UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SABAH

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAMME
(HK03)

LAB MANUAL
Semester

Laboratory
WORKSHOP BLOCK E
MAKMAL SAINS HABA 2 BLOCK C

Lecturer
Dr. S.M. Anisuzzaman

Lab. Assistants
Mr. Razis
Mr. Muhd Ruslan
Mr. Saiyful
 Table of Contents

No. Titles Pages

1.0 Laboratory safety 3
2.0 Report Writing Guidelines 6
Experiments
FM Flow measurement using venture meter 8
1
FM Friction losses in straight pipes 14
2
FM Pressure drop across valves 26
3
FM Centrifugal pump characteristics 32
4
FM Determination of coefficient of orifice meter 44
5

2
1.0 Laboratory Safety in General

These guidelines are meant for safety awareness in the laboratory.

However, specialized laboratory may require specific safety rules. Good
management of laboratory is important to protect laboratory personnel/users
against hazards at work.

1.1Laboratory Safety Awareness

Everyone is responsible for his or her own safety and the safety of
others while working in the laboratory.
Before working with a chemical, assessment must be made of its
hazards and risk.
Be familiar with appropriate protection measure when you are
working with the following:
Flammable substances
Corrosive and toxic chemicals
Biohazards
Radioactive materials
Compresses gases

Laboratory should be adequately ventilated.

Chemical storage areas should be cool, dry, well ventilated and

away from sunlight.
Eating, drinking, and smoking are strictly prohibited in laboratories,
as well as stores and workshops.

1.2Personal Protection
Laboratory coat, safety goggles and gloves (if needed) should be
worn all the time in the laboratory.
Always assure that you wash your hands before leaving the
laboratory.
Short skirts, shorts and open-toed shoes/sandals should not be
worn in the laboratory to avoid skin exposure.

3
1.3Fire Hazards and Hazardous Chemicals
Always store flammable liquids in appropriate safety cabinets/cans.

Do not store incompatible reagents together, e.g. flammables and

acids. Segregate acids and bases, and corrosive materials from
organic and flammable materials.
Wear appropriate protective equipment such as laboratory coat,
apron, gloves and eye protection gear when you are working with
flammable, corrosive and toxic chemicals.
Ensure that no ignition sources present nearby while working with
flammable chemicals.
All electrical cords should always be in good condition. Electrical
outlets should be grounded.
Do not store ethers for long periods to avoid formation explosive
peroxides.
Corrosive chemicals can burn and irritate tissue. If inhaled or
ingested, it may affect lung and stomach tissue.
Avoid mixing oxidizing chemicals with other chemicals during
disposal.
Careful when dealing with carcinogens (cancer causing agent).
Suspected carcinogens (please check for a full list): chloroform,
benzidine, benzene, methylchloromethyl ether, vinyl chloride,
acrylonitrile, formaldehyde, etc.
Never use lubricants on valve regulators of compressed gases.

1.4Laboratory Housekeeping
All equipment should be inspected carefully before used.

Equipment and work bench must be cleaned after use.

Use non-chromate cleaning solution if possible. Make sure cleaning

is done in the fume hood if sulphuric acid glass cleaner is used.

4
 Keep laboratory floor dry at all times. Any spills must be
immediately attended to.

1.5After Hours/Long Hours Experiment

Avoid experimental work in an unoccupied space/building if
possible.
Always place a note should any unattended experiments must be
carried out, stating the experiment, name of researcher/student
and contact number.
Always check that flames and compressed gas supplies are shut off
when not in use and end of day.

1.6Emergency Procedures
All laboratory personnel/users must be familiar with the location
and uses of the safety devices in and around the laboratory, for
example:
Safety shower
Fume hood
Fire extinguisher
First aid kit
Eye wash station
Fire alarm

Contact the laboratory personnel or University safety officer

immediately when emergency happens.
Upon ingestion of chemicals, if victim is awake, give water. If
nauseated, do not give fluids. If unconscious, CPR might be needed.
Upon inhalation of hazardous chemicals, move the victiom out for
fresh air. Perform artificial respiration if victim is not breathing.
For chemical spills: (i) acid spills apply neutralizer or add water if
necessary and check mixture with indicator for neutralization; (ii)
solvent spills apply activated charcoal and mix thoroughly until

5
material is dry. Transfer mixture into plastic bag, tie up and label,
place in fume hood. Contact laboratory personnel for disposal.

6
2.0 Report Writing Guidelines
Your laboratory report should contain the followings:

Cover page
Name & Matric number of the student
Name of experiment
Date of experiment
Group number

1.0 Introduction (limit to 3 pages max)

Objective of the experiment
Background material existing findings and theories relevant to your
study
Description of specialized equipment
Justification of experiments importance

2.0 Methodology
Equipment, apparatus and material
Procedure
Describe the process in chronological order explain all steps in
the order they actually happened, not as they were supposed to
happen

3.0 Result
Result
Clear/concise summary of the collected data
Reports of data and their analysis
Table & Figure
Should all be titled
Label clearly
Include some explanatory text describing what data appears in
the table

7
 Observation

4.0 Discussion
Interpret the results of the experiment and discuss their meaning
Your discussion relates the results to the issues raised in the
introduction
Compare expected results with those obtained
Explain your results in terms of theoretical issues
Relate results to your experiment objective
Analyze any experimental error

5.0 Conclusion
Answer the problem stated in the title and introduction
Base your conclusion on your results

Reference
Laboratory manual
Any outside reading

Appendices
Raw data, calculation, graph, picture/figure, table that have not been
included in the report (make sure you refer to each appendices at least
once in your report)

Report format: Font Tahoma 11, 1.5 spacing.

8
 FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 1

FLOW MEASUREMENT USING VENTURI METER

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Venturi meter is used to measure the fluid flow rate by reducing

the cross sectional area in the flow path, generating a pressure
difference. It makes use of Bernoullis Principle, a restatement of the
law of Conservation of Energy as applied to the fluid flow.
In this experiment, the Cussons P6227 Venturi Meter is used in
conjunction with the Inlet Head Tank P6103 and the P6104 Variable
Head Outlet Tank. The P6106 manometer board is required for pressure
measurement. The Feedback P6105 may be used instead of the inlet
head tank to increase the flow range.
The venturi, which is manufactured from transparent acrylic
material, follows the classic 21 - 10 convergent-divergent design
which forms the basis of most engineering standards for venturi flow
meters. The P6227 complies with the British Standard BS1042 for flow
measurement. The dimensions of the Venturi Meter are shown in Figure
1.1. The upstream and throat pressure tappings are used for flow
measurement whilst the downstream tappings allows an assessment of
the pressure recovery to be made. The throat diameter is 10mm and
the upstream and downstream pipe diameters are both 21mm.

Figure1.1 Dimensions of Cussons P6227 Venturi meter.

1.1 THEORIES AND EXPLANATION

D1 D2

P1 P2

Figure1.2 Diameters and differential pressure across venturi meter at section

1 & 2.

9
 Refer to Figure 1.2, from consideration of continuity between the
mouth of the venture at section 1 and the throat at section 2:

AV A V
Q 1 1 2 2 (1.1)

and on the introducing the diameter ratio = D 2 / D1, then

A2 V
2 1
A1 V2 (1.2)

Applying Bernoullis theorem to the venture meter between

section1 and section2, neglecting losses and assuming the venturi is
installed horizontally
P1 V12 P V2
2 2
g 2g g 2g (1.3)

Rearranging,
P1 P2 V 2 V12
H 2
g g (1.4)

and solving for V2,

2( P1 P2 ) 2g H
V2
V1 2
1 4
1 2 (1.5)
V2

(1.6)

The volumetric flow rate is then given by

AV A 2g H
Q 2 2 2
1 4 (1.7)

The actual discharge will be less than this due to losses causing
the velocity through the throat to be less than that predicted by
Bernoullis Theorem, therefore it is necessary to introduce an

10
 experimentally determined coefficient of discharge C d. The actual
discharge will then be given by:

C A 2g H
Q d 2
1 4 (1.8)

where (1.9)
The coefficient of discharge varies with both the Reynolds
number and area ratio. Typically values for a machined venturi meter
are between 0.975 and 0.995.

The pressure loss across the venture meter is less than the
pressure difference measured between the mouth and the throat due
to the pressure recovery which occurs in the divergence as the kinetic
energy is reduced.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

1. To calculate the coefficient of discharge from experimental data for

a venturi meter.
2. To investigate the measurement of volumetric flowrate using a
venturi meter.

1.3 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Inlet P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow

pipe extension fitted.

Test Section Cussons P6227 Venturi meter

Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank

Manometer Two of the single manometer tubes.

1.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Set up the apparatus as per instructions in Operation Chapter.

2. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section.
3. Ensure that any air bubbles are bled from the manometer tubes.
4. Next, raise the water flow rate until 1 m3/hr.
5. Wait until the water level in the inlet and outlet of manometer
stabilized.
6. Record the reading for the inlet and outlet.
7. Repeat step 3-6 for flow rate of 0.9, 0.8, 0.7 until 0.1 m 3/hr.

1.5 RESULTS SHEET

11
 Diameter of venturi mouth = ______ mm
Diameter of venturi throat = ______ mm

Manometer Manometer
Flowrat
Inlet (cm) Outlet (cm) Sampl Time
e
1 2 3 Averag 1 2 3 Averag e (L) (s)
(L/min)
e e
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11

OBSERVATIONS:

1.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. Calculate volumetric flow rate for each result.
3. Plot graph of flow rate against the square root of the head and draw
the best straight line from the origin through the results. Calculate
the slope and determine the coefficient of discharge for the venturi
meter.

12
Quantities of water
collected, Q (L)
Time to collect
water, t (s)
Volume flow rate,
Q (L/min)
Inlet head, H1 (m)
Outlet head, H2
(m)
Venturi differential
head, H (H1-H2)
(m)
Venturi differential
head, (H)1/2
Area of venturi
throat, A2 (m2)(10-
4
)
Velocity at venturi
throat, V2 (m/s)
Q, volumetric flow
rate (A2V2)
Actual discharge,
Cd

13
 FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 2

FRICTION LOSSES IN STRAIGHT PIPES

2.0 INTRODUCTION

The pressure loss along a pipe is caused by friction and changes

in velocity or direction of flow. In order to find the friction loss in pipes,
the fluid friction measurements apparatus are specially designed to
allow the detailed study of the fluid friction head losses which occur,
when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, bends, valves and
other pipe flow metering devices. Friction head losses in straight pipes
of different sizes can be investigated over a range of Reynolds Number.
The friction factors depend on the Reynolds number of the flow and the
pipe relative roughness.
Cussons P6220 Laminar Flow Apparatus used in this experiment
consists of a tubular test section of 3 mm internal bore and 508mm
long, including a 13 mm bell nose entry, which is supported inside a
protective outer 25 mm tube and is terminated at each end in bushed
unions. Besides that, two test sections of Cussons P6221 Losses In
Pipes and Fittings Apparatus are used in this experiment, i.e. the 7 mm
nominal bore pipe and the 10 mm nominal bore pipe with two static
pressure tappings 360 mm apart, each 464 mm long. It is intended that
the test section should be mounted between the P6103 Constant Head
Inlet Tank and theP6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank. The P6106
Manometer Board is used to measure the head loss across the tubular
test section.

2.1 THEORIES AND EXPLANATION

2.1.1 Flow in pipes

If fluid flows down a pipe at low velocities it is found that

individual fluid particles follow flow paths which are parallel but those
particles nearer the centre of the pipe move faster than those near the
wall. This type of flow is known as laminar flow or stream line flow. At
much higher velocities it is found that secondary irregular motions are
superimposed on the movement of the particles and a significant
amount of mixing takes place, the flow is said to be turbulent.
Osbourne Reynolds investigated these two different types of flow and
concluded that the parameters which were involved in the flow
characteristics were:

The density of the fluid Kg m-3

V The velocity of the fluid m s-1
D Internal diameter of pipe m
The absolute viscosity of the Ns m-2

14
 fluid

Reynolds was able to show that the character of the flow could
be described with the aid of a dimensionless parameter, which is now
known as Reynolds number,
VD
Re = (2.1)

Fluid motion was found to be laminar for the values of Re below

2000 and turbulent for value Re greater than 4000. Different laws of
fluid resistance apply to laminar and turbulent flows.
For laminar flow it is found that the pressure drop or head loss is
proportional to velocity and that this can be represented by Poiseuilles
equation for the hydraulic gradient

hf 32 V (2.2)
i
L gD 2

For turbulent flow the relationship between head loss and

velocity is exponential
h f Vn (2.3)

and although there is no simple equation for turbulent flow it is

accepted engineering practice to use an empirical relationship for the
hydraulic gradient which is attributed to Darcy and Weisbach

hf 4 fV 2
i= (2.4)
L D2 g

where f is an exponentially determined friction factor which varies with

both Reynolds number and the internal roughness of the pipe. A
different friction factor may be used which is four times larger than the
friction factor in the Darcy-Weisbach formula.

2.1.2 Newtons Law of Viscosity

When a layer of fluid is moved laterally relative to an adjacent

layer, a force is set up within the fluid which is in opposition to the
shearing action. This internal resistance known as the absolute
viscosity of the fluid is caused by molecular adhesion and acts along
the common boundary of the fluid layers. In the SI system absolute
viscosity is defined as the force in Newton which would produce unit
velocity in a plate of unit area at unit distance from a parallel
stationary plate, that is

V
(2.5)
y

15
 The unit of viscosity is in the cgs system is the poise .
A measure of the fluidity of a substance is the kinematics
viscosity whch is defined as:-

(2.6)

i.e. =
(2.7)

2.1.3 Laminar Flow in a Circular Pipe

Consider the flow of fluid in a concentric in a circular pipe as

shown in figure. Let the pressure drop due to fluid friction over a pipe
length L be P.

Fig 2.1Streamtube in a Circular Pipe

The force exerted by the differential pressure on the fluid

contained in the stream tube in the direction of the flow is given by

P d2 / 4 (2.8)

Opposing this force is a shear force created by the viscous

resistance to flow which is proportional to the shear stress and the
wetted area of the streamtube
dL (2.9)

For dynamic equilibrium these two forces must balance

P d2 / 4 = dL
(2.10)

P d (2.11)

L 4

At the wall of the pipe where d = D the shear stress 0 is

16
 P d
0
L 4 (2.12)

And substitute for P / L back into the equation gives

0
cons tan t
d D

(2.13)

From which it follows that the shear stress varies linearly from
zero at the centre to a maximum at the pipe wall.
The shear stress is related to velocity by Newtons law of
viscosity

V

r (2.14)

Equating these two expressions for shear stress

V P d

r L 4 (2.15)

Replacing d by 2r
rr P
V
2 L (2.16)

Investigating from the pipe centre (r = 0) to the pipe wall (r = R

and V = 0) yields
R 2 r 2 P
V
4 L (2.17)

The velocity distribution is therefore parabolic with maximum

velocity at the centre of the pipe
R 2 P
Vmax
4 L
D 2 P

16 L

(2.18)

And the mean velocity is half of the maximum velocity

D 2 P
Vmean
32 L (2.19)

Rearranging,

17
 32LV mean
P
D2 (2.20)

Expressing the pressure loss as a head due to friction, H f over

the pipe length l:
32 LV mean
f
gD 2 (2.21)

hf
The head loss per unit length of pipe which is known as the
L
hydraulic gradient, symbol i, is then given by

hf 32 Vmean
i
L gD 2
(2.22)

which is known as Poiseuilles equation for laminar flow. Note that V is

now taken to signify the mean velocity.

2.1.4 Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipes

The velocity distribution of turbulent flow across pipe is more

uniform than the parabolic velocity distribution of laminar flow.
Consider a section of pipe length L over which the pressure drop is
P, as shown in figure 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Turbulent Flow in Circular Pipe

The forces acting on the cylinder of fluid are the pressure forces
producing the flow and the opposing shear forces caused by frictional
resistance at the wall.
LD PD 2 / 4
(2.23)
PD
(2.24)
L4

18
 Now accepting that the shear stress is proportional to the square
of the mean velocity
V2 (2.25)
then, KV 2

(2.26)
where K is a constant.

Equating these two expressions for shear stress

P D
. KV 2
L 4
(2.27)

4 KLV 2
P (2.28)
D

Expressing the pressure loss as a head loss due to friction, h f

4 KLV 2
hf =
gD

= 4 fL V
2

D 2g

(2.29)
where f = 2 K is the Darcy friction factor.
The alternative definition of friction factor is often shown as f (f
dash) and the head loss equation is then written as

2
hf = f ' L V
D 2g

(2.30)

2.1.5 Reynolds number

When Reynolds plotted the results of his investigation of how the

energy head loss varied with the velocity of flow, he obtained two
distinct regions separated by a transition zone.
In the laminar region the hydraulic gradient is directly
proportional to the mean velocity. In the turbulent flow region the
hydraulic gradient is proportional to the mean velocity raised to some
power n value of n being influenced b the roughness of the pipe wall.

i V1.7 For smooth pipe

i V2 For very rough pipe
i V1.7 to 2 In the transition region

19
2.1.6 Friction factors

The head loss due to friction for both laminar and turbulent flow
can be presicted by the Darcy Weisbatch equation

32 V
i
gD 2 (2.31)

By multiplying top and bottom by V and rearranging

4 16 V 2 64 V 2
i or i
VD 2 g VD 2 g

(2.32)
4f V2 f 'V 2
i or i
D 2g D 2g (2.33)
16 16 64 64
where f or f '
VD Re VD Re (2.34)

Care has to be used due to these two different definitions of the

friction factor, which are both in equally common use, and therefore in
choosing the appropriate relationship between the friction factor and
the head loss. When using graph of friction factor against Reynolds
number always check the relationship for laminar flow as a mean of
distinguishing between the two.
16 4 fLV 2
If f then use hf
Re D2g (2.35)
64 f ' LV 2
If f ' then use hf
Re D2 g (2.36)

For turbulent flow the friction factor is a function of Reynolds

number, the relative roughness of the pipe wall / D . For highly
turbulent flows the friction factor became independent of the Reynolds
number in a flow regime known as fullydeveloped turbulent flow. The
most widely accepted data for friction factors for use with the Darley
Weisback formula is that produced by Professor L.F.Moody.
Selection of pipe size for a pipe to carry a given flow rate, which
is a very common exercise, is made easier if the relationship between
the head loss and pipe diameter is known for specific case of constant
flow rate.
For a given flow rate, the mean velocity In the pipe is given by:

D 2 hence 4Q
Q V V
4 D 2 (2.37)

20
 Substituting for V into Poiseuilles equation for laminar flow

2
hf 4 fV 2 4 f 4Q hence i 1
i
L D 2 g D 2 g D 2 D4 (2.38)

And using the Darcy-Weisbach equation for turbulent flow

2
hf4 fV 2 4 f 4Q hence i 1
i
L D2 g D 2 g D 2 D5 (2.39)

The head loss is therefore inversely proportional to the diameter

of the pipe raise to the forth power for laminar flow and inversely
proportional to the fifth power for turbulent flow.

2.2 OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate the pressure loss due to friction in a pipe.

2. To compare the relationship between the friction factor and
Reynolds number with empirical data.

2.3 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Inlet Initially P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow

pipe extension fitted.

Test P6221 Losses in Pipe 7 mm and 10 mm test section.

Section
Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank.

Manometer Two of the single manometer tubes.

Assembly Ensure the bell mouthed entry end of the P6220 test
section is at the left hand end and that is correctly
inserted into the inlet tank. Ensure that the P6221 7
mm bore test section is installed the correct way
round with the conical inlet at the left hand end.

2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Start the pump and establish a water flow through the test section.
Raise the swivel tube of the outlet tank so that it is close to the
vertical.

21
 2. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump speed) to provide a
small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that
any air bubbles are bled from the manometer tubes.

3. Set up a serial of flow conditions with differential heads starting at

25mm in steps of 25mm up to 150mm and thereafter in steps
50mm up to a maximum of 500mm. At each condition carefully
measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop watch.

4. Measure the water temperature.

5. Report the test with the other test sections.

2.5 RESULTS SHEET

1. Test Section Diameter ..mm

Water Temperature C
Constant Head Inlet Tank .mm

Variable Head
Outlet Tank
Quantity of water
Collected, Q
(Litres)
Time to Collect
Water, t (sec)
Inlet Head,
H1 (mm)
Outlet Head
H2 (mm)

2. Test Section Diameter ..mm

Water Temperature C
Constant Head Inlet Tank .mm

Variable Head
Outlet Tank
Quantity of water
Collected, Q
(Litres)
Time to Collect
Water, t (sec)
Inlet Head,
H1 (mm)
Outlet Head
H2 (mm)

22
 OBSERVATIONS:

2.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS:

1. Record the results on a copy of the results sheet.

2. Determine the water density and viscosity from Annex 1 of Part 1 of
the manual.
3. For each result calculate the mean velocity and hence the Reynolds
number and friction factor .
4. Plot a graph of log hf against log V, draw a straight line through
the results and measure its slope to express the relationship
between hf and V in the from hf Vn .
5. On a photocopy of the graph on pages 3 15 plot the points of
friction factor against Reynolds number.
6. From the graph of fraction factor against Reynolds number on page
3 -15 determine the empirical friction factor using the Reynolds
number for each result and assuming a pipe roughness of
0.0015mm.

1. Test Section Diameter:mm

Water Temperature:.. C
Density:.. kg/m2
Viscosity:.cP

Quantity of Water
Collected, Q (litre)
Time to Collect
Water, t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate, Q
(litres/min)
Mean Velocity, V
(m/sec)
Loge V
Reynolds Number, Re
Loge Re
Inlet Head, H1 (mm)
Outlet Head, H2 (mm)
Friction Head Loss, hf
(mm) (H1-H2)
Loge hf
Friction Factor, f
Loge f

2. Test Section Diameter:mm

Water Temperature:.. C

23
 Density:.. kg/m2
Viscosity:.cP

Quantity of Water
Collected, Q (litre)
Time to Collect
Water, t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate, Q
(litres/min)
Mean Velocity, V
(m/sec)
Loge V
Reynolds Number, Re
Loge Re
Inlet Head, H1 (mm)
Outlet Head, H2 (mm)
Friction Head Loss, hf
(mm) (H1-H2)
Loge hf
Friction Factor, f
Loge f

24
APPENDIX

Figure 2.3 The Stanton Diagram/Moody Chart

25
 FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 3

PRESSURE DROP ACROSS VALVES

3.0 INTRODUCTION

Pressure drop is a critical element in valve sizing and valve

selection. The most critical factors to determine the pressure drop are
the orifice size and internal flow path.
There are various types of valves which can be used to control
the fluid flow. However, different types of valves have their own flow
characteristics. The flow characteristics and flow rate are influenced by
the degree of valve opening. The design of piping and pumping
systems for chemical, pharmaceutical and food processing industries
requires knowledge of the pressure drop due to flow in straight pipe
segments and through valves and fittings. Presence of valves and
fittings will cause friction losses. These usually result from disturbances
of the flow, which is forced to change direction abruptly to overcome
path obstructions and to adapt itself to sudden changes in the cross
section or shape of the duct.
Valves fall into two broad types, linear and rotary. In a linear
valve such as a globe valve the disk lifts from the seat. The disk rotates
in the seat of a rotary valve such as a ball valve. In this experiment,
Cussons P6221 Test Section with ball valve is used to determine the
pressure drop. In general, ball valve has a spherical ball with a
horizontal bore. The ball valve utilizes the same concept as the plug
valve and is sometimes referred to as the spherical plug valve or ball
plug valve.

3.1 THEORIES AND EXPLANATION

3.1.1 Pressure Loss Across Valves and Valve Characteristics

The pressure drop across a valve is dependent on the type and

construction of the valve, its size and the degree of valve opening.
Different types of valves which may have the same flow capacity when
fully open may exhibit very different characteristics. Industrial practice,
particularly in connection with control valves, is to state both the valve
capacity and the flow-opening characteristics of the valve in terms of a
flow coefficient. In the UK and the USA the flow coefficient is known as
Cv whilst in continental Europe a different flow coefficient, kv is
commonly used. The flow coefficients are all defined as the flow rate
which will pass through the valve when unit pressure differential is
applied across the valve. The various units which are used for flow
coefficients are shown in the table.

Flow Coefficient Flow Quantity Pressure Drop

Cv(UK) Imperial Gallons / min Pound / inch2

26
 Cv (USA) US Gallons / min Pound / inch2
kv (Europe) Cubic meters / hour Kg / cm2

The flow through a valve in terms of the flow coefficient for a

pressure drop P across the valve is given by

P
Q CV (3.1)
S

where S is the specific gravity. Rearranging:

SQ 2
P (3.2)
C v2

and expressing the pressure loss as a head of fluid

SQ 2
hv (3.3)
gC v2

and assuming that the specific gravity is 1.0 then

Q2 A 2V 2
hv (3.4)
gC v2 gC v2

Now introducing a valve loss coefficient, Kv which should not be

confused with the European form of the valve flow coefficient, k v.

V2
hv K v (3.5)
2g

Equating these two expressions for the valve head loss yields:

1
K v (3.6)
C v2

that is the valve loss coefficient Kv is inversely proportional to the

square of the flow coefficient.

Valve flow characteristics are normally presented as tables or

graphs of valve flow coefficient against percentage valve opening.
There are two particular valve characteristics which are important.

a) Linear in which Cv .

b) Equal Percentage in which Cv 2. The importance of

equal percentage valve is that for any given opening, any

27
 proportional increase in valve opening causes the same
proportional increase in flow providing the pressure across
the valve remains constant. For example, if a valve has a
Cv of 64 at 80% opening and an equal percentage
characteristic, then at 40% opening the C v will be 64 x
(40/80)2 = 16. If the valve opening is changed from 40%
to 41%, the Cv valve will increase from 16 to 16(41/40) 2 =
16.81, that is a 5.0625% increase. If the valve opening at
80% is increased to 82% the C v value will increase from 64
to 64(82/80)2 = 67.24, that is a 5.0625% increase in flow.

c) Quick Acting in which a large increase in flow capacity is

achieved for a small initial opening of the valve.

Figure 3.1 Relationship graph between flow coefficient and % of valve

opening

3.2 OBJECTIVE

To investigate the pressure drop across valves and the flow

characteristics of valves.

28
3.3 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Inlet P6103 Constant Head Inlet Tank with overflow pipe

extension fitted
Test Section P6221 Test Section with ball valve
Outlet P6104 Variable Head Outlet Tank
Manometer Two of the single manometer tubes
Assembly Ensure the test sections are installed the correct
way round

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Before starting the pump, operate the valve through its full range of
movement and establish, using a protractor for the ball valve, a
datum position and means of measuring the degree of valve
opening.

2. Fully open the valve in the test section. Start the pump and
establish a water flow through the test section. Raise the swivel
tube of the outlet tank so that it is close the vertical.

3. Adjust the bench regulating valve (or pump speed) to provide a

small overflow from the inlet tank and overflow pipe. Ensure that
any air bubbles are bled from the manometer tubes.

4. Set up a flow condition with a differential head of 50mm. Carefully

measure the flow rate using the volumetric tank and a stop watch.

5. Carefully close the valve in small but measurable increments, until

the valve is fully closed. Record the valve position and measure the
flow rate at each valve position.

6. Measure the water temperature.

3.5 RESULTS SHEET

Water Temperature . C
Density .kg/m2
Viscosity .. cP
Test Section Diameter mm

29
 Quantity of water
Collected, Q
(litres)
Time to Collect
Water, t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate,
Q (litres/min)
Mean Velocity,
V (m/sec)
Velocity Head,
V 2 /2g (m)
Inlet Head,
h 1 (mm)
Outlet Head,
h 2 (mm)
Pipe Friction Loss,
h P (mm)
Valve Friction Loss,
h V (m)
Valve Pressure
Loss,
P (Pa)
Valve Flow
Coefficient,
C V (gpm/psi1/2)
Valve Opening,
degrees ()
Valve Opening, t
Percent (%)

OBSERVATION:

3.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

1. Record the results on a copy of the result sheet.

2. Determine the water density and viscosity from Annex 1 of Part 1 of

the manual.

3. Calculate the velocity and hence the velocity head for each result.

4. From the results for the 10mm pipe used in experiment 2, or by

analysis, calculate the head loss h P for a 360 mm straight length of
tube of the same diameter as the test section. If using results from

30
 experiment 2 then correct the results for any difference in the
diameter of the two test sections (P 1/D5).

5. Calculate the pressure loss across the valve and determine the
valve flow coefficient for each result, convert the flow coefficient to
a percentage of the flow coefficient for the fully open valve.

6. Plot a graph of flow coefficient against valve opening for ball valve.

31
 FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 4

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS

4.0 INTRODUCTION

A simplest form centrifugal pump consists of an impeller rotating

within a casing and some form of housing with a central inlet and a
peripheral outlet. It raises the pressure of a liquid by giving it a high
kinetic energy. The kinetic energy is then converted to injection work
(pressure).
In this experiment, single centrifugal pump is used for
discharging water into the weir channel. The pump characteristics can
be studied through the total head-discharge characteristic, hydraulic
power and the efficiency of a centrifugal pump. Determining the most
efficient pump is vital in order to minimize energy consumption, as well
as to minimize cost and energy consumption.

4.1 THEORIES AND EXPLANATION

4.1.1 Pressure and Head

4.1.1.1 Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric presure is the ratio between the weight of the

atmosphere per unit area on the earth surface. There are several base
for measuring pressure as per below

Gauge pressure

Absolute
pressure
Vacuum

Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure)
( Barometer

Absolute zero

Figure 4.1 Bases for measuring pressure

32
 Zero atmospheric pressure is the pressure at which air is
removed creates at vacuum. This pressure is called ABSOLUTE ZERO.
Any pressure measured on these bases is called ABSOLUTE PRESSURE.
Thus one atmospheric pressure is equal to 101.325 kilo Newton per
square meter (kN/m2) or 14.7 pound per square inch. Since barometer
is used to measure atmospheric pressure, this pressure is often
referred to as Barometer pressure, Pb.
Generally pressure measuring device measure pressure
difference from that of atmospheric. The resulting pressure is called
Gauge pressure, Pg which can be positive or negative value. Thus,

Absolute pressure = Barometer Pressure + Gauge Pressure

Pabs = Pb + Pa (4.1)

The atmospheric pressure or barometer pressure can be

indicated by

Pb = 1013 0.1055EL (4.2)

where Pb is the atmospheric pressure in milibar

One milibar equal 0.0145 pound per square inch or equal to
water column at 4oC of 0.010197m.
EL is the elevation of above mean seas level for the point to be
measured.
In pump installation calculations, the atmospheric pressure
may be equated to a water column height as:

Hp = 10.33 0.0018EL (4.3)

Hp is the atmospheric pressure expressed at height of water

column at 4oC in meter.

4.1.1.2 Pressure Head, (Hp)

Instead of normal pressure unit of force per area such as

Newton per square meter (N/m2) or pound per square inch (PSI) liquid
pressure is often indicated as height of column creating pressure on
the column supporting surface. This height of liquid column is call
Pressure Head.

Thus Hp = P/ = P/g (4.4)

where = specific weight

= Liquid density
g = Acceleration due to gravity
Hp = P(N/m2) (kg/9.81N) (m3/ kg)
= (P/ ) m

33
4.1.1.3 Velocity Head, (Hv)

Any liquid moving in a pipe or open channel has a velocity,

hence kinetic energy. This energy may be expressed as head of liquid
velocity.
Hv = V2/ 2g (4.5)

where V = Liquid velocity

Hv = (V2 )m2/s2 (1/2g) s2/m
= (V2/2g) m

Velocity head may be defined as a height from which liquid

may fall due to gravity and attains a velocity equal to the velocity of
fluid flow.

4.1.1.4 Static Head,(Hs)

In the pump operation, energy is added to the liquid when it

flows from one point to another at higher elevation. Pressure which
may be expressed as liquid column at the pump suction and discharge
where is no fluid flow is called static head.

Figure 4.2 Static Head

Height of liquid column above pump centerline on the

discharge side of the pump is called Static Discharge Head.
Height of liquid column above pump centerline (figure b) on the
pump suction is called Static Suction Head. If the liquid level on the
pump suction side is lower than centerline, then height is called Static
Suction Head.
Total Static Head is the algebraic difference between Static
Discharge Head and Static Suction Head. This total Static Head is the

34
minimum head that pump must exert to the fluid before any flow
occurs.

4.1.1.5 Friction Head, (Hf)

When liquid flows from one point to the next suction side of the
pump to discharge side, there is a small head loss due to fricton-
between liquid and passage wall. This is called Friction Head.

Figure 4.3 Friction Head

The values of the above losses depend on the flow. The higher
the flow rate, the higher the loss. Therefore, during pump operation the
Actual Total Suction Head to Static Suction Lift plus Friction Head from
1 to 5. If the liquid level on the suction side is higher than centerline of
the pump Total Suction Head equal Static Suction Head minus Total
Friction on the suction side.
Similarly, on the discharge side, the sum of all friction losses
from 6 to 9 is the Total Friction Head on the discharge side. The Total
Discharge Head thus equal Static Head plus Friction Head on the
discharge side.

35
4.1.1.6 Total Head of Fluid,(HT)

Total head at any point of the liquid is the sum of all heads at
point.

Total Head = Pressure Head + Velocity Head + Static Head

HT = H p + H v + H s
= P/ + V2/2g + Z (4.6)

In case no energy is taken in or out of the 2 points, the

difference between HT is Friction Head.

Friction Head between Point 1 and 2

Hf12 = HT1 HT2 = P1/ P2/ + V12/2g V22/2g + Z1 Z2 (4.7)

In the case of a pump, an energy is exerted to the fluid

between 1 and 2. The difference between HT 2 and HT1 is the pump total
head or Total Dynamic Head (HTD).

HTD = HT1 HT2 = ( P2 P1)/ + (V22 V12)/2g + (Z2-Z1) (4.8)

If friction is considered,
HTD = HT1 HT2 + Hf12
=( P2 P1)/ + (V22 V12)/2g + (Z2-Z1) + Hf12 (4.9)

4.1.2 Power and Pump Efficiency.

Power is the amount of work done per unit time. This unit may
be in Watts (N-m/s). One Horse Power equal 745.7 Watts or 550ft-lb/s.
In pump operation, we consider 2 types of power.

4.1.2.1 Power output of Pump (Wo)

This is power that pump delivers to the liquid and often referred
to has Hydraulic Power or Water Power. Hydraulic Power depend on the
rate of flow (Q) and head (HTD) or pressure (P).

Wo QP or QHTD (4.10)
If Wo is the liquid power in Watts
Q is the Flow rate in lt/min
P is the pressure in kg/cm 2

L 1 min 1m 3 kg f 10 4 cm 2 9.81N
W0 Q P
min 60 sec 1000 L cm 2 m2 1kg f
= 1.635 Q P (N- m)/sec

36
 = 1.635 Q P Watts. (4.11)

4.1.2.2 Power Input to the Pump (Wi)

This is the power that is delivered to the pump by mover such

as motor or engine so that the pump can deliver power to the liquid.
This input power can be measured by a dynamometer.

Wi = Fr 2n (4.12)

where Wi = Power Input Watts

F = Dynamometer turning force kg
R = Dynamometer arm length m
n = Prime mover speed rpm

rev rad (dim ensionless ) 9.81N 1 min

Thus Wi Fkg f rm n 2
min rev 1kg f 60 sec
= 1.0277Fm (N-m)/sec
= 1.0277Fm Watts (4.13)

Increase of dynamometer torque (T=Fr) is measured directly by

an indicator to read in N-m

rev rad (dim ensionless) 1 min

Wi TN m n 2
min rev 60 sec
= 0.10476 Tn (N-m)/sec
= 0.10476 Tn Watts (4.14)

Input power to the (and also to the inverter) can be measured

by a wattmeter.

4.1.2.3 Pump Efficiency (P)

Pump efficiency = Power that pump delivers to liquid / Input

power
P = W o / W i (4.15)

Note : If a watt meter is used, the wattmeter will indicated

motor input not pump input, hence the efficiency becomes pump-
meter efficiency not pure efficiency.

4.2 OBJECTIVES

37
 To determine the total head-discharge characteristics, hydraulic power
and efficiency of a centrifugal pump:

i) With constant supply voltage

ii) At constant speed.

4.3 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Pump Single centrifugal pump discharging into the weir

Arrangeme channel. If the Auxilliary Pump P6101 is fitted operate the
nt isolating valves as shown.

Wattmeter Essential for measurement of electrical power input for

pump efficiency test, connect as shown in Figure 3 on
page 1-14.
Pump Not essential for constant supply voltage experiment, but
Speed useful to measure pump speed. Essential for constant
Display speed
Unit tests, connect as show in Figure 3 on page 1-14.

4.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

4.4.1 Constant Supply Voltage

1. Start the pump following the standard starting procedure.

2. During this experiment adjust the pump flow by using the

beach regulating valve.

[Attn: Do not use the variable Speed Control Unit to adjust the
flowrate or to correct any changes in pump speed]

38
 3. Start the test with the regulating valve fully closed. Record
the pump suction and delivery pressures and the pump
speed.

4. Partially open the regulating valve to allow the pump to

produce a discharge flow with a pump discharge pressure
some 5 to 10% less than the initial test figure.

5. Measure the flow rate by either taking the time taken to

collect a suitable volume of water in the measuring tank, or
by using the Rotameter.

6. Record the pump suction pressure, the pump delivery

pressure, the flow rate and the pump speed.

7. Further readings are taken for pump heads at approximately

equal increments of pump discharge pressure until the beach
regulating valve is fully open.

4.4.2 Constant Pump Speed

1. Start the pump following the standard starting procedure.

2. During this experiment adjust the pump flow by using the

bench regulating valve and use the Pump Speed Control Unit
to correct any changes in pump speed, ensuring the correct
pump is selected on the P6102 Pump Speed Display Unit.
This allows the pump speed to be maintained at the required
constant value.

3. Start the test with the regulating valve fully closed and a
pump speed of 60 rev/sec. Record the pump suction and
delivery pressures and the pump speed.

4. Partially open the regulating valve to allow the pump to

produce a discharge flow with a pump discharge pressure
some 10 to 20% less than the initial test figure.

5. Adjust the Pump Speed Control Unit to maintain the pump

speed of 80 rev/sec. Measure the flow rate by either taking
the time taken to collect a suitable volume of water in the
measuring tank, or by using the Rotameter.

6. Record the pump suction pressure, the pump delivery

pressure, the flow rate and the pump speed.

39
 7. Further readings are taken for pump heads at approximately
equal increments of pump discharge pressure until the beach
regulating valve is fully open.

8. Repeat the test for pump speed of 90 rev/sec.

4.5 RESULTS SHEET

Constants Supply Voltage

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)
Time to collect water,
t (sec)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Speed,
(Rev/sec)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)

Constant Speed

i. Constant Supply (80 rev/sec)

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)
Time to collect water,
t (sec)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)

ii. Constant Supply (90 rev/sec)

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)
Time to collect water,

40
 t (sec)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)

OBSERVATION:

4.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

1. Results should be recorded on a copy of the single pump test sheet.

2. If the volumetric measuring tank was used then calculate the

volume flow rate from:
Q = Q/t

Correct the pressure rise measurement across the pump by adding

0.07 bar o allow for the difference of 0.714 m in height between the
measurement point for the pump outlet pressure and the actual
pump outlet connection. Then calculate the manometric head from:

Hm = (P2-P1)/g

Calculate the hydraulic power from:

Wh = g HmQ

And calculate the overall efficiency from:

0 = Wh/Wi

3. Plot the pump characteristics as a single graph of manometric head

against volumetric flow rate for the results of the constant speed
test and the constant voltage test.

4. Plot a graph of hydraulic power and overall efficiency against flow

rate for each set of results. If required this graph can be used for
interpolation to provide values to enable constant hydraulic power
and constant efficiency to be drawn onto the pump characteristics.
Constant Supply Voltage

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)
Time to collect water,

41
t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate
Q (litres/min)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Speed,
(Rev/sec)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)
Pump 1 Manometric
Head, Hm (meter)
Pump 1 Hydraulic
Power, Wh (Watts)
Pump 1 Overall
Efficiency, 0 (%)

Constant Speed

i. Constant Supply (80 rev/sec)

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)
Time to collect water,
t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate
Q (litres/min)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Speed,
(Rev/sec)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)
Pump 1 Manometric
Head, Hm (meter)
Pump 1 Hydraulic
Power, Wh (Watts)
Pump 1 Overall
Efficiency, 0 (%)

ii. Constant Supply (90 rev/sec)

Quantity of water
collected, Q (litres)

42
Time to collect water,
t (sec)
Volume Flow Rate
Q (litres/min)
Pump 1 Inlet
pressure, P1 (bar)
Pump 1 Outlet
pressure, P2 (bar)
Pump 1 Speed,
(Rev/sec)
Pump 1 Electrical
Input Power, Wi
(Watts)
Pump 1 Manometric
Head, Hm (meter)
Pump 1 Hydraulic
Power, Wh (Watts)
Pump 1 Overall
Efficiency, 0 (%)

43
 FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY EXPERIMENT 5

DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF ORIFICE METER

5.0 INTRODUCTION

An Orifice flow meter is the most common head type flow

measuring device. An orifice plate is inserted in the pipeline and the
differential pressure across it is measured. The orifice plate inserted in
the pipeline causes an increase in flow velocity and a corresponding
decrease in pressure at the venacontracta. From the flow pattern, fluid
discharge velocities and corresponding coefficients can be estimated.
The coefficient of velocity, CV, is the ratio of the actual velocity to the
theoretical velocity. The coefficient of discharge, C d, is the ratio of the
actual flow rate to the theoretical flow rate.

5.1 THEORIES AND EXPLANTION

Coefficient of velocity

Figure 5.1 Measurement for jet trajectory using orifice.

44
 At a level H above the orifice, velocity of water discharge
through the orifice is V = 2gH. This velocity consists of horizontal and
vertical components. As air resistance is negligible, velocity V can be
considered as constant.

At the same time, the jet path is dropping due to gravity starting
from zero velocity at the orifice.

Vertical velocity, U (m/sec ) = gt (5.1)

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/sec2
(5.2)
Vertical distance, Y (m) = Ut = gt2
(5.3)

y = 0 when the bottom end of the needle is at the same level

the center of the orifice. The y = 0 mark is made on the panel behind
the needle near the top end of the first needle.

For this experiment, we assume the jet path touch the probes at
point 1, 2 ,3 8 respectively.

Horizontal distance from 0-1 = X1

0-2 = X2 etc
Vertical distance 0-1 = Y1
0-2 = Y2 etc
From Y = gt2
t = (2Y/g)
t1 = (2Y1/g)
t2 = (2Y2/g)
At the same time X1 = Vt1
X2 = Vt2 etc
t1 = X1/V= (2Y1/g)
V = X1/(2Y1/g)

Y1, Y2 can be measured from the graph (tips of probe 1 and 2).

This actual velocity V at point 1 (V 1) can be found. Similarly, V 2,

V3 may be found.

Coefficient of Velocity, Cv = Actual Velocity/Theoretical

Velocity

Thus, Cv1 = V1/V (X1/(2Y1)(2gH)/g)) = X1/2Y1H; CV2 = X2/2Y2H

(5.4)

Various Cv may be found by varying water level in the tank as

well as changing the orifice size.

45
 Water is directed to the bench measuring tank or a measuring
cup. Thus flow rate can be determined by timing.

Theoretical flow rate, Q = VA

(5.5)
Theoretical velocity, V = 2gH m/sec
(5.6)
Orifice cross section area, A = d2/4 m2
(5.7)
Diameter of the orifice, D = 4 mm or 8 mm (5.8)

Let actual flow rate from measurement = QA

The coefficient of discharge, Cd = QA/Q = QA/(d2/4.2gH) (5.9)

It will be found from the experiment that Q A is less than Q. This

is because of the contraction of the diameter of the jet after passing
through the orifice. This is known as VENA CONTRACTA which will be
found at distance of one half the orifice diameter onward.

By varying water level in the tank or changing orifice size,

various Cd may be found.

5.2 OBJECTIVE

To study the flow through orifice i.e. velocity coefficient and discharge
coefficient and actual jet profile may be compared with that of theory.

5.3 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION

Clear acrylic tank 20 cm diameter x 48 cm high. Water inlet is at the

bottom of the tank which has stilling materials to smoothen the flow.
Level scale is attached to the side of the tank.

An over flow pipe can adjust water level in the tank to as high as 42
cm from the center of the orifice. Water from overflow should be
directed to the storage tank.

The sharp edged orifice is attached to and flushing with the side of
the tank. Two orifices are provided 3 mm and 6 mm diameter.

A white board with 8 probes is attached next and vertically parallel

to the tank wall and perpendicular to the jet path. The probes are at
a distance of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, and 40 cm from the orifice. A
graph paper can be attached to the top of the board to record the
level of tip of the probe. (All probe lengths are equal). Hence tips of
probes at top or bottom provide the same projectile.

This equipment is used in conjunction with the Hydraulic bench for

46
 measurement of flow rate.

5.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Install the required orifice.

2. Adjust the overflow pipe to obtain a required level in the tank.

3. Open the water supply valve to obtain a steady flow with minimum
overflow.

4. Wait until water level in the tank and jet profile is stable before
adjusting the probes tips to be in line with the center of the jet and
record the probe tips profile (upper tips) as well as y=0 mark.

5. Record the flow volume by using a stop watch and the bench
measuring tank or a measuring cup.

5.5 RESULTS SHEET

Experiment No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Water level H (mm)
Volume (lit)
Time (sec)
Flow rate (lit/min)
Distance from graph
(mm)

X1 = 50, Y1 =
X2 = 100, Y2 =
X3 = 150, Y3 =
X4 = 200, Y4 =
X5 = 250, Y5 =
X6 = 300, Y6 =
X7 = 350, Y7 =
X8 = 400, Y8 =

Coefficient of Velocity

CV1
CV2
CV3
CV4
CV5
CV6
CV7

47
 CV8

Coefficient of
Discharge
Cd

OBSERVATIONS:

48
5.6 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

5.6.1 Sample of Calculations

Diameter of Orifice d = 8 mm
Water level H = 410 mm
Volume = 2 L
Time = 21.26 s
Flow rate = 0.094 L/s
X5 = 250 mm
Y5 = 43 mm

Coefficient of velocity, CV

CV = X/2YH
CV5 = 250/243x410
CV5 = 250/2x132.78 =0.94

Coefficient of Discharge at Orifice 8 mm (0.08 m)

i. Theoretical flow rate Q = VA

V = 2gH = 2x9.81x0.41 = 2.84 m/sec

A = d2/4 = 22(0.08)2/(7x4) = 5.028x10-3 m2
Q = 2.84x5.028x10-3 = 14.28x10-3 m3/sec = 14.28
lit/sec
QA = 2/21.26 = 0.094 lit/sec

ii. Coefficient of Discharge

CD = QA/Q = 0.094/14.28x100 = 0.66

49