Mayr Et Al JSZER

J. Zool. Syst. Evol.
Research 41 (2003) 233248 Received on 16 August 2002

2003 Blackwell Verlag, Berlin
ISSN 09475745
1
Division of Ornithology, Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Germany; 2Institute of Biology/Zoology,
Freie Universitat Berlin, Berlin, Germany; 3Department of Zoology, University of Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden; 4Department of
Vertebrate Zoology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Stockholm, Sweden
Monophyletic groups within higher land birds comparison of morphological

and molecular data
G. Mayr1, A. Manegold2 and U. S. Johansson3,4
Abstract
The relationships within the higher land birds and putatively related taxa are analysed in a study using 89 morphological characters and DNA
sequences of three nuclear, protein-coding genes, c-myc, RAG-1, and myoglobin intron II. Separate analyses of the dierent data sets and a total
evidence analysis in which the data sets of the morphological and molecular analyses were combined are compared. All three analyses support
the hitherto disputed sister group relationship between Pici (Ramphastidae, Indicatoridae and Picidae) and Galbulae (Galbulidae and
Bucconidae). Previously unrecognized osteological synapomorphies of this clade are presented. All analyses further resulted in monophyly of the
taxon [Aegothelidae + (Apodidae/Hemiprocnidae + Trochilidae)]. Analysis of the morphological data and of the combined data set also
supported monophyly of the taxon [Strigiformes + (Falconidae + Accipitridae)]. The morphological data further support monophyly of the
taxon (Upupidae + Bucerotidae). Other placements in the three analyses received either no or only weak bootstrap support.
Key words: Phylogeny higher land birds morphology c-myc RAG-1 myoglobin intron II
Introduction The composition of many taxa within the higher land birds
The current classication of birds (e.g. Wetmore 1960) is also is controversial. Whereas monophyly of the Apodiformes
largely based on studies of nineteenth century ornithologists, received strong support in virtually all phylogenetic analyses
and still only few higher avian taxa, which are composed of (e.g. Sibley and Ahlquist 1990; Johansson et al. 2001; Livezey
more than one family, have been convincingly shown to be and Zusi 2001; Mayr 2002a), the Caprimulgiformes have
monophyletic. One of the major divisions was introduced by recently shown to be paraphyletic (Mayr 2002a). Within the
Garrod (1874) who united several avian groups that lack the Coraciiformes some well-dened clades can be recognized (see
musculus ambiens, a small muscle of the hind limb, in a taxon, Mayr 1998, 2002b; Johansson et al. 2001), but monophyly of
which he called the Anomalogonatae (see Sibley and Ahlquist the whole taxon has not been convincingly established with
1990 for a review of the history of classication of birds). derived characters. Inclusion of the Trogonidae into the
According to Beddard (1898), this taxon includes the Strigi- Coraciiformes was proposed by several authors (e.g. Feduccia
formes (owls these were originally not included by Garrod 1977; Maurer and Raikow 1981), but was not supported by
1874), Caprimulgiformes (nightjars and allies), Apodiformes other studies (e.g. Espinosa de los Monteros 2000). Monop-
(swifts and hummingbirds), Coliiformes (mousebirds), Trog- hyly of the Piciformes, i.e. the taxon including Galbulae
oniformes (trogons), Coraciiformes (rollers and allies), Pici- (Galbulidae, jacamars; and Bucconidae, pubirds) and Pici
formes (woodpeckers and allies) and Passeriformes (woodpeckers and allies), was also repeatedly questioned by
(songbirds). Although usually not explicitly named, the Ano- recent authors who considered the Galbulae to be more closely
malogonatae, which are equivalent to the higher land bird related to some of the coraciiform birds (e.g. Olson 1983;
assemblage of Olson (1985), were kept together in many Burton 1984; Lanyon and Zink 1987; Sibley and Ahlquist
subsequent classications (e.g. Mayr and Amadon 1951; 1990).
Wetmore 1960). While the basal divergences among birds gained increasing
The mere absence of a character is, however, a poor basis for attention in recent years (e.g. Groth and Barrowclough 1999;
phylogenetic conclusions as homology of missing characters in van Tuinen et al. 2000; Cracraft and Clarke 2001; Ericson
principal cannot be shown. The phylogenetic signicance of et al. 2001), there are only few phylogenetic analyses which
the musculus ambiens is further diminished by the fact that it address the relationships among the higher land birds.
has also been lost in several taxa outside the Anomalogona- Among these, the DNADNA hybridization studies of Sibley
tae (see McKitrick 1991: pp. 22). Indeed, monophyly of the and Ahlquist (1990), which cover most extant avian taxa, were
Anomalogonatae has not been supported by any recent repeatedly criticized for methodological reasons (e.g. Houde
phylogenetic analysis based on molecular or morphological 1987; Lanyon 1992; Harshman 1994). Bleiweiss et al. (1994)
data (e.g. Sibley and Ahlquist 1990; Johansson et al. 2001; undertook another analysis of DNADNA hybridization data
Livezey and Zusi 2001). but sampled only very few representatives of each higher
Most earlier authors (including Garrod 1874), for example, taxon. Also only few higher land birds were included in an
considered owls and diurnal birds of prey (Falconiformes) to analysis of hind limb musculature by McKitrick (1991). An
be closely related, and it is mainly due to the work of analysis of skull and vertebra characters of all extant higher
Furbringer (1888) and Gadow (1893) that the Strigiformes are avian taxa by Livezey and Zusi (2001) was explicitly consid-
currently separated from the Falconiformes and classied into ered preliminary by the authors; moreover, no derived
the higher land birds. characters were listed which support the resulting phylogeny.
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234 Mayr, Manegold and Johansson
The only study which specically addresses the relationships tree was found with the heuristic search option, and the analysis was
within the higher land birds and included a comprehensive run with the delayed transformation (DELTRAN) mode. The
sample of taxa is the molecular analysis of Johansson et al. consistency index (CI), retention index (RI), and rescaled consistency
index (RC) were calculated. The robustness of the tree was tested
(2001), who analysed sequences of two nuclear, protein-coding with a bootstrap analysis of 1000 replicates. A few taxa of which
genes. monophyly is generally accepted were combined in the character
In this study, the rst phylogenetic analysis of higher land matrix.
birds which is based on morphological data and covers a Outgroup comparisons were made with the palaeognathous Tinam-
wide range of osteological and myological characters, is idae, and with representatives of the Galliformes and Anseriformes, as
presented. To evaluate monophyly of this clade a number of these taxa were shown to be the most basal neornithine birds in recent
phylogenetic analyses (e.g. Groth and Barrowclough 1999; Livezey and
avian taxa which do not belong to the higher land birds, but
Zusi 2001).
are considered to be closely related to these birds by some
authors were included. The results of the analysis are
compared with analyses of molecular data and a combined Analysis of molecular data
data set. Samples included for the molecular part of this study are listed in
Table 1. These represent all terminal taxa included in the morpho-
logical analysis, except Upupidae. Although this taxon was initially
Materials and methods included in the molecular study, it did not yield reliable sequence
Analysis of morphological data data for the myoglobin intron II and was thus excluded from the
analysis.
Skeletons of representatives of the following taxa were examined in the
The total aligned molecular matrix consists of 3254 basepairs (bp)
collections of Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Museum fur Naturk-
and is compiled from sequences obtained from three nuclear genes,
unde Berlin, and Staatliches Museum fur Naturkunde Stuttgart:
c-myc, RAG-1 and the myoglobin. The analysed part of the c-myc gene
Tinamidae: Crypturellus, Nothura, Rhynchotus, Tinamus. Cracidae:
corresponds to the region between position 759 and 1235 of the exon 3
Crax, Nothocrax, Penelope, Pipile. Phasianidae: Tetraoninae: Bonasa,
in the published Gallus sequence (Watson et al. 1983), whereas the
Dendragapus, Lagopus, Lyrurus, Tetrao, Tetrastes; Phasianinae: Alec-
analysed part of RAG-1 includes 1914 bp of the single exon of this
toris, Catreus, Chrysolophus, Coturnix, Crossoptilon, Gallus, Lopho-
gene (Carlson et al. 1991). The third gene fragment sequenced is the
phorus, Lophura, Pavo, Phasianus, Polyplectron, Syrmaticus, Tragopan;
complete intron II of the myoglobin gene, including 13 and 10 bp of
Numidinae: Acryllium, Numida; Meleagrinae: Meleagris. Anatidae:
the anking exons 2 and 3, respectively (Heslewood et al. 1998). All
Aix, Anas, Anser, Aythya, Calonetta, Cygnus, Dendrocygna, Melanitta,
new sequences generated for this study have been deposited on
Oxyura, Somateria, Tadorna. Opisthocomidae: Opisthocomus. Fal-
GenBank and the accession numbers for all included DNA sequences
conidae: Falco, Milvago, Polyborus. Accipitridae: Accipiter, Aquila,
are given in Table 1.
Butastur, Buteo, Circus, Elanus, Gypaetus, Gyps, Spizaetus, Harpagus,
All three of these genes have previously been proven useful in
Hieraaetus, Pandion, Pernis, Spilaeornis. Strigiformes: Tytonidae:
resolving the earliest divergences in the avian phylogeny (Groth and
Tyto; Strigidae: Aegolius, Asio, Athene, Bubo, Glaucidium, Otus,
Barrowclough 1999; Johansson et al. 2001; Barker et al. 2002; Ericson
Rhynoptynx, Strix, Surnia. Psittacidae: Agapornis, Amazona, Ano-
et al. 2002a; Irestedt et al. 2002), and the genes show low levels of
dorhynchus, Ara, Aratinga, Brotogeris, Cacatua, Charmosyna, Corac-
homoplasy at this phylogenetic level (Groth and Barrowclough 1999;
opsis, Cyanoramphus, Eos, Loriculus, Melopsittacus, Myiopsitta,
Irestedt et al. 2001; Johansson et al. 2001).
Neophema, Nestor, Nymphicus, Platycercus, Probosciger, Psittacus,
The laboratory procedures for amplifying and sequencing the
Psittrichas, Strigops, Trichoglossus. Cuculidae: Carpococcyx, Centr-
dierent genes follow standard techniques, and primers and thermo-
opus, Ceuthmochares, Chrysococcyx, Clamator, Coccyzus, Coua, Crot-
cycling conditions are described in Johansson and Ericson (in press)
ophaga, Cuculus, Geococcyx, Guira. Musophagidae: Corythaixoides,
(see also Norman et al. 1998; Ericson et al. 2001 , 2002b; Irestedt et al.
Crinifer, Musophaga, Tauraco. Coliidae: Colius, Urocolius. Leptosom-
2001; Johansson et al. 2001). However, because of sequencing prob-
idae: Leptosomus. Alcedinidae: Alcedo, Ceryle, Dacelo, Halcyon,
lems caused by the presence of a poly-A region in the myoglobin intron
Ispidina. Meropidae: Merops. Todidae: Todus. Momotidae: Momotus.
II sequence for Aegotheles, a modied protocol was needed for this
Coraciidae: Coracias, Eurystomus. Brachypteraciidae: Geobiastes.
taxon. The PCR product was initially sequenced with the external
Steatornithidae: Steatornis. Podargidae: Batrachostomus, Podargus.
sequencing primers Myo2 and Myo3F (see Johansson and Ericson, in
Caprimulgidae: Caprimulgus, Chordeiles, Macrodipteryx, Phalaenopti-
press). Yet, both primers failed to read across the poly-A stretch
lus, Semeiophorus. Nyctibiidae: Nyctibius. Aegothelidae: Aegotheles.
resulting in a single-stranded sequence with an uncertain number of
Apodiformes: Hemiprocnidae: Hemiprocne. Apodidae: Apus, Chaet-
As. To obtain a double stranded reading of the gene, two internal
ura. Trochilidae: Amazilia, Chrysolampis, Colibri, Phaetornis. Upupi-
primers (MyoEriF3 5-TGT CGT ACA AAC ACA GGG GAT-3 and
dae: Upupa. Phoeniculidae: Phoeniculus. Bucerotidae: Bucorvus,
MyoEriR3 5-TCT TGG TCT CCA AGG GAC TCT CCA-3) were
Bycanistes, Tockus, Penelopides. Passeriformes: Eurylaimidae: Cym-
designed to match a region downstream the poly-A stretch and as close
birhynchus, Psarisomus. Furnariidae: Furnarius. Formicariidae: Tha-
to this region as possible. As both internal primers read away and not
mnophilus. Tyrannidae: Pitangus. Cotingidae: Rupicola. Menuridae:
over this region, approximately 50 bp around this region is based on a
Menura. Alaudidae: Alauda; Corvidae: Corvus. Pici: Ramphastidae:
single-stranded reading and the exact number of As in the sequence is
Baillonius, Lybius, Megalaima, Pogoniolus, Psilopogon, Pteroglossus,
uncertain.
Ramphastos, Selenidera, Trachyphonus. Indicatoridae: Indicator. Pici-
The sequences were aligned by eye in MegAlignTM (DNASTAR
dae: Campethera, Chrysocolaptes, Colaptes, Dendrocopos, Dendropicos,
Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA). No length variation was observed in
Jynx, Melanerpes, Picus. Galbulae: Galbulidae: Galbula; Bucconidae:
the protein-coding RAG-1 gene, whereas two indels were found in the
Chelidoptera, Monasa, Notharchus. Trogonidae: Harpactes, Pharo-
c-myc gene. The rst of these is a deletion of 6 bp in Picumnus cirratus
machrus, Trogon.
(see Johansson et al. 2001). The second indel in the c-myc gene is a
All non-osteological characters were taken from the literature.
duplication of 12 bp, which has previously been observed in Apodidae,
Anatomical terminology follows Baumel and Witmer (1993) and
Hemiprocnidae and Trochilidae (Johansson et al. 2001). In Aegotheles
Vanden Berge and Zweers (1993), if not indicated otherwise.
a similar duplication was observed in all three species investigated. The
Eighty-nine characters of 29 taxa were coded for the phylogenetic
exact location of this duplication is not certain, it can be inserted either
analysis with PAUP* 4.0b10 (Swoord 1998) (see character matrix in
at position 772, 784, or 796 relative to the published Gallus sequence
Appendix 1). Owing the lack of well-corroborated phylogenies for
(Watson et al. 1983). In this region, a duplication of 12 bp occurs in all
many taxa included in the analysis, it was often impossible to
investigated taxa, but in Apodidae, Hemiprocnidae, Trochilidae and
determine the polarity of polymorphic characters; these have
Aegothelidae the insertion observed is the result of yet another
accordingly been coded as multistate (polymorphisms). Except for
duplication of this 12-bp-long sequence. A similar duplication has also
one, all characters were coded as unordered. The most parsimonious
Monophyletic groups within higher land birds 235
Table 1. Samples used in the study
GenBank GenBank GenBank

Taxon Species Sample no. Owner (c-myc) Ref. (RAG-1) Ref. (myo) Ref.
Anseriformes Chauna torquata T.J. Parsons AY034413 5 AY165805 6

Chauna torquata AF143728 4
Galliformes Alectura lathami B20851 LSUMZ AF296417 2 AF294687 2 AY165801 6
Opisthocomidae Opisthocomus hoazin B10753 LSUMZ AY233351 1 AY233357 1 AY233363 1
Falconidae Polyborus plancus 947200 NRM AY233352 1 AY233358 1 AY233364 1
Accipitridae Heterospizias meridionalis 947034 NRM AY233353 1 AY233359 1 AY233365 1
Strigiformes Asio ammeus S. Dunham AF295129 2 AF294657 2 AY233366 1
Psittacidae Pyrrhura frontalis 966989 NRM AY233354 1 AY233360 1 AY233367 1
Cuculidae Guira guira 937391 NRM AY165835 6 AY165799 6 AY165818 6
Musophagidae Corythaixoides leucogaster P509 ZMCU AF295126 2 AF294654 2 AY233368 1
Coliidae Colius striatus P398 ZMCU AF295141 2 AF294669 2 AY233369 1
Leptosomidae Leptosomus discolor uncatalogued FMNH AY233355 1 AY233361 1 AY233370 1
Alcedinidae Alcedo atthis 968171 NRM AF295143 2 AF294671 2 AY165800 6
Meropidae Merops viridis P935 ZMCU AF295147 2 AF294675 2 AY165815 6
Momotidae Momotus momota 947281 NRM AF295170 3 AF295170 3 AY165816 6
Coraciidae Coracias caudata 750 NMWM AF295148 2 AY165807 6
Coracias caudata AF143737 4
Steatornithidae Steatornis caripensis B7474 LSUMZ AF295135 2 AF294663 2 AY233371 1
Podargidae Podargus strigoides S. Dunham AF295134 2 AF294662 2 AY233372 1
Caprimulgidae Podager nacunda 947016 NRM AF295132 2 AF294660 2 AY233373 1
Nyctibiidae Nyctibius aethereus B11236 LSUMZ AF295131 2 AF294659 2 AY233374 1
Aegothelidae Aegotheles albertsii E044 MV AY233356 1 AY233362 1 AY233375 1
Hemiprocnidae Hemiprocne longipennis 1273 ANSP AF295137 2 AF294665 2 AY233376 1
Trochilidae Hylocharis chrysura 937161 NRM AF295139 2 AF294667 2 AY233377 1
Bucerotidae Tockus erythrorhynchus P487 ZMCU AF295152 2 AF294679 2 AY165823 6
Passeriformes Tyrannus savana 976722 NRM AF295182 3 AF295203 3 AY165826 6
Picidae Picumnus cirratus 976666 NRM AF295174 3 AF295195 3 AY165819 6
Galbulae Bucco capensis T.J. Parsons AF295154 2 AF294681 2 AY165801 6
Trogonidae Trogon melanurus P494 ZMCU AF295142 2 AF294670 2 AY165828 6
Abbreviations: ANSP Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; FMNH Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; LSUMZ
Louisiana State University, Museum of Natural Science; MV Museum Victoria, Melbourne; NMWM National Museum of Namibia; NRM
Swedish Museum of Natural History, Department of Vertebrate Zoology; ZMCU Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen; References:
1. this study; 2. Johansson et al. 2001; 3. Irestedt et al. 2001; 4. Groth and Barrowclough 1999; 5. Ericson et al. 2001; 6. U.S. Johansson and
P.G.P. Ericson, in press.
been observed in Megalaima virens (Capitonidae) (Johansson and with dierent temperatures can be run simultaneously. A heated
Ericson, in press). chain can more easily cross deep valleys and thus avoid that the chain
In the non-coding myoglobin intron, insertions and deletions are is entrapped on local optima (see Yang and Rannala 1997; Larget and
frequent, ranging in size from single bases in several species to an Simon 1999; Huelsenbeck and Ronquist 2001 for a more detailed
insertion of 43 bp in Tockus erythrorhynchus (Bucerotidae). Despite description of Bayesian inference). The model for the Bayesian analysis
this, alignment was relatively straightforward and in most cases, the was selected with the likelihood-ratio test implemented in Modeltest
nucleotide positions could easily be homologized. The alignment has 3.06 (Posada and Crandall 1998). This test chooses the simplest model
been deposited on GenBank. of sequence evolution that cannot be rejected in favour of a more
The phylogenetic analyses of the molecular data sets were conducted complex model. Based on the test of maximum likelihood models, the
with paup* 4.0b10 (Swoord 1998) under the parsimony criterion with general-time reversal (GTR) model with an estimate of invariable sites
all characters coded as unordered. Gaps were coded as missing data, (I) and a discrete (four rate categories) C-distribution model of among
and the few occurrences of superimposed peaks in the sequence- site rate heterogeneity was selected. Four dierent analyses were run,
chromatograms were coded with the appropriate IUPAC code and starting from random starting trees, and in each of the analyses four
treated as uncertainties. Searches for maximum parsimony trees were Markov chains (three heated and one cold, temperature 0.2) were
performed with 500 random taxon additions and tree-bisection- run for 500 000 generations with trees sampled every 10th generation.
reconnection (TBR) branch swapping. Nodal support was estimated The log likelihood values stabilized after approximately 60 000
with 1000 bootstrap replicates, each with 10 random additions of taxa. generations, and the posterior probabilities were calculated from the
In addition, a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was performed with remaining 44 000 trees.
MrBayes 2.01 (Huelsenbeck and Ronquist 2001). The Bayesian
approach to phylogeny reconstruction, as it is implemented in
MrBayes 2.01, approximates the posterior probability for a phylo- Analysis of combined morphological and molecular data
genetic tree by successively altering the model parameter values in a The two data sets were also combined into a single matrix and
Markov chain Monte Carlo procedure (Huelsenbeck and Ronquist analysed with paup* 4.0b10 (Swoord 1998), with the individual
2001). Initially, a random tree and parameter values are chosen as a settings from the separate analyses retained. Searches for maximum
starting point, and for each step in the chain a new combination of parsimony trees were performed with 500 random taxon additions and
topology and parameter values is either accepted or rejected according TBR branch swapping, and nodal support was estimated with 1000
to the Metropolis-Hastings-Green algorithm. At each step the log bootstrap replicates, each with 10 random additions of taxa. Mor-
likelihood values are recorded and after these have reached a plateau phological and molecular characters were equally weighed. Owing to
and stabilized, the frequency by which a certain clade appears among the incomplete sequence data (see above), the Upupidae were excluded
the sampled trees is an approximation of its posterior probability. In from the combined analysis.
order to more eciently traverse the parameter space, several chains
Results The taxon (Caprimulgidae + Nyctibiidae) is supported by a

Analysis of morphological data bootstrap value of 81% and can be supported with the
following unambiguous synapomorphies: (13) processus par-
Analysis of the 89 morphological characters in the character occipitales widely separated and strongly ventrally protruding;
matrix in Appendix 2 resulted in 24 most parsimonious trees basis cranii concave; (14) cone-like bony protrusion at caudal
(length 333, CI 0.49, RI 0.58, RC 0.29), the consen- margin of foramen nervi optici; (21) mandible with intraramal
sus tree of which is shown in Fig. 1. In the following, only joint and caudal half of rami mandibulae greatly widened and
those clades which were retained in the bootstrap analysis are dorso-ventrally attened; (22) mandible, proximal end unusu-
discussed. ally small, with very short cotyla lateralis and stout processus
Monophyly of a group including Strigiformes, Falconidae medialis. This node is further supported by the following
and Accipitridae received high bootstrap support of 96%. derived characters (see also Mayr 2002a): (10) ossa palatina
This clade is supported by the following unambiguous with extremely cranio-laterally expanded pars lateralis; (41)
synapomorphies (i.e. those characters with CI 1.0; the proximal end of ulna with distinct elongate, ridge-like eleva-
numbers refer to the character list in Appendix 1): (5) skull, tion along midline of shaft, distad of cotyla ventralis.
presence of long, caudally projecting processus supraorbi- The clade including Aegothelidae, Hemiprocnidae/Apodi-
tales; (52) pelvis, crista dorsolateralis ilii strongly developed, dae, and Trochilidae received high bootstrap value of 87% and
overhanging a marked concavitas infracristalis and a marked these taxa share the following unambiguous synapomorphy:
sulcus antitrochantericus and convexly bowed if pelvis is (85) musculus splenius capitis with cruciform origin. This node
viewed from its dorsal side, praeacetabular part much longer is further supported by the following derived characters: (17)
than postacetabular part, spina dorsolateralis ilii reduced; quadratum, processus oticus, dorsal margin of caudal surface
(60) bula very long, extending over almost the entire length with many small pneumatic foramina; (27) furcula, extremitas
of the tibiotarsus, distal end fused to shaft; (62) hypotarsus omalis with distinct, laterally protruding facies articularis
without bony canals, crista lateralis separated from crista acrocoracoidea; (55) pelvis, processus terminalis ischii very
medialis by a wide sulcus; (72) claws with pair of foramina narrow and slender, touching pubis at an angle of 4590,
lateral and medial to tuberculum extensorium; (76) musculus fenestra ischiopubica very wide; (79) musculus bularis longus
exor cruris lateralis, pars pelvica reduced. In addition, this absent. In addition, this clade is supported by the presence of
node is supported by the following derived characters (i.e. two deep furrows (which are closed to canals in Apodidae and
those with CI < 1.0): (4) cere at base of narial openings; Trochilidae) for the tendons of musculus interosseus dorsalis
(70) second and third phalanx of fourth toe greatly and m. interosseus ventralis on the dorsal surface of the
abbreviated, measuring less than half the length of the symphysis metacarpalis distalis of the carpometacarpus (this
fourth phalanx; (77) musculus exor cruris lateralis, pars character was not included in the present analysis since its
accessoria absent. homology with similar structures occurring in few other taxa,
Monophyly of Accipitridae and Falconidae received boot- e.g. some parrots, is questionable). See also Mayr (2002a), for
strap support of 89% but is not supported by unambiguous additional characters that were not included in the present
synapomorphies. A derived character which supports this node analysis.
is: (56) femur with pneumatic foramen at cranio-lateral side of Monophyly of Apodidae, Hemiprocnidae and Trochilidae is
proximal end. This character also occurs in the Musophagidae, supported by a bootstrap value of 91%. This taxon is
within the Cracidae/Phasianidae, and in the clade comprising supported by the following unambiguous synapomorphies:
Upupidae/Phoeniculidae and Bucerotidae. (3) proximo-dorsal part of narial openings covered by a thin
Fig. 1. Strict consensus tree of 24 most parsimonious trees resulting from an analysis of the morphological data set (Length 333, CI 0.49,
RI 0.58, RC 0.29). Bootstrap values of more than 50% are indicated next to the internodes. Derived characters supporting the nodes are
listed in the text
osseous sheet; (34) sternum, facies articularis coracoideus (a) (b)

weakly saddle-shaped or convex; (35) sternum, caudal margin
without notches or fenestrae; (39) humerus greatly abbreviated
and stocky. In addition, this taxon is supported by the
following derived characters: (65) tarsometatarsus with arcus
extensorius (ossied retinaculum extensorium tarsometatarsi);
(77) musculus exor cruris lateralis, pars accessoria absent.
In all of the resulting trees, the following unambiguous
synapomorphy supports monophyly of the taxon (Alcedini-
dae + Meropidae + Momotoidea) which received a boot- (c) (d)
strap support of 71%: (83) tendon of musculus exor hallucis
longus not supplying hallux (Maurer and Raikow 1981). The
following derived characters further support this node (see also
Mayr 1998, 2002b): (18) columella with large, hollow, bulbous
basal and footplate area exhibiting a large fenestra on one side;
(31) scapula, acromion distinctly bifurcate, with an additional
medial process; (69) proximal phalanx of hallux with proximal
end greatly widened.
Bootstrap support for a sister group relationship between
Upupidae/Phoeniculidae and Bucerotidae is 89%, and the Fig. 2. Proximal part of left phalanx proximalis digiti majoris in
proximal (a, c) and ventral view (b, d); (a, b) Ramphastos vitellinus
following unambiguous synapomorphies support monophyly (Ramphastidae; Pici); (c, d) Corvus corax (Passeriformes). In the
of this group: (20) mandible with rectangular cross-section in Galbulae and Pici there is a large, proximally directing process on the
area of pars symphysialis; (67) tarsometatarsus with very short ventral side, which is concave on its medial side and, in proximal view,
incisurae intertrochleares. In addition, the members of this continuous with the facies articularis metacarpalis. We consider this
node share the following derived characters (see also Mayr character to be synapomorphic for the Piciformes
1998, 2002b): (25) pygostyle with large, shield-like discus
pygostyli with sharply dened, ridge-like lateral margins; (55)
pelvis, processus terminalis ischii very narrow and slender,
touching pubis at an angle of 4590, fenestra ischiopubica very
wide; (56) femur with pneumatic foramen at cranio-lateral side
of proximal end; (79) musculus bularis longus absent. Further
characters which support this node and were not included in the
analysis are: musculus pterygoideus with retractor palatini slip
(Burton 1984); musculus extensor carpi ulnaris attached to os
metacarpale minus (usually this muscle is either attached to the
os metacarpale majus or to the tip of the processus intermeta-
carpalis, see Stegmann 1965); musculus pectoralis, pars prop-
atagialis longus tendinous (Maurer and Raikow 1981).
Monophyly of the Piciformes (Galbulae + Pici) received
bootstrap support of 76% and these birds share the following
unambiguous synapomorphies: (49) phalanx proximalis digiti
majoris, proximal end with large, proximally directing process
on ventral side (Fig. 2); (82) musculus exor hallucis longus, Fig. 3. Pygostyle in disto-lateral view; (a) Trachyphonus margaritatus
(Ramphastidae, Pici); (b) Monasa nigrifrons (Bucconidae, Galbulae);
origin with three heads (Swierczewski and Raikow 1981; (c) Coracias garrulus (Coraciidae, Coraciiformes). The arrow indi-
Raikow and Cracraft 1983); (84) tendon of musculus exor cates the large discus pygostyli in Galbulae and Pici which we consider
hallucis longus supplies digits I, II, and VI (deep exor tendons to be a synapomorphy of these taxa. Not to scale
type VI). Other characters which support this node are: (25)
pygostyle with large, shield-like discus pygostyli with sharply between Pici and Galbulae received bootstrap support of 55
dened, ridge-like lateral margins (Fig. 3); (30) coracoid, and 76%, respectively. Bootstrap analysis further supported
extremitas sternalis with notch on margo medialis (Fig. 4); monophyly of the taxon (Aegothelidae + Hemiprocnidae), to
(68) trochlea metatarsi IV with large trochlea accessoria. the exclusion of the Trochilidae, with a low bootstrap value of
54%.
The taxa (Pici + Galbulae), [Aegothelidae + (Hemiprocni-
Analysis of molecular data dae + Trochilidae)], (Alcedinidae + Momotidae), and a
Analysis of the molecular data resulted in ve most parsimo- clade including the latter taxon and Meropidae and Coraciidae
nious trees (length 3490, CI 0.54, RI 0.23, RC 0.12), received a 100% posterior probability in a Bayesian phylo-
the consensus tree of which is shown in Fig. 5. Except for genetic analysis (Fig. 6).
monophyly of the clade [Aegothelidae + (Apodidae/Hemi-
procnidae + Trochilidae)] and sister group relationship
between Pici and Galbulae, the tree topology is very dierent Analysis of combined morphological and molecular data
from that of the consensus tree resulting from the analysis of Analysis of the combined morphological and molecular data
the morphological characters. However, only sister group sets resulted in two most parsimonious tree (length 3846,
relationship between Cuculidae and Passeriformes and CI 0.53, RI 0.26, RC 0.14), the consensus tree of
which is shown in Fig. 7. Although the tree topology diers in

many aspects from the consensus trees resulting from the
separate analyses, some clades indicated by either the molecu-
lar or the morphological analyses also occur in the analysis of
the combined data set.
As in the analysis of the morphological data, the combined
data set supports monophyly of the taxon [Strigidae +
(Accipitridae + Falconidae)] which received bootstrap support
of 76%. Monophyly of the taxon (Falconidae + Accipitridae)
is supported by a bootstrap value of 77%. Also in concordance
with the analysis of the morphological data, monophyly of the
taxon [Aegothelidae + (Apodidae/Hemiprocnidae + Tro-
chilidae)] is corroborated by a bootstrap value of 81%; the
taxon (Apodidae/Hemiprocnidae + Trochilidae) also received
a bootstrap support of 81%. In concordance with the analyses
of both, the morphological and molecular data, analysis of the
Fig. 4. Ventral surface of left coracoid in comparison; (a) Monasa combined data supported monophyly of the taxon
nigrifrons (Bucconidae, Galbulae); (b) Selenidera culik (Ramphastidae,
(Pici + Galbulae), which received a high bootstrap value of
Pici); (c) Trachyphonus margaritatus (Ramphastidae, Pici); (d) Indica-
tor variegatus (Indicatoridae, Pici); (e) Jynx torquilla (Picidae, Pici). 93%. The taxon (Cuculidae + Passeriformes), which was also
The arrow indicates the notch on the margo medialis of the extremitas supported in the analysis of the molecular data, received a
sternalis which is here considered to be a synapomorphy of Galbulae bootstrap support of 62%. A taxon including Nyctibiidae,
and Pici. Not to scale
Fig. 5. Strict consensus tree of ve most parsimonious trees resulting from an analysis of the molecular data set (length 3490, CI 0.54,
RI 0.23, RC 0. 12). Bootstrap values of more than 50% are indicated next to the internodes
Fig. 6. Fifty per cent majority rule consensus tree obtained from the Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of the molecular data set. Posterior probability
values are indicated next to the internodes. The results of the three other analyses only slightly diered in the posterior probability values
Fig. 7. Strict consensus tree of two most parsimonious tree resulting from an analysis of the combined morphological and molecular data sets
(Length 3846, CI 0.53, RI 0.26, RC 0.14). Bootstrap values of more than 50% are indicated next to the internodes
Caprimulgidae, Aegothelidae, and the apodiform birds was hindlimb musculature by McKitrick (1991). The few other
weakly supported with a bootstrap value of 50%. analyses of morphological data which included these taxa did
not corroborate a closer relationship but were either restricted
to a single morphological character complex (Griths 1994),
Discussion or the characters supporting the resulting phylogenies were not
Comparison of the three data sets listed (Kemp and Crowe 1990; Livezey and Zusi 2001).
In concordance with most other recent phylogenetic analyses In a study of avian egg white proteins, Sibley and Ahlquist
(see Introduction), analyses of all three data sets did not (1972: pp. 105) found high similarity between falcons and owls,
support monophyly of the higher land birds. Otherwise, but from their DNADNA hybridization studies (1990) they
however, there is considerable incongruency between the concluded that owls and caprimulgiform birds are monophy-
consensus trees which resulted from analysis of the morpho- letic, although in several of the melting curves underlying their
logical and molecular data sets, and only two clades, i.e. sister analysis owls are next to the Falconidae (their Figs 89, 98, 139,
group relationship between Galbulae and Pici and monophyly 142). Also in a DNADNA hybridization study, Bleiweiss
of a taxon including Aegothelidae and apodiform birds, were et al. (1994) reported high bootstrap support for a clade
supported in all three analyses. including Strigiformes and Caprimulgidae; falconiform birds
Most nodes of the consensus tree of the analysis of the were, however, not included. Analysis of the 12S mitochond-
molecular data did not get any bootstrap support, and in the rial rDNA by Mindell et al. (1997: Fig. 8.9) resulted in
analysis of the combined data set the few morphological monophyly of Falconidae and Tytonidae, but combination
characters outweighed the molecular data in many cases. of the 12S rDNA data with that from mitochondrial cyto-
Possibly, the weak support of the trees resulting from the chrome c oxidase sequences supported monophyly of Sagit-
molecular data is due to the fact that most internodes are very tariidae (secretary bird), Falconidae and Accipitridae (the New
short compared with the terminal branches which means that, World Vultures, Cathartidae, were not included).
between the branching events, not enough mutations (i.e. A closer relationship between owls and diurnal birds of prey
phylogenetically informative characters) were accumulated in was mainly questioned because of a number of dierences between
the conservative genes to support a robust phylogeny. these taxa (e.g. Gadow 1893: p. 75; Beddard 1898: p. 252).
In the following, only those nodes which received bootstrap However, dierences in general cannot be used to show non-
support of more than 60% in any of the analyses are discussed. relationship of taxa and concerning owls, no alternative phylo-
genetic hypotheses have been convincingly established. The
Falconiformes sensu Wetmore (1960), i.e. a clade including
Strigiformes, Accipitridae and Falconidae Cathartidae, Sagittariidae, Falconidae and Accipitridae, is a very
Both, analysis of the morphological data and analysis of the ill-dened taxon, and many authors raised doubt on the falconi-
combined data set supported monophyly of Strigiformes, form anities of the Cathartidae and Sagittariidae (e.g. Hudson
Falconidae and Accipitridae. 1948; Ligon 1967; Jollie 1977b; Konig 1982; Jacob 1983; Rea 1983;
Although there were some earlier authors who doubted the Sibley and Ahlquist 1990; Avise et al. 1994; Wink 1995).
Furbringer and Gadow classication (e.g. Barnikol 1951;
Starck and Barnikol 1954; Starck 1959), the idea of a closer
Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes
relationship between owls and some of the diurnal birds of
prey was revived by Cracraft (1981, 1988). Monophyly of owls, The Caprimulgiformes as currently recognized (e.g. del
falcons and hawks further resulted from an analysis of Hoyo et al. 1999) include the Steatornithidae, Podargidae,
Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae and Aegothelidae, whereas the Apo- Piciformes

diformes comprise Hemiprocnidae, Apodidae and Trochilidae. So far, monophyly of the Piciformes was mainly based on
Concerning Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae, Aegothelidae and derived features related to the zygodactyl foot of these taxa,
the Apodiformes, analysis of the morphological data yielded which include a unique arrangement of the deep plantar
the same tree topology as the study by Mayr (2002a). The tendons (character 84 in Appendix 1, see also Simpson and
molecular support for sister-group relationship between Aego- Cracraft 1981; Swierczewski and Raikow 1981). Here three
thelidae and apodiform birds (Fig. 6) is here reported for the additional synapomorphies (characters 25, 30 and 49 in
rst time. Analysis of the combined data set also supported Appendix 1), which are not related to this toe arrangement,
monophyly of a taxon including Aegothelidae and apodiform are reported. As the taxon (Pici + Galbulae) also received
birds, as well as monophyly of a clade including the latter taxa strong support in the Bayesian analysis of the molecular data
and Caprimulgidae and Nyctibiidae. and a high bootstrap value in the analysis of the combined
Except for the study by Sibley and Ahlquist (1990), there are data set, the traditional Piciformes is considered monophyletic.
hardly any other comprehensive analyses which include both The only alternative classication of the Galbulae which is
Caprimulgiformes and Apodiformes. Monophyly of Nyc- supported by derived morphological characters is a sister-group
tibiidae, Caprimulgidae, Aegothelidae and the Apodiformes relationship to rollers and cuckoo-rollers. In an analysis of the
also resulted from an analysis of Livezey and Zusi (2001), feeding apparatus of coraciiform birds, Burton (1984: p. 436)
although these authors regarded their study preliminary and listed the following characters in order to support this hypo-
did not list any characters supporting the resulting phylogeny. thesis: elongated processus postorbitalis (character 16 in
The analysis of Johansson et al. (2001), in which the Aego- Appendix 1), quadratum with deep condylus medialis (not
thelidae were not included, did not resolve the relationships included in the analysis because this character cannot be coded
between the caprimulgiform taxa. in discrete characters), a modication of musculus serpihyoi-
For further discussion of the phylogenetic implications deus, and, in all but the Leptosomidae, loss of musculus
resulting from the phylogeny of caprimulgiform and apodi- stylohyoideus (the latter two characters were not included in the
form birds in Fig. 1, see Mayr and Manegold (2002); Mayr present analysis because their distribution among most other
(2002a); Mayr (2003). taxa is unknown). Even among the comparatively few taxa
studied by Burton (1984), the m. stylohyoideus is, however, also
absent in the Bucerotidae, some Todidae, and some Picidae.
Coraciiformes
Burton (1984: p. 389) further noted that the modication of m.
The Coraciiformes as currently recognized (e.g. del Hoyo serpihyoideus is absent in Eurystomus (Coraciidae).
et al. 2001) include the Leptosomidae, Coraciidae, Brachypte- Olson (1983) listed few additional characters which are
raciidae, Upupidae, Phoeniculidae, Bucerotidae, Alcedinidae, shared by Galbulae and rollers, including a similar shape of the
Meropidae, Todidae and Momotidae. This taxon was not coracoid which here is considered to be plesiomorphic
shown to be monophyletic by any of the more comprehensive (a similar type of coracoid occurs in several other avian taxa
recent phylogenetic analysis (e.g. Espinosa de los Monteros as, for example, Cuculidae and Meropidae). Olson (1983:
2000; Johansson et al. 2001; Livezey and Zusi 2001), and this p. 130) also pointed out that the skull and mandible of the
study is no exception therein. Galbulae show a remarkable similarity to those of Coracias
Monophyly of the taxon (Upupidae/Phoeniculidae + Buc- (Coraciidae) in almost every aspect, but did not specify
erotidae), which is strongly supported by analysis of the whether this similarity is primitive or derived (see Raikow and
morphological data, is in line with most other phylogenetic Cracraft 1983 for a critique of Olsons study).
analyses of dierent data sets (e.g. Burton 1984; Sibley and Only few molecular studies addressed the question of
Ahlquist 1990; Mayr 1998; Espinosa de los Monteros 2000; piciform monophyly. It was not supported by the DNA
Johansson et al. 2001; however contrary to Maurer and DNA hybridization studies of Sibley and Ahlquist (1990) and
Raikow 1981). by an analysis based on starch-gel electrophoresis by Lanyon
Monophyly of a taxon including Alcedinidae, Meropidae, and Zink (1987). The study of Johansson et al. (2001) did not
Momotidae and Todidae is also supported by other analyses of conclusively resolve the position of the Galbulae.
morphological characters (e.g. Feduccia 1977; Maurer and
Raikow 1981; Burton 1984) and by the molecular studies of
Sibley and Ahlquist (1990). The molecular analyses of Espi- Passeriformes and Cuculidae
nosa de los Monteros (2000) and Johansson et al. (2001) did Analysis of the molecular and of the combined data set
not support inclusion of the Meropidae into this clade, but did resulted in monophyly of Cuculidae and Passeriformes. This
not suggest a convincing alternative position of the taxon. clade, which has not been suggested before, is not supported
Both data sets did not conclusively resolve the position of by current morphological evidence and received only weak
the cuckoo-roller (Leptosomidae), although it is interesting to bootstrap support.
note that the Leptosomidae were optimized as the sister taxon Most recent authors who studied morphological features
of the Podargidae in the analysis of the combined data set. considered the Passeriformes to be most closely related to the
Sister group relationship between these two taxa was already Pici (e.g. Olson 1983; Hoing and Alvarenga 2001; Livezey and
suggested by Mayr (1998: p. 10) and the occurrence of this Zusi 2001). Despite a great overall resemblance in many
clade in the analysis of the combined data set is so much the osteological features, there are, however, only few derived
more surprising as it did not result from the separate analyses characters, which are shared by Pici and Passeriformes to the
of the morphological and molecular data, and since several exclusion of the Galbulae (e.g. the modication of the proximal
derived characters shared by Leptosomidae and Podargidae end of the ulna, character 42 in Appendix 1). Olson (1983: p. 131)
were not included in the analysis (e.g. the presence of powder mentioned the greatly reduced processus procoracoideus as a
downs on the back of the rump).
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Phylogeny of the major lineages of suboscines (Passeriformes) from the Middle Eocene of Grube Messel (Hessen, Germany).
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Systematic relationships and biogeography of the tracheophone musculature. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. Misc. Publ. 179, 185.
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Jacob, J., 1983: Zur systematischen Stellung von Vultur gryphus Jr.; Knight, A.; Sawchuk, S. J.; Yuri, T., 1997: Phylogenetic
(Cathartiformes). J. Ornithol. 124, 8386. relationships among and within select avian orders based on
Johansson, U. S.; Ericson, P. G. P. in press: Molecular support for a mitochondrial DNA. In: Mindell, D. P., (ed.), Avian Molecular
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Norman, J. A.; Christidis, L.; Westerman, M.; Hill, A. R., 1998: Wink, M., 1995: Phylogeny of Old and New World Vultures (Aves:
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Island Hawk-Owl (Ninox natalis). Emu 98, 197208. of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene. Z. Naturforsch. 50c,
Olson, S. L., 1983: Evidence for a polyphyletic origin of the Piciformes. 868882.
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R. and Parkes, K. C., (eds), Avian Biology, vol. 8. New York: Biol. Evol. 14, 717724.
Academic Press, pp. 79238.
Olson, S. L., 1987: Variation in the procoracoid foramen in the Authors addresses: G. Mayr (for correspondence), Division of
Accipitridae. Riv. ital. Orn. 57, 161164. Ornithology, Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg, Senckenberganlage 25,
Posada, D.; Crandall, K. A., 1998: Modeltest: testing the model of D-60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany. E-mail: Gerald.Mayr@
DNA substitution. Bioinformatics 14, 817818. senckenberg.de; A. Manegold, Institute of Biology/Zoology, Freie
Pycraft, W. P., 1903: A Contribution towards our knowledge of the Universitat Berlin, Konigin-Luise-Str. 1-3, D-14195 Berlin, Germany;
morphology of the owls. Part II. Osteology. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. U. S. Johansson, Department of Zoology, University of Stockholm,
ser. 2, 146. SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden; (U. S. Johansson, Department of
Raikow, R. J., 1982: Monophyly of the Passeriformes: test of a Vertebrate Zoology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Box 50007,
phylogenetic hypothesis. Auk 99, 431445. SE-104 05 Stockholm, Sweden).
Raikow, R. J., 1985: Locomotor system. In: King, A. S. and
McLelland, J., (eds), Form and function in birds, vol. 3. London:
Academic Press, pp. 57147. Appendix 1
Raikow, R. J.; Cracraft, J., 1983: Monophyly of the Piciformes: a reply Character descriptions
to Olson. Auk 100, 134138.
Rea, A., 1983: Cathartid afnities: a brief overview. In: Wilbur, S. R.; 1. Skull, largely/completely ossied septum nasale: absent
Jackson, J. A., (eds), Vulture biology and management. Berkeley: (0), present (1). Although present in most taxa included in
Univ. California Press, pp. 2656. this study, an ossied nasal septum is rarely found outside
Sibley, C. G.; Ahlquist, J. E., 1972: A comparative study of the egg the higher landbirds (see Ericson 1997). The nasal septum
white proteins of non-passerine birds. Bull. Peabody Museum is also ossied in few passeriforms (e.g. Rupicola sp.),
Nature Hist. 39, 1276. which is here considered to be an autapomorphy of these
Sibley, C. G.; Ahlquist, J. E., 1990: Phylogeny and classication of
birds: a study in molecular evolution. New Haven and London: Yale
taxa.
University Press. 2. Beak short and very wide at its base, with narial openings
Simpson, S. F.; Cracraft, J., 1981: The phylogenetic relationships of large and reaching far into its tip: no (0), yes (1).
the Piciformes (Class Aves). Auk 98, 481494. 3. Proximo-dorsal part of narial openings covered by a thin
Starck, D., 1959: Neuere Ergebnisse der vergleichenden Anatomie und osseous sheet: no (0), yes (1). The osseous lamella
ihre Bedeutung fur die Taxonomie, erlautert an der Trigeminus- subdividing the nostrils of the Upupidae/Phoeniculidae
Muskulatur der Vogel. J. Ornithol. 100, 4759.
and the Leptosomidae is considered to be not homologous
Starck, D.; Barnikol, A., 1954: Beitrage zur Morphologie der
Trigeminusmuskulatur der Vogel (besonders der Accipitres, Cath- to the structure found in Hemiprocnidae/Apodidae and
artidae, Striges und Anseres). Morphologisches Jahrbuch 94, 164. Trochilidae.
Stegmann, B., 1963: Der processus internus indicis im Skelett des 4. Cere at base of narial openings: absent (0), present (1). A
Vogelugels. J. Ornithol. 104, 413423. cere is also present in few other taxa, which were not
Stegmann, B., 1965: Funktionell bedingte Eigenheiten am Metacarpus included in this analysis (e.g. Sagittariidae, Columbi-
des Vogelugels. J. Ornithol. 106, 179189.
formes).
Stegmann, B., 1978: Relationships of the superorders Alectoromorphae
and Charadriimorphae (Aves): a comparative study of the avian 5. Well-developed, caudally projecting processus supraorbi-
hand. Publications of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 17, 1119. tales: absent (0), present (1). Although these processes are
Steinbacher, J., 1937: Anatomische Untersuchungen uber die system- small in few Accipitridae (e.g. Gypaetus, Neophron,
atische Stellung der Galbulidae und Bucconidae. Arch. Naturgesch., Pandion, Pernis, Polyboroides; see Jollie 1977a: Fig. 93),
Z. Wiss. Zool. Abt. B 6, 417515. they are well developed in presumably basal (Griths
Stephan, B., 1970: Eutaxie, Diastataxie und andere Probleme der 1994; Holdaway 1994) accipitrid taxa, as Elanus. It is
Beederung des Vogelugels. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 46, 339437.
Stresemann, E., 192734: Aves. In: Kukenthal, W. and Krumbach, T.,
thus most parsimonious to assume that enlarged, cau-
(eds), Handbuch der Zoologie. Berlin and Leipzig: de Gruyter. dally projecting processus supraorbitales were present in
Swierczewski, E. V.; Raikow, R. J., 1981: Hindlimb morphology, the last common ancestor (stem species) of the Accipi-
phylogeny and classication of the piciformes. Auk 98, 466480. tridae. Pycraft (1903) incorrectly stated that all owls lack
Swoord, D. L., 1998: PAUP*. Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony enlarged processus supraorbitales: within the Strigi-
(*and Other Methods), version 4.0b10. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer. formes, the development of these processes is variable.
van Tuinen, M.; Sibley, C. G.; Hedges, S. B., 2000: The early history of
They are, for example, well developed in Aegolius
modern birds inferred from DNA sequences of nuclear and
mitochondrial ribosomal genes. Mol. Biol. Evol. 17, 451457. funereus, Athene noctua and Surnia ulula but vestigial in
Vanden Berge, J. C.; Zweers, G. A., 1993: Myologia. In: Baumel, J. J.; Strix aluco, Tyto alba and some larger species. Well-
King, A. S.; Breazile, J. E.; Evans, H. E.; Vanden Berge, J. C., (eds), developed processus supraorbitales are present in juve-
Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. Publi- niles of Strix aluco (May 1962: p. 197), and it is thus
cations of the Nuttall Ornithological Club 23, pp. 189247. most likely that these processes were also present in the
Watson, D. K.; Reddy, E. P.; Duesberg, P. H.; Papas, T. S., 1983:
last common ancestor of the Strigiformes and are
Nucleotide sequence analysis of the chicken c-myc gene reveals
homologous and unique coding regions by comparison with the secondarily reduced in some taxa.
transforming gene of avian myelocytomatosis virus MC29, delta 6. Os lacrimale (os praefrontale) vestigial or completely
gag-myc. Proc. Natn. Acad. Sci. USA 80, 21462150. reduced: no (0), yes (1), (Cracraft 1968 and personal
Wetmore, A., 1960: A classication for the birds of the world. observation). In the Pici and Bucerotidae the os lacri-
Smithsonian Misc. Collect. 139, 137. male appears to be fused to the frontale (concerning the
condition in the Pici see also Simpson and Cracraft
1981: p. 487) and its relative development is thus 24. Axis, foramina transversaria: present (0), absent (1).
dicult to assess in the adult skull. In the Podargidae 25. Pygostyle with large, shield-like discus pygostyli with
and Trochilidae it is uncertain whether it is reduced or sharply dened, ridge-like lateral margins (Fig. 3): no (0),
fused to the frontal or nasal bones. We consider the yes (1). Few other taxa included in this study also posses a
great reduction of the os lacrimale in many Passeri- large discus pygostyli (e.g. Meropidae), which lacks,
formes to be derived within that taxon, as they are however, sharply dened, ridge-like lateral margins.
well developed in several taxa with that group (e.g. 26. Number of praesacral vertebrae (all vertebrae cranial to
Corvidae). synsacrum) more than 19: yes (0), no (1). Virtually all taxa
7. Os lacrimale, descending process greatly expanded medi- of the higher land birds have 19 praesacral vertebrae. A
ally: no (0), yes (1). This character was listed by Cracraft smaller number is only found in the Cuculidae (18), but
(1981: p. 702) as a synapomorphy of a taxon including more than 19 praesacral vertebrae are found in all
Coraciidae, Brachypteraciidae, and the alcediniform birds, outgroup taxa and several other taxa included in the
but is absent in Meropidae and Momotidae. analysis.
8. Os ectethmoidale, greatly expanded, plate-like, with dorsal 27. Furcula, extremitas omalis with distinct, laterally protru-
margin largely fused with frontals: no (0), yes (1), ding facies articularis acrocoracoidea: no (0), yes (1).
(Cracraft 1968 and personal observation). Within the Strigiformes, this character is absent in Tyto.
9. Vomer: not as follows (0), with truncate rostral and 28. Coracoid, facies articularis scapularis excavated and cup-
bifurcate caudal end (typical of the aegithognathous like: yes (0), no (1).
palate) (1). We have coded this character as unknown in 29. Coracoid, foramen nervi supracoracoidei: present (0),
taxa in which the vomer is vestigial or reduced. absent (1). In some Accipitridae and Falconidae the
10. Os palatinum, pars lateralis extremely cranio-laterally foramen nervi supracoracoidei is open which is here
expanded: no (0), yes (1) (see Mayr 2002a: Fig. 3C,D). considered to be a derived condition of these taxa (see
11. Processus postorbitales strongly elongated, touching (or Becker 1987; Olson 1987).
nearly touching) the jugals: no (0), yes (1). The presence of 30. Coracoid, extremitas sternalis with notch on margo
this character in few Strigiformes and Psittacidae, as well medialis (Fig. 4): no (0), yes (1). Within the Pici, this
as in Podargus (Podargidae) is here considered autapo- notch is well developed in Indicator (Indicatoridae), many
morphic for these taxa. Ramphastidae (e.g. Ramphastos ambiguus, Selenidera ma-
12. Well-developed processus basipterygoidei that articulate culirostris, Baillonius bailloni, Pteroglossus aracari), and in
with the ossa pterygoidea: yes (0), no (1). Jynx (Picidae); in some Ramphastidae it is wide and
13. Processus paroccipitales widely separated and strongly shallow but indicated by a hook above the angulus
ventrally protruding; basis cranii concave: no (0), yes (1). medialis, in most Picidae it is very indistinct (see also
14. Cone-like bony protrusion at caudal margin of foramen Hoing and Alvarenga 2001: Fig. 5). The notch is also
nervi optici (Mayr 2002a: Fig. 5): absent (0), present (1). present in at least some Primoscenidae, early Eocene stem
15. Quadratum, processus orbitalis: not greatly reduced (0), group members of the Pici (see Mayr 1998: 7) and we
greatly reduced (1). assume that this character was present in the stem species
16. Quadratum, condylus caudalis completely reduced, condy- of the Pici.
lus lateralis separated from elongate condylus medialis by 31. Scapula, acromion distinctly bifurcate, i.e. with an addi-
a deep but narrow furrow: no (0), yes (1). tional medial process (see Mayr 1998: Fig. 16; Hoing and
17. Quadratum, processus oticus, dorsal margin of caudal Alvarenga 2001: Fig. 8): no (0), yes (1).
surface with many small pneumatic foramina (Mayr 32. Sternum, well-developed spina externa rostri: absent (0),
2002a: Fig. 4): no (0), yes (1). present (1).
18. Columella with large, hollow, bulbous basal and footplate 33. Sternum, spina interna rostri: absent (0), present (1).
area which exhibits a large fenestra on one side (Feduccia 34. Sternum, facies articularis coracoideus weakly saddle-
1977): no (0), yes (1). The presence of this character in shaped or convex: no (0), yes (1).
some suboscine Passeriformes (Feduccia 1974) is here 35. Caudal margin of sternum: with four notches/fenestrae
considered autapomorphic for these birds since the colu- (0), with two notches/fenestrae (1) or without notches/
mella of the Acanthisittidae, the putative sister taxon of all fenestrae (2). In some Accipitridae (e.g. Buteo jamaicensis,
other Passeriformes (e.g. Ericson et al. 2002a), and that of see Jollie 1977a: p. 165), Falconidae (e.g. Microhierax
oscine Passeriformes has a at footplate and a slender caerulescens, see Jollie 1977b: p. 201), and Caprimulgidae
bony shaft (Feduccia 1975a,b) as that of many non- (e.g. Semeiophorus vexillarius) the notches are completely
passeriform birds. Therefore, this character is coded as reduced which we here consider autapomorphic for these
absent for Passeriformes. taxa.
19. Mandible, distal part of rami mandibulae very narrow, 36. Humerus, proximal end, sulcus transversus very deep,
pars symphysialis very short: no (0), yes (1). long, and rectangular-shaped: no (0), yes (1).
20. Mandible, area of pars symphysialis with rectangular 37. Humerus, distal end, fossa musculi brachialis deep and
cross-section: absent (0), present (1). sharply delimited: no (0), yes (1). Within the Pici, this
21. Mandible with intraramal joint and caudal half of rami character is present in Indicator, which is here considered
mandibulae greatly widened and dorso-ventrally attened: an autapomorphy of this taxon.
no (0), yes (1). 38. Humerus, processus exorius strongly protruding in ven-
22. Mandible, proximal end unusually small, with very short tro-distal direction: no (0), yes (1).
cotyla lateralis and stout processus medialis: no (0), yes 39. Humerus, greatly abbreviated and stocky: no (0), yes (1).
(1). 40. Ulna distinctly exceeding humerus in length: no (0),
23. Atlas, incisura fossae: open (0), closed (1). yes (1).
41. Ulna, proximal end, distinct elongate, ridge-like elevation anidae) which we consider to be a derived feature of this
along midline of shaft, distad of cotyla ventralis: absent taxon.
(0), present (1). 54. Pelvis, cranio-lateral edge of alae praeacetabulares ilii
42. Ulna, proximal end, olecranon very long, narrow and pointed and protruding: no (0), yes (1).
pointed; tuberculum ligamenti collateralis ventralis 55. Pelvis, processus terminalis ischii very narrow and slender,
strongly protruding (see Mayr 1998: Fig. 10H): no (0), touching pubis at an angle of 4590, fenestra ischiopubica
yes (1). very wide: no (0), yes (1).
43. Carpometacarpus, os metacarpale minus distinctly bowed, 56. Femur, pneumatic foramen at cranio-lateral side of
spatium intermetacarpale very wide: no (0); yes (1). proximal end: absent (0), present (1). Within the Cuculi-
44. Carpometacarpus, processus intermetacarpalis: absent or dae, this pneumatic foramen only occurs in Morococcyx,
small (0), well-developed, reaching the os metacarpale Neomorphus (Hughes 2000), and Geococcyx (personal
minus (1). In extant Upupidae/Phoeniculidae and Buc- observation). These three taxa form a monophyletic group
erotidae there is no trace of a processus intermetacarpalis (Hughes 2000) and it is more parsimonious to assume that
but the tendon of musculus extensor carpi ulnaris inserts the fossa poplitea was absent in the stem species of the
on the os metacarpale minus as it does in taxa with a Cuculidae than to assume repeated loss of this character
processus intermetacarpalis (usually this tendon inserts on within the taxon.
the os metacarpale majus). Stegmann (1965) suggested 57. Tibiotarsus, both cristae cnemiales and crista patellaris
that the processus intermetacarpalis was completely forming a ridge which circumscribes a groove on the
reduced in the stem lineage of these taxa and we cranial side of the bone, crista cnemialis cranialis contin-
accordingly coded it with (1). The character is also present uos with a very marked ridge opposite to the crista
in most Phasianidae (exceptions are the Numidinae and bularis: no (0), yes (1).
Meleagrinae) which is here considered to be derived within 58. Tibiotarsus, distal end, pons supratendineus: ossied (0),
this taxon since it is absent in the more basal (e.g. Mayr tendinous (1). Although there is no ossied pons supran-
2000) galliform taxa Megapodiidae and Cracidae. In the tendineus in many extant Psittacidae, this character is
Numididae, the tendon of musculus extensor carpi ulnaris present in fossil stem group representatives of the Psittac-
also inserts on the os metacarpale minus, and Stegmann iformes (Mayr and Daniels 1998) and has accordingly
(1978) assumed that in these birds the processus inter- been coded.
metacarpalis is secondarily reduced (see above). A fairly 59. Tibiotarsus, distal end with proximo-distally short and
well-developed processus intermetacarpalis also occurs in widely spaced condyles, width of distal end two times or
extant Coliidae but is absent in early Tertiary stem group more than height of condylus lateralis: no (0), yes (1).
representatives of the Coliiformes (see Mayr and Peters 60. Fibula very long, extending over almost the entire length
1998; Mayr 2001). of the tibiotarsus, distal end fused to shaft: no (0), yes (1).
45. Os carpi ulnare with crus longum being much longer than This character occurs in only few other taxa, for example,
crus breve: no (0), yes (1). cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae) and loons (Gaviidae).
46. Os carpi ulnare with crus longum greatly abbreviated: no The bula measures only about two-third of the length
(0), yes (1). of the tibiotarsus in some Accipitridae (e.g. Accipiter nisus,
47. Fossa dorsalis of phalanx proximalis digiti majoris divided Circus spp., Necrosyrtes monachus, Spizaetus ornatus).
into two depressions by a distinctly raised oblique bulge: Although it is very long presumable basal (Griths 1994;
no (0), yes (1). Holdaway 1994) accipitrid taxa as Elanus, the polarity of
48. Phalanx proximalis digiti majoris, well-developed proces- the character in this taxon is uncertain and it was
sus internus indicis (terminology after Stegmann 1963): accordingly coded 01.
absent (0), present (1). 61. Tarsometatarsus, hypotarsus passing into a well-devel-
49. Phalanx proximalis digiti majoris, proximal end with oped crista medianoplantaris; fossa parahypotarsalis
large, proximally directing process on ventral side (Fig. 2): medialis very marked and proximal part of margo medialis
no (0), yes (1). This process is concave on its medial side forming a sharp ridge: no (0), yes (1).
and, in proximal view, continuous with facies articularis 62. Tarsometatarsus, hypotarsus without bony canals, crista
metacarpalis. lateralis separated from crista medialis by a wide sulcus:
50. Pelvis wide in mediolateral direction, width across anti- no (0), yes (1). Within the Accipitridae, the cristae
trochanters as much or more than length of synsacrum: no hypotarsi are bridged by bone in Pandion and some of
(0), yes (1). the pernine kites (see Jollie 1977a: Fig. 137), which is
51. Pelvis, mid-section of cristae iliacae dorsales greatly here considered to be an autapomorphic feature of these
reduced: no (0), yes (1). taxa. The feature is absent in Sagittariidae and
52. Pelvis, crista dorsolateralis ilii strongly developed, over- Cathartidae which are currently also included in the
hanging a marked concavitas infracristalis and a marked Falconiformes.
sulcus antitrochantericus and convexly bowed if pelvis is 63. Tarsometatarsus, hypotarsus, tendon of musculus exor
viewed from its dorsal side, praeacetabular part much hallucis longus enclosed in bony canal: no (0), yes (1).
longer than postacetabular part, spina dorsolateralis ilii Contrary to the statement in George and Berger (1966:
reduced: no (0), yes (1). These characters might be part of p. 433), the tendon of m. exor hallucis longus is enclosed
a single character complex and were thus coded as a single by a bony canal in the Upupidae and Phoeniculidae.
character. 64. Tarsometatarsus, hypotarsus, tendon of musculus exor
53. Pelvis, well-developed tubercula praeacetabularia: present digitorum longus enclosed in bony canal: no (0), yes (1).
(0), absent (1). Within Cracidae/Phasianidae, the tubercula 65. Tarsometatarsus, arcus extensorius (ossied retinaculum
praeacetabularia are vestigial in the Tetraoninae (Phasi- extensorium tarsometatarsi): absent (0), present (1). The
presence of this character in Pandion (Accipitridae) is here 77. Musculus exor cruris lateralis, pars accessoria (Y muscle
considered to be an autapomorphy of this taxon. in the formula of George and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.1):
66. Tarsometatarsus, canalis interosseus distalis: present (0), present (0), absent (1); (after Gadow 1893; Hudson 1948;
absent (1). This canal opens into the incisura intertrochle- Baumel and Witmer 1993: p. 219). The pars accessoria is
aris lateralis and is not to be confused with the foramen lost in a few taxa within the Galbulae (Jacamerops,
vasculare distale. Galbulidae) and Pici (Sphyrapicus, Dendrocopos, Picoides,
67. Tarsometatarsus, incisurae intertrochleares very short: no Picidae) (Swierczewski and Raikow 1981), which in
(0), yes (1). agreement with Swierczewski and Raikow (1981) is here
68. Trochlea metatarsi IV: not as follows (0), with plantarly considered to be an autapomorphic character of these
projecting wing-like ange (typical of semi-zygodactyl taxa; accordingly it has been coded as present in the
feet) (1), with large trochlea accessoria (typical of fully Galbulae and Pici.
zygodactyl feet) (2). In extant Coliidae the wing-like ange 78. Musculus caudofemoralis, pars pelvica (B muscle in the
is rather poorly developed. However, as it is fairly large in formula of George and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.1): present
fossil Coliiformes (Mayr and Peters 1998; Mayr 2001), it (0), absent (1); (after Gadow 1893; Hudson 1948; George
was coded as present in the Coliidae. This character was and Berger 1966; McKitrick 1991).
coded as ordered. 79. Musculus bularis longus: present (0), absent (1); (after
69. Hallux, proximal phalanx with proximal end greatly Steinbacher 1937; Maurer and Raikow 1981; McKitrick
widened (Mayr 1998: Fig. 20F): no (0), yes (1). 1991).
70. Second and third phalanx of fourth toe greatly abbrevi- 80. Musculus popliteus (G muscle in the formula of George
ated, measuring less than half the length of the fourth and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.1): present (0), absent (1);
phalanx: no (0), yes (1). (after George and Berger 1966; Hudson et al. 1972;
71. Third and fourth toe coalescent at least over length of Maurer and Raikow 1981; Swierczewski and Raikow
basal phalanx of third toe: no (0), yes (1). Within the 1981; Berman and Raikow 1982; McKitrick 1991). The
Bucerotidae this character is absent in Bucorvus but it m. popliteus is present in most avian taxa which are not
cannot be conclusively shown a priori whether this absence included in this study (see George and Berger 1966: Tab.
is plesiomorphic or apomorphic. The presence of this IX.2).
character in several Passeriformes (e.g. Rupicola, Cotingi- 81. Vinculum between tendons of musculus exor perforans et
dae; see also Raikow 1985), however, unquestionably is a perforatus digiti III and m. perforatus digiti III: present
derived condition. (0), absent (1); (after George and Berger 1966; Hudson
72. Claws, pair of canals lateral and medial to tuberculum et al. 1972; McKitrick 1991).
extensorium: absent (0), present (1). This character is 82. Musculus exor hallucis longus, origin with three heads,
absent in the Sagittariidae (secretary bird) which have iliobularis tendon passes lateral to lateral head: no (0),
similar claws to those of owls, falcons and hawks. yes (1) (Swierczewski and Raikow 1981; Raikow and
73. Musculus splenius capitis: without cruciform origin (0), Cracraft 1983: Fig. 1). According to Swierczewski and
with cruciform origin (1); (after Burton 1971). This Raikow (1981: p. 473) three heads also occur in most
character is accompanied by a modied shape of the axis Passerines, but in that case the iliobularis tendon passes
(Burton 1971: p. 21) which among the taxa included in this medial to the lateral head, while in Piciformes it passes
study is only present in Aegothelidae, Hemiprocnidae, lateral to the lateral head. The condition in the two orders
Apodidae and Trochilidae. is therefore probably not homologous. The character is
74. Musculus ambiens: present (0), absent (1); (after Gadow thus coded as absent in Passeriformes.
1893; McKitrick 1991). The musculus ambiens is present 83. Musculus exor hallucis longus: tendon supplying hallux
in most taxa outside those included in this study (see (0) tendon not supplying hallux (1); (after Gadow 1893;
George and Berger 1966: p. 421). Within the Psittacidae, George and Berger 1966; Maurer and Raikow 1981).
there are some taxa which have the ambiens and others 84. Tendon of musculus exor hallucis longus supplies digits I,
that lack it (Beddard 1898: p. 268). II, and VI; (deep exor tendons type VI, see George and
75. Musculus iliofemoralis externus (D muscle in the formula Berger 1966: 448; Simpson and Cracraft 1981: p. 483): no
of George and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.1): present (0), absent (0), yes (1); (after Gadow 1893; George and Berger 1966;
(1); (after Steinbacher 1937; Hudson 1948; George and Raikow 1985).
Berger 1966; Ho 1966; Hudson et al. 1972; Maurer and 85. Tendon of musculus extensor digitorum longus sending
Raikow 1981; Berman and Raikow 1982; McKitrick branch to hallux: no (0), yes (1); (after Berman and
1991). Ho (1966) explained the absence of this muscle Raikow 1982; Berman 1984).
in some of the taxa he studied by its fusion with m. 86. Musculus abductor digiti II: present (0), absent (1); (after
iliotrochantericus caudalis. This muscle is completely Hudson 1948; George and Berger 1966; Hudson et al.
reduced in few other avian taxa (e.g. Podicipedidae and 1972; Maurer and Raikow 1981; Raikow 1982; McKitrick
Columbidae; see George and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.2). 1991).
76. Musculus exor cruris lateralis, pars pelvica (X muscle 87. Oil gland: tufted (0) or minutely tufted (only vestigial
in the formula of George and Berger 1966: Tab. IX.1): feather remains present)/naked (1); (after Johnston 1988).
present (0), absent (1); (after Gadow 1893; Hudson 88. Wing: diastataxic (0), eutaxic (1); (after Stephan 1970;
1948; Ho 1966; McKitrick 1991; Baumel and Witmer Sibley and Ahlquist 1990: p. 217f.).
1993: p. 219). Concerning the condition of this character 89. Villi at the bases of the basalmost downy barbules of
in swifts and hummingbirds, we followed McKitrick breast feathers: absent (0), present (1); (after Brom
(1991: p. 13). 1990).
Appendix 2
Character matrix of 89 morphological characters for the 29 taxa included in this study (see Appendix 1 for character denitions). Polymorphic characters are coded as such, unknown
character states are indicated by ?. Tinamidae, Cracidae/Phasianidae, and Anatidae were used for outgroup comparison
Characters and character states
Taxa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Tinamidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cracidae/Phasianidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 01 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Anatidae 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Opisthocomidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0 1 0 0 ? 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Monophyletic groups within higher land birds
Falconidae 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 01 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Accipitridae 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Strigidae/Tytonidae 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 01 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01
Psittacidae 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 01 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Cuculidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 01 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Musophagidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Coliidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Leptosomidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ? 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Alcedinidae 1 0 0 0 01 0 1 0 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Meropidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Todidae/Momotidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Coraciidae/Brachypt. 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Steatornithidae 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Podargidae 1 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
Caprimulgidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
Nyctibiidae 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 ? 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
Aegothelidae 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
Apodidae/Hemiproc. 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Trochilidae 0 0 1 0 0 ? 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Upupidae/Phoenicul. 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 ? 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 01 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
Bucerotidae 1 0 0 0 0 ? 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 01 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Passeriformes 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 01 1 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Pici 01 0 0 0 0 ? 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 1 1 0 1 1 1 01 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
Galbulae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Trogonidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
247
248
Appendix 2
Continued
Characters and character states
Taxa 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89
Tinamidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ?
Cracidae/Phasianidae 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 ?
Anatidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 ?
Opisthocomidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ?
Falconidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ?
Accipitridae 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 01 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 01 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ?
Strigidae/Tytonidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 01 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Psittacidae 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 01 0 01 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
Cuculidae 1 01 0 0 01 1 0 01 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Musophagidae 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Coliidae 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Leptosomidae 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 ? 1 0 0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Alcedinidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 01 0
Meropidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 ? 0 1 1 1 ? 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
Todidae/Momotidae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 ? 0 1 0 1 ? 0 1 0 0 1 01 1 0
Coraciidae/Brachypt. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 0
Steatornithidae 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Podargidae 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 01 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Caprimulgidae 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Nyctibiidae 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Aegothelidae 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ?
Apodidae/Hemiproc. 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 01 1 1 0 0 01 01 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 01 0
Trochilidae 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 ? 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 01 1
Upupidae/Phoenicul. 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 01 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
Bucerotidae 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 01 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Passeriformes 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Pici 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 01 0 0 1 01 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
Galbulae 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 01 01 ? 1 0 1 0 ? 1 1 0
Trogonidae 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 01 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
Mayr, Manegold and Johansson

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J. Zool. Syst. Evol.

Research 41 (2003) 233248 Received on 16 August 2002

Monophyletic groups within higher land birds comparison of morphological

U.S. Copyright Clearance Center Code Statement: 09475745/03/41040233$15.00/0 www.blackwell.de/synergy

Table 1. Samples used in the study

GenBank GenBank GenBank

Anseriformes Chauna torquata T.J. Parsons AY034413 5 AY165805 6

Results The taxon (Caprimulgidae + Nyctibiidae) is supported by a

osseous sheet; (34) sternum, facies articularis coracoideus (a) (b)

which is shown in Fig. 7. Although the tree topology diers in

Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae and Aegothelidae, whereas the Apo- Piciformes

possible synapomorphy of these taxa, but this process is fairly References

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Mayr Et Al JSZER

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Mayr Et Al JSZER

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Copyright

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Mayr Et Al JSZER

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J. Zool. Syst. Evol.

Research 41 (2003) 233248 Received on 16 August 2002

Monophyletic groups within higher land birds comparison of morphological

U.S. Copyright Clearance Center Code Statement: 09475745/03/41040233$15.00/0 www.blackwell.de/synergy

Table 1. Samples used in the study

GenBank GenBank GenBank

Anseriformes Chauna torquata T.J. Parsons AY034413 5 AY165805 6

Results The taxon (Caprimulgidae + Nyctibiidae) is supported by a

osseous sheet; (34) sternum, facies articularis coracoideus (a) (b)

which is shown in Fig. 7. Although the tree topology diers in

Nyctibiidae, Caprimulgidae and Aegothelidae, whereas the Apo- Piciformes

possible synapomorphy of these taxa, but this process is fairly References

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