSilicate Mineral Class

Mineral
Chemical Formula
8. Olivine1
Topaz
9. Garnet2 Varieties:
almandine,
grossular
Tourmaline
Beryl
Silicate Family Name
(Mg,Fe)2SiO4
Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
(Mg,Fe,Ca,Mn)3(Al,Fe,Cr)2(SiO4)3
Nesosilicates
(isolated Si tetrahedra)
(Na,Ca)(Li,Mg,Al)3(Al,Fe,Mn)6(BO3)3(Si6O18)(OH)4 Cyclosilicates
Be3Al2(Si6O18)
(ring silicates)
Pyroxenes
10. Augite
Diopside
(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
CaMgSi2O6
Amphiboles:
11. Hornblende
Actinolite
(Ca,Na)2-3(Mg,Fe,Al)5Si6(Si,Al)2O22(OH)2
Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2
Double chain
Talc
12. Kaolin
Chlorite
Mg3Si4O10(OH)2
Al2Si2O5(OH)4
(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2 (Mg,Fe)3(OH)6
Phyllosilicates
(sheet silicates)
Micas:
13. Biotite
14. Muscovite
K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
15. Feldspars:
Alkali feldspars
Plagioclase
feldspars
16. Quartz
Silicate Structure
Inosilicates
(chain silicates)
Single chain
Tectosilicates
(framework silicates)
Every tetrahedron in this
structure is connected to four
others: many are not shown
(K,Na)AlSi3O8
(Na,Ca)Al1-2Si3-2O8
SiO2
Varieties: amethyst, rock crystal, smoky quartz, milky quartz,

rose quartz
Microcrystalline and amorphous varieties: chert, int, jasper, agate,
chalcedony (Amorphous solids are not tectosilicates; in fact, they
are not even minerals, and are called mineraloids instead. Recall
that a mineral must be crystalline.)
1
Important rock-forming minerals are numbered and shown in bold.

Mineral group names are shown in italics.
Claudia Owen
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2.11
Silica Tetrahedron Model

(a) To build a silica tetrahedron, cut out a shape like this, then fold along the black lines and tape it into a triangular pyramid. (b) Model
of tetrahedron after folding and taping. (c) Chain of silica tetrahedra using stale mini-marshmallows for oxygen and gumdrops for silicon.
Toothpicks represent the edges of the tetrahedra, not chemical bonds.
40
Lab 2
15. Fill in Table 2.10 with the mineral

properties of some resource mineral samples
your instructor provides and then identify the
minerals using Table 2.3.
be too fine-grained for us to see the

individual cleavage sheets. These
minerals tend to be very soft. List two
such sheet silicates that are commonly
pale in color:
___________________ ___________________
Scavenger Hunt
Silicate minerals of various structures make up the

most common rock-forming minerals, but with the exception of quartz, feldspar, and kaolin, they are not commonly used as resources. On the other hand, nonsilicates
may be important resources, especially carbonates and
sulfates, which we use for in building materials; and
oxides and sulfides, which we use to produce metals.
ECONOMICALLY VALUABLE
AND USEFUL MINERALS
Minerals provide us with many of the resources we
need to produce the common objects we take for
granted in the industrial world. A mineral or rock that
is mined at a profit and can be used to make metal is
known as an ore. Other useful minerals that are valuable are called mineral resources. First lets examine
the common resources used to make building materials
(such as in walls, wire, and sidewalks) or simple tools
(such as in eating utensils, dishes, and cans) and learn
which minerals provide the material in these and other
common items.
16. Your instructor will divide the class into

teams, giving each team a name or letter. As
a team, number individual, colored sticky
notes from 1 to 11 and write your team name
on each; then wait for the signal to start.
At the start, try to find the objects listed in
Table 2.11 somewhere in the classroom.
When you find an item, place a sticky note
with the corresponding number on that item.
You may not use items others have already
used. At the ending signal, the team with the
most correctly labeled objects wins.
17. Next, fill in Table 2.11 with the information
about the objects you found in your scavenger
hunt. Also add the remaining items you did not
find in time (if any). Fill in blanks in the table
describing each substance and its components.
Then use Table 2.12 to help you determine
what resource materials (most of these are
minerals) would be used to make these objects.
18. In the appropriate locations in the last
column of Table 2.11, enter the sample
Table 2.10
Resource Minerals and Their Properties

Sample
Number
Luster,
Crystal Habit (if appl.)
Streak and
Hardness
Cleavage/
Fracture
Color
Other Properties
Mineral Name
M i ner al s
41
Table 2.11
Common Objects and the Resources They Are Made From
Object #
Object Name
Name of Metal
or Primary
Substance
Description
(What Is the
Substance Like?)
Made From/Of
Chromium
stainless steel
Magnetic, silvery,
does not tarnish
Chromium,
Nickel
stainless steel
Non-magnetic,
silvery, dense, does
not tarnish
_____________,
Resource
Material(s)
Sample #s
_____________,
and carbon
chromium,
iron, and
carbon
Aluminum
Aluminum
Brass
Gold
Golden metal that

does not tarnish
Gold
Copper
Reddish metal
Copper
Concrete
Lime and
aggregate
Sheet rock
Porcelain
Wallboard or
plasterboard
Plaster
Kaolinite and
feldspar
10
Glass
Silica
11
Graphite
Graphite
numbers of minerals you have studied in previous parts of this lab and from Table 2.10 of
the resource minerals you just identified. The
common objects require the use of minerals
such as these to make them.
Now that we have looked at some useful minerals,
we will take a moment to consider the economic side of
mineral resources.
Scarcity versus Abundance

of Mineral Resources
Mineral resources are nonrenewable in the sense that
they have a finite supply. When that supply is used up,
the only way to continue to use that resource is to recycle.
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) and other
government agencies commonly report the abundance of
different elements or commodities in terms of reserves
and projected lifetimes. Reserves are the quantity of a
resource that has been found and is economically recoverable with existing technology. To calculate projected
lifetimes we use the current rate of production of the
42
resource, assuming that it will continue at the same

rate. Projected lifetimes are the reserves of the material divided by the rate of production:
Projected lifetime
Reserves
Production rate
19. According to the USGS, in 2008 the worldwide reserves of tin were 5.6 million metric
tons, with a production rate of 0.333 million
metric tons per year. What is the projected
lifetime of tin? ___________________. Show
your calculations.
20. In a group, discuss the results of your calculations and answer the following questions:
a. As these ores become scarcer, how would
increasing prices influence their rate of
use? ________________________________
Lab 2
Table 2.12
Resource Rocks and Minerals and Common Substances

Resource Material
Used to Provide
Material or Substance Produced
Hematite or magnetite
Iron
Steel (with carbon), iron, alloys,

stainless steel (with chromium nickel)
Chalcopyrite, native copper,

malachite, or azurite
Copper
Metallic copper, wire, coins, brass (with zinc),

bronze (with tin)
Sphalerite
Zinc
Metallic zinc, galvanized metal, coins, and

brass (with copper), white pigment
Chromite
Chromium
Chrome plating and stainless steel (with iron and carbon)
Garnierite or pentlandite
Nickel
Stainless steel (with iron, carbon, and chromium)

and coins
Cassiterite (tin oxide)
Tin
Tin plate, tin coating inside tin cans,

bronze (with copper), solder (with lead)
Bauxite
Aluminum
Metallic aluminum, cans, wire, airplanes
Native gold
Gold
Metallic gold, coins, jewelry, electronics
Pyrite
Sulfur
Sulfuric acid
Graphite
Graphite
Lead for pencils, lubricant
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond for cutting, abrasion, jewelry
Coal
Carbon
Fossil fuel, steel (with iron, chromium, nickel)
Gravel
Aggregate
Concrete (with cement)
Calcite
Lime
Cement (with alumina, silica)
Clay
Clay and alumina
Ceramic
Quartz
Quartz or silica
Glass, glazes, elemental silicon,

porcelain (with kaolinite and feldspar)
Gypsum
Gypsum
Plaster, wallboard (or sheet rock or plasterboard)
Kaolinite
Kaolinite
Porcelain (with quartz and feldspar)
Feldspar
Feldspar
Porcelain (with kaolinite and quartz)
b. As a result of increasing price, some part

of the resource that was not economically
valuable would become valuable enough
to mine. How would this change influence
the quantity of reserves? (Hint: Review
the definition of reserves and notice the
economic component of the definition.)
_____________________________________
c. How would an improved mining technique or new technology influence the
quantity of the reserves? _______________
d. How would the projected lifetimes change
as a result of these three factors?
_____________________________________
Although projected lifetimes give us an estimate

of how long a resource will last, these numbers are
generally too small. This is because as the resource
becomes scarcer, its price increases and its production
rate slows. At the same time, the size of the reserves
expands because resources that were once not economic
deposits become economic as the price rises. Both of
these results cause an increase in the projected lifetimes. Nevertheless, increasing scarcity of the resource
and higher prices will make the resource unavailable or
undesirable for certain uses.
21. In your same group, discuss the following

questions: What is likely to happen if we
run out of a resource or if its quantity drops
to a very low amount? Think about its use
and what could be done about its shortage,
economics, price, and mining. Might there
be environmental consequences? Select a
M i ner al s
43
specific resource or two as you explore the

possibilities and consider current events in
the media. One example is how petroleum
production affects pricing, policies, and
products. Describe your conclusions in detail
on a separate sheet of paper.
Although mining provides us with mineral resources, it

can also have a severely negative impact on the environment. This is especially true of surface mining. Not only
are the surface vegetation and soil stripped away, but the
crushing of rock and its interaction with air and water produce toxic substances that may be released into groundwater, streams, and lakes as a result of mining activities.
Mining sulfide deposits leads to water pollution
when sulfide minerals interact with rainwater. Sulfur
in the minerals may be oxidized in water, producing
sulfuric acid (H2SO4). If this happens, acid mine drainage results ( Figure 2.12). If the acid water gets into
streams, lakes, and rivers, it may kill fish and other
aquatic organisms directly. In lower concentrations,
it can destroy their eggs. It also causes toxic metals to
leach out of the mine area and surrounding rocks, adding
metallic poisons to the water. The water is commonly
red to orange-brown due to the presence of very fine
iron oxides (Figure 2.12). In addition, some mining processes involve toxic substances directly, such as mercury
or cyanide, that aid the mineral extraction. These, too,
can leach into waterways with devastating effects.
22. At the Bohemia mines near Cottage Grove,

Oregon, gold was mined extensively over the
last 150 years. Associated with the gold were
pyrite, the minerals listed below, and other
sulfides. What metals (some of which are
toxic) could acid mine drainage leach into
the water in this area? Hint: Use the chemical formulas of these minerals in Table 2.7
and the periodic table in Table 2.6.
Andrew Macfarlane
Mining of Minerals and the Environment
Figure 2.12
Acid Mine Drainage

Water draining from the Mancita mine in Peru contains acid
resulting from oxidation of the sulde minerals galena, sphalerite,
pyrite, and chalcopyrite. Veins were mined to obtain lead, zinc,
copper, and silver from deposits associated with shallow intrusions
of magma. The orange color comes from very ne iron oxide
particles suspended in the acidic water. Other metal contaminants
in the water may include lead, zinc, copper, antimony, arsenic, and
manganese.
minerals listed above are present in the water and soil

of the area. Downstream, the creek flows into a local
reservoir used as a municipal water supply.
Chalcopyrite ____________________________
Galena ________________________________
Sphalerite ______________________________
Cinnabar (HgS) _________________________
23. What problems might arise as a consequence

of acid mine drainage and toxic metal
contamination in local streams?
Champion Creek, Oregon, is currently a site of

mine reclamation where environmental engineers are
dealing with mine waste problems, which have led to
contamination. High levels of all the metals from the
44
Lab 2

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2

To learn the definition of a mineral

To become familiar with the physical

To develop a logical and systematic

he importance of minerals in geology and other

1. Look at an aggregate of several crystals in

a. Describe the shape of the individual

2. Examine additional samples showing a

Desert rose (tabular rosette)

Diane Pirie and Claudia Owen

Mineral Aggregate Habits

Figure 2.2, but for aggregates you should

3. The aggregate habit of the pink mineral,

__________). Nonmetallic lusters include

of plastic __________), adamantine (garnet,

gem-like shine __________), greasy (com-

leather __________), resinous (sulfur, shines

mon opal __________), waxy (shines as wax

5. Examine labeled samples of a mineral with

Mohs Scale of Hardness

Note: Hardness may vary in some minerals (1/2 to 2 points) from

Two cleavages not at 90

in Figure 2.9f on page 28. Notice that even though one

Three cleavages not at 90

Broken Surfaces of Minerals

and halite both have three cleavage planes at 90 to each

oblique (90; in this case 56 and 124) for hornblende

Cleavage and Fracture

Fracture If the broken surfaces of a mineral are irregular

Cleavage Describe the Cleavage

Fracture Describe the Fracture

Conchoidal: A smooth, curved surface that looks like

7. Examine the two samples provided for this

6. Examine the samples with unknown fracture

Density (Specic Gravity)

8. Examine and heft the samples provided.

Magnetism The mineral is attracted to a magnet.

Strategy for Mineral Identication

(b) Almandine garnet: Left: a trapezohedral single

(c) Augite (pyroxene): a fragment showing two

(a) Olivine: an aggregate of grains showing the typical

Minerals generally have no fingerprint, or single property

may even ask you to identify a few minerals you have

(e) Biotite mica (black) has splendent luster and one

(f) Muscovite mica: Top surface has pearly luster; bottom

(h) Plagioclase feldspar of different chemical

(i) Kaolin: an extremely ne-grained aggregate showing

(g) Potassium feldspar (orthoclase or microcline)

(j) Quartz: hexagonal colorless quartz crystals:

(k) milky quartz

(m) smoky quartz beads

(m) smoky quartz crystal

(kt) Varieties of quartz.

(b) Gypsum: common habits. Top: massive aggregate,

(a) Calcite: a broken fragment showing three cleavages at an

(d) Pyrite: three samples showing brassy color and metallic

(c) Galenalead ore: a fragment with three cleavages at 90

(e) Magnetiteiron ore: granular aggregate, strongly

(f) Hematiteiron ore. Left: oolitic hematitean aggregate