DCA 3303 Full

COMPUTER NETWORKS
DCA 3303
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY

DCA 3303
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Course Development Team
Writer
Prof. Dr. Md. Mozammel Huq Azad Khan

Computer Science and Engineering Discipline
Khulna University
Co-ordinator
Mohammod Shamim Hossain
School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University
Editor
Anwar Sadat

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Editorial Board
President
Professor Mofiz Uddin Ahmed

Member
Dr. K. M. Rezanur Rahman

Assistant Professor
Anwar Sadat
Lecturer
Mohammod Shamim Hossain

Over All Supervision
Professor Saidur Rahman

Dean, School of Science and Technology
Published by : Publishing, Printing & Distribution

Division
Bangladesh Open University, Gazipur-1704
September 1998
 School of Science and Technology
Bangladesh Open University, Gazipur-1704
ISBN 984-34-4001-3
Computer Composed & Desktop Processing by : Md. Jakir

Hossain Cover Design : Monirul Islam.
Printed by : Rupali Printing & Packages Ltd. 75, South
Basabo, Dhaka- 1214.
Computer Networks
Contents
Unit 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

Lesson 1 : Computer Networks ............................................................................ 1
Lesson 2 : Types of Computer Networks .............................................................. 4
Lesson 3 : Network Topology ............................................................................... 7
Unit 2 : Computer Networks Architecture

Lesson 1 : Protocols .............................................................................................. 11
Lesson 2 : The OSI Model .................................................................................... 16
Lesson 3 : Layers of the OSI Model ....................................................................... 22
Lesson 4 : The PCP/IP Protocol Suite .................................................................. 26
Unit 3 : Data Transmission Fundamentals

Lesson 1 : Basic Concepts ..................................................................................... 33
Lesson 2 : Frequency-Domain Consideration of Signals and Transmission
Impairments ......................................................................................... 37
Lesson 3 : Metallic Transmission Media ................................................................. 41
Lesson 4 : Optical Fiber ......................................................................................... 45
Lesson 5 : Unguided Transmission Techniques .................................................... 48
Lesson 6 : Transmission Systems ......................................................................... 53
Unit 4 : Data Encoding

Lesson 1 : Encoding of Digital Data Into Signals .................................................... 57
Lesson 2 : Encoding of Digital Data Into Analog Signals ........................................ 61
Lesson 3 : Encoding of Analog Data Into Digital Signal .......................................... 64
Lesson 4 : Encoding of Analog Data Into Analog Signal ........................................ 68
Unit 5 : Digital Data Communications Techniques

Lesson 1 : Transmission Mode ............................................................................... 71
Lesson 2 : Error Detection Techniques ................................................................... 75
Lesson 3 : Transmission Line Interfaces ................................................................ 81
Unit 6 : Data Link Control

Lesson 1 : Line Configuration ................................................................................. 85
Lesson 2 : Flow Control .......................................................................................... 89
Lesson 3 : Error Control ......................................................................................... 94
Lesson 4 : HDLC and Data Link Control Protocol .................................................. 99
Unit 7 : Multiplexing
Lesson 1 : Frequency Division Multiplexing ............................................................ 105
Lesson 2 : Time Division Multiplexing ..................................................................... 109
Unit 8 : Switched Data Communication Networking
Lesson 1 : Circuit Switching ..................................................................................... 113
Lesson 2 : Control Signaling in Circuit-Switched Network ...................................... 117
Lesson 3 : Packet Switching ................................................................................... 123
Lesson 4 : Routing in Packet-Switched Network .................................................... 126
Lesson 5 : Traffic Control in Packet Switched Network .......................................... 131
Lesson 6 : X.25 Protocol Standard ......................................................................... 136
Unit 9 : Local Area Networks
Lesson 1 : LAN Technology .................................................................................... 141
Lesson 2 : Medium Access Control Protocols ........................................................ 152
Lesson 3 : LAN Standards ...................................................................................... 158
Unit 10 : Transport Protocols

Lesson 1 : Transport Services and Protocol Mechanisms ...................................... 165
Lesson 2 : Network Services and Transport Protocols ........................................... 170
Unit 11 : Session Services and Protocols

Lesson 1 : Session Characteristics, Requirements and Standards ........................ 179
Unit 12 : Presentation Facilities

Lesson 1 : Presentation Concepts and Abstract Syntax Notation one (ASN 1) ...... 185
Lesson 2 : Network Security : Encryption and Authentication .................................. 191
Lesson 3 : Virtual Terminal Protocols : Telnet and the ISO Standard ...................... 197
Unit 13 : Distributed Applications

Lesson 1 : Network Management : SNMPv2 .......................................................... 203
Lesson 2 : File Transfer : FTAM .............................................................................. 208
Lesson 3 : Electronic Mail : X. 400 .......................................................................... 214
Answer to the MCQs .................................................................................. 221

PREFACE
During the first two decades of their existence, computer systems were highly
centralized, usually within a single large room. The old model of a single computer
serving all of the organization’s computational needs has been obsolete and the
computer workloads are continuously being decentralized. The need for
communicating among the geographically dispersed computers has evolved
computer networks. So computer network has become an essential part of
computer science education. The purpose of this book is to present various
concepts, protocols, standards, and applications related to computer networks. The
materials of the book are mostly organized on the basis of different layers of the
computer network architecture. The concept of data communications in the physical
layer is given special attention. The other layers are discussed in relation to
protocols and standards recently being used. Concepts and technologies of the
local area networks are also given special emphasis. The book is divided into
thirteen units covering all aspects of computer networks.
Unit 1 deals with definition, types, and topologies of computer networks.
Unit 2 introduces the architectural concepts of computer networks. The OSI Model
and the TCP/IP protocol suite are presented.
Unit 3 presents various concepts related to signals and data transmission. Data
transmission media and techniques are also presented.
Unit 4 deals with various techniques of data encoding for transmission.
Unit 5 discusses transmission of digital data. Error detection techniques and
transmission line interface standards for digital data transmission are also
discussed.
Unit 6 presents concepts, techniques, and protocols for data link control.
Unit 7 introduces multiplexing techniques for data link.
Unit 8 deals with switched data communication networking. Circuit switched
networking is introduced briefly. Packet switching networking is discussed in details
including one widely used protocol standard.
Unit 9 discusses concepts, technologies, and standards of local area networks.
Unit 10 presents services and protocols related to transport mechanism.
Unit 11 introduces session services and protocols.
Unit 12 discusses presentation concepts and protocols. Network security and virtual
terminal protocol are also presented.
Unit 13 deals with some distributed applications including electronic mail system.
At the end of each lesson there is an exercise. The answers of the multiple choice
questions are provided at the end of the book. A learner can check his/her
understanding of the lesson by answering the questions.
Unit 1 : Introduction to Computer
Networks
Introduction
Computer workloads are continuously being decentralized. The

need for communicating among the geographically dispersed
computers has evolved computer networks. In this unit,
preliminary ideas of computer networks are introduced.
Classification of computer networks and their topologies are also
presented in this unit.
Lesson 1 : Computer Networks

1.1. Learning Objectives
On completion of this lesson you will be able to :
 grasp the elementary idea of computer networks

 understand the goals of computer networks
 grasp the idea of message transmission over a computer
network
1.2. What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is an interconnected collection of

A computer network is an
autonomous computers.
interconnected collection
of autonomous
computers. An autonomous computer is one whose start, stop and control do
not depend on any other computer.
Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to

exchange information. This connection between two computers
may be using copper wire, fiber optics, microwaves, and
communication satellites.
1.3. Computer Networks and Distributed Systems
There is a considerable confusion between a computer network

and a distributed system. In a computer network, users explicitly
log onto one computer, explicitly submit jobs remotely, explicitly
move files around and generally handle all the network
management personally.
Computer Networks
In a distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous

computers is not visible to the user. A user can type a command
to run a program, and it runs. It is up to the operating system to
select best processor, find and transport all the input files to that
processor, and put the results in the appropriate place. In a
distributed system, nothing has to be done explicitly, it is all
automatically done by the system without the user’s knowledge.
In effect, a distributed system is a software system built on top of
a computer network.
1.4. Goals of Computer Networks
Computer networks have the following goals :
(i) Resource sharing : Programs, equipment, and data

available to anyone on the network can be shared without
regard to the physical location of resource and the user.
(ii) High reliability : Alternative sources of resource supply
provide high reliability. For example, files could be placed
on two or three computers, so if one of them is unavailable
due to a hardware failure, the other copies could be used.
In addition, for presence of multiple CPUs, if one goes down
the other may be able to take over its work.
(iii) Saving money : Resource sharing provides considerable
saving of money.
(iv) Salability : Computer network provides ability to increase
system performance gradually as the workload grows just
by adding more processor in the network.
(v) Communication medium : A computer network provides a
powerful communication medium among widely separated
people. For example, it is easy for two or more people who
live far apart to write a report using a computer network.
1.5. Message Transmission over a Computer Network
A message in a computer network is a single unit of

communication. For example, in an e-mail system, a message
would consist of a document sent from one user to another. A
message in an image transmission system could be a single
figure, image, or diagram.
To transmit a message over a computer network, it is usually

Long messages are
normally broken up into represented as a string of bits. Transmitting long message as one
shorter bit strings called complete unit is generally not done for various reasons. Long
packets. messages are normally broken up into shorter bit strings called
packets. These packets are then sent through the network as
2
Introduction to Computer Networks
individual units and are reassembled into complete message at

the destination computer.
1.6. Exercise
1.6.1. Multiple choice questions
a. A computer network is an interconnected collection of
i) autonomous computers
ii) network nodes
iii) mainframe computers
iv) personal computers.
b. A distributed system is
i) basically a computer network

ii) a software system built on top of a computer network
iii) the operating system of a computer network
iv) none of the above.
1.6.2. Questions for short answers
a) What is a computer network?

b) What is a distributed system?
c) What is a message?
d) What is a packet?
1.6.3. Analytical questions
a) Discuss the difference between a computer network and a

distributed system.
b) Discuss the goals of a computer networks.
c) Discuss the relationship between message and packet.
3
Computer Networks
Lesson 2 : Types Of Computer Networks

 classify computer networks based on transmission technology

 classify computer networks based on their scale
 grasp the idea of inter-networking.
2.2. Types of Computer Networks Based on Transmission

Technology
Types of computer There are two types of computer networks based on transmission
networks based on technology :
transmission technology.
(i) Broadcast Networks : Broadcast networks have a single
communication channel that is shared by all the computers on
the network. Packets sent by any computer are received by
all the others. An address field within the packet specifies for
whom it is intended. Upon receiving a packet, a computer
checks the address field. If the packet is intended for itself, it
process the packet; if the packet is intended for some other
computer, it is just ignored.
(ii) Point-to-point Networks : Point-to-point networks consist of
many connections between individual pairs of computers. To
go from source to the destination, a packet on this type of
network may have to first visit one or more intermediate
computers.
2.3. Types of Computer Networks Based on Their Scale
Types of computer There are three types of computer networks based on their scale
networks based on their :
scale.
(i) Local Area Networks : Local area networks, generally called
LANs, are privately owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometers in size. They are widely
used to connect personal computers and workstations in
company offices and factories to share resources and
exchange information.
(ii) Metropolitan Area Networks : A metropolitan area network,
or MAN, is basically a bigger version of a LAN and normally
uses similar technologies. It might cover a group of nearby
corporate offices or a city and might be either private or
public.
4
(iii) Wide Area Networks : A wide are network, or WAN, spans a

large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of computers intended for running user
programs called hosts or end systems. The hosts are
connected by a communication subnet, or just subnet for
short.
2.4. Internetworks
Many computer networks exist in the world, often with different

hardware and software. People connected to one network often
want to communicate with people attached to a different one.
This desire requires connecting together different and frequently
incompatible networks. The connection is made by using
computers called gateways to provide the necessary translation
both in terms of hardware and software. A collection of
A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or just internet.
interconnected networks
is called an internetwork
or just internet. A common form of internet is a collection of LANs connected by a
WAN.
The Internet is a specific world wide internet that is widely used

to connect universities, government offices, companies, and
private individuals.
2.5. Exercise
a. A broadcast network has
i) a single communication channel shared by all computers

ii) many communication channels, each shared by a group
of computers
iii) point-to-point communication channel between each pair
of computers
b. A LAN spans over
i) only few meters

ii) few kilometers
5
Computer Networks
iii) hundreds of kilometers

iv) many countries.
a) What is a broadcast network?

b) What is a point-to-point channel?
c) What is a LAN?
d) What is a MAN?
e) What is a WAN?
f) What is a host?
g) What is a subnet?
h) What is an internet?
i) What is the Internet?
j) What is a gateway?
a) Classify computer networks based on transmission

technology.
b) Classify computer networks based on their scale.
c) Discuss the difference between internet and the Internet.
6
Lesson 3 : Network Topology

 know the different topologies used in LANs

 know the different topologies used in the subnet of WANs.
3.2. Definition
The manner in which computers in a network are geometrically

arranged and connected is known as the topology of the
network.
3.3. Topologies used in LANs
Broadcast networks are commonly used in LANs. Figure 1.1

shows three commonly used topologies for LANs.
Computer Hub
Computer Cable
Cable
(a) Bus (b) Ring (c) Star
Fig. 1.1 : Topologies commonly used in LANs.
Bus Topology : In a bus topology, all the computers are

connected to a common transmission medium. As a result of this,
only one pair of computers on the network can communicate at
In a bus topology, only the same time. Each computer has a unique address which is
one pair of computers on used when information is transmitted. When a data packet is sent
the network can out, it propagates throughout the medium and is received by all
communicate at the same
computers. To receive messages, each computer continuously
time.
monitors the medium and copies those messages that are
addressed to itself as the data packets go by. Since the
transmission medium in a bus is generally time-shared, there
must be some type of control mechanism to prevent several
stations from transmitting simultaneously.
7
Computer Networks
Ring Topology : In a ring topology, consecutive computers are

connected by point-to-point links which are arranged to form a
single closed path. Data are transmitted from node to node
around the ring. The interface at each computer has the ability to
In a star topology, all recognize packets destined to it.
computers are joined at a
single point called the Star Topology : In a star topology, all computers are joined at a
hub. single point called the hub.
3.4. Topologies Used In WANs
A computer connected to the WAN is called host or end system.

The hosts are connected by a communication subnet or subnet
for short. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to
host.
The job of the subnet is to
carry messages from host In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
to host. transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or trunks) and
routers (also called nodes or switching elements).
The transmission lines move packets between computers. The

routers connect two or more transmission lines. Routers are
specialized computers.
The routers connect two
or more transmission
The collection of transmission lines and routers form the subnet
lines.
as shown in Figure 1.2.
Subnet Router
Host
LAN
Fig. 1.2: Organization of a WAN.
If two routers that are not directly connected wish to

communicate, they must do this via other intermediate routers. In
8
this case, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its

entirety, stored there until the required output line is free, and
then forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a point-to-
point (also called store-and-forward or packet switching) subnet.
Figure 1.3 shows six possible topologies used in a point-to-point

subnet.
(a) Star (b) Ring (c) Tree
(d) Complete (e) Intersecting Ring (f) Irregular
Fig. 1.3 : Topologies used in point-to-point subnet.
9
Computer Networks
3.5. Exercise
a. In a bus topology, all the computers are connected
i) to a common transmission medium

ii) by point-to-point lines
iii) by a ring
b. A subnet consists of
i) transmission lines
ii) routers
iii) routers and transmission lines
a) What is topology of a network?

b) What is a host?
c) What is a subnet?
d) What is a router?
e) What is a point-to-point subnet?
a) Discuss different types of topologies used in LANs.

b) Discuss different types of topologies used in point-to-point
subnet of a WAN.
10
Unit 2 : Computer Networks
Architecture
Introduction
Network hardware is reasonably standard and generally presents

few problems. However, when communication is desired among
heterogeneous (different vendors, different models of same
vendor) computers or hosts, the software development effort can
be a nightmare. A one-at-a-time special-purpose approach to
network software development is too costly to be acceptable. The
Set of convention is
referred to as protocol. only alternative is for computer vendors to adopt and implement a
common set of conventions. This set of convention is referred to
as protocol. The task of communication in a truly cooperative
way between applications on different computers is too complex
to be handled as a unit. The problem must be decomposed into
manageable parts. Hence before one can develop standards,
there should be a structure or architecture that defines the
communications task. In this unit, the concept of protocol and
various architectural models of computer networks are discussed.
Lesson 1 : Protocols
 grasp the concept of protocol used in computer networks

 grasp the characteristics and features of protocols.
1.2. Characteristics of Protocols
In computer networks, entities in different hosts need to

communicate. Examples of entities are user application
programs, file transfer packages, data base management
systems, electronic mail facilities, and terminals. In general, an
entity is anything capable of sending or receiving information.
For two entities to successfully communicate they must “speak

the same language”. What is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated must conform to
some mutually accepted set of conventions between the entities
evolved. The set of conventions is referred to as protocol, which
Computer Networks
may be defined as set of rules governing the exchange of data

between two entities. The key elements of a protocol are :
 Syntax : includes such things as data format, coding, and
signal levels.
 Semantics : includes control information for coordination and
error handling.
 Timing : includes speed matching and sequencing.
Some important characteristics of a protocol are :
 Direct/indirect
Important characteristics  Monolithic/structured
of a protocol.  Symmetric/asymmetric
 Standard/nonstandard.
Direct/indirect : Communication between two entities may be

direct or indirect. If two hosts share a point-to-point link, the
entities in these hosts may communicate directly; that is, data
and control information pass directly between entities with no
intervening active agent. If hosts connect through a switched
communication networks, the two entities must depend on the
functioning of other entities to exchange data.
Monolithic/structured : A protocol may be monolithic or

structured. The task of communication between entities on
different hosts is too complex to be handled as a unit. An
alternative is to use structured design and implementation
techniques. Instead of a single protocol, there is a set of
protocols that exhibit a hierarchical or layered structure. More
primitive functions are implemented in lower-level entities that
provide service to higher-level entities. When structured protocol
design is used, we refer to the hardware and software used to
implement the communications functions as a network
architecture.
The symmetric protocols Symmetric/asymmetric : Protocol may be symmetric or
involve communication
between peer entities.
asymmetric. The symmetric protocols involve communication
between peer entities. Asymmetric may be dictated by the logic of
an exchange, or by the desire to keep one of the entities as
simple as possible.
Standard/nonstandard : A protocol may be either standard or

nonstandard. A nonstandard protocol is one built for a specific
communication situation. The increasing use of distributed
processing dictate that all vendors implement protocols that
conform to an agreed upon standard.
12
Computer Networks Architecture
1.3. Functions of Protocols
We can group protocol functions into the following categories:

 Segmentation and reassembly
 Encapsulation
 Connection control
 Ordered delivery
Functions of Protocols
 Flow control
 Synchronization
 Addressing
 Multiplexing
 Transmission services.
Segmentation and Reassembly : A protocol is concerned with

exchanging streams of data between two entities. Usually, the
transfer can be characterized as consisting of a sequence of
blocks of data of some bounded size. Lower level protocols may
need to break the data up into blocks of some smaller bounded
size. This process is called segmentation, or fragmentation.
A block of data exchanged between two entities via a protocol is

referred to as a protocol data unit (PDU). The counterpart of
segmentation is reassembled.
Encapsulation : Each PDU contains not only data but control

information. Indeed, some PDUs consists solely of control
information and no data. The control information falls into three
general categories :
 Address : The address of the sender and/or receiver may be
indicated.
 Error-detecting code : Some sort of frame check sequence
is often included for error detection.
 Protocol control : Additional information is included to
implement the protocol function.
The addition of control information to data is referred to as
encapsulation.
Connection Control : An entity may transmit data to another
entity in an unplanned fashion and without prior coordination.
The addition of control This is known as connectionless data transfer. If stations
information to data is anticipate a lengthy exchange of data and/or certain details of
referred to as their protocol must be worked out dynamically, a logical
encapsulation. connection is established between the entities. This is known as
13
Computer Networks
connection-oriented data transfer. In connection-oriented data

transfer, three phases occur :
 Connection establishment.
 Data transfer.
 Connection termination.
Ordered Delivery : If two communicating entities are in different
hosts connected by a network, there is a risk that PDUs will not
arrive in the order in which they are sent, because they may
traverse different paths through the network. In connection-
oriented protocols, it is generally required that PDU order be
maintained.
Flow Control : Flow control is a function performed by a

receiving entity to limit the amount or rate of data that is sent by a
transmitting entity. Flow control is a function that must be
implemented in several protocols.
Error Control : Techniques are needed to guard against loss or

damage of data and control information. Most techniques involve
error detection and PDU retransmission. Error control is a
function that must be performed at various levels of protocols.
Synchronization : It is occasionally important that two

communicating protocol entities simultaneously in a well-defined
state, for example at initialization, check pointing, and
termination. This is termed synchronization.
Addressing : For two entities to communicate, other than over a

point-to-point link, they must somehow be able to identify each
other.
Multiplexing : Multiplexing permits multiple simultaneous

connection.
Transmission Services : A protocol may provide a variety of

additional services to the entities that use it. Three common
examples of services are :
 Priority : Certain message, such as control messages, may

need to get through to the destination entity with minimum
delay. Thus priority may be assigned on a message basis.
 Grade of Service : Certain classes of data may require a
minimum throughput or a maximum delay threshold.
 Security : Security mechanism may be involved.
14
1.4. Exercise
1.4.1. Multiple choice question
a. An entity is
i) anything capable of sending or receiving information.

ii) a software capable of sending or receiving information.
iii) a hardware capable of sending or receiving information.
a) What are protocol and network architecture?

b) What are the key elements of a protocol?
a) Describe the important characteristics of a protocol.

b) Describe the various categories of functions of a protocol.
15
Computer Networks
Lesson 2 : The OSI Model

 grasp the concepts of OSI reference model

 know the names of seven layers of OSI model
 know the principle of operation of OSI model
 grasp the concept of service primitive and parameters.
2.2. Introduction
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1977

established a subcommittee to develop a computer network
The OSI model provides
architecture. The result was the Open System Interconnection
the basis for connecting (OSI) reference model, adopted in 1983, which is a framework for
“open” systems for defining standards for linking heterogeneous computers. The OSI
distributed processing. model provides the basis for connecting “open” systems for
distributed processing. The term “open” denotes the ability of any
two systems conforming to the reference model and the
associated standards to connect.
2.3. Concepts
A widely accepted structuring technique is layering. The

communication functions are partitioned into a vertical set of
layers. Each layer performs a related subset of the functions
The layers are defined so
that changes in one layer required to communicate with another system. It relies on the
do not require changes in next lower layer to perform more primitive functions and to
the other layers. conceal the details of these functions. It provides services to the
next higher layer. The layers are defined so that changes in one
layer do not require changes in the other layers.
The OSI reference model has seven layers as follows :
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer.
It takes two to communicate, so the same set of layered functions

must exist in two systems. Communication is achieved by having
16
corresponding (“peer”) entities in the same layer in two different

systems communicate via a protocol.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the OSI model. Each system contains the
seven layers. Communication is between applications in the
systems, labeled application X and application Y in the figure. If
application X wishes to send a message to application Y, it
invokes the application layer (layer 7). Layer 7 establishes a peer
relationship with layer 7 of the target machine, using a layer 7
protocol. This protocol requires services from layer 6, so the two
layer 6 entities use a protocol of their own, and so on down to the
physical layer, which actually passes the bits through a
transmission medium.
Outgoing Application X Application Y Incoming
PDU Construction PDU Construction
AH User Data Application Application AH User Data
PH A-PDU Presentation Presentation PH A-PDU
SH P-PDU Session Session SH P-PDU
TH S-PDU Transport Transport TH S-PDU
NH T-PDU Network Network NH T-PDU
LH N-PDU LT Data Link Data Link LH N-PDU LT
DL-PDU Physical Physical DL-PDU

Communications
Path (e.g. point to
point link, network)
Fig. 2.1 : The OSI environment.
There is no direct communication between peer layers except at

the physical layer. That is, above the physical layer, each
protocol entity sends data down to the next lower layer in order to
get the data across to its peer entity.
To assure the effective
communication between
two heterogeneous To assure the effective communication between two
systems, standards are heterogeneous systems, standards are needed. Standards must
needed. define the functions and services to be provided by a layer (but
not how it is to be done - that may differ from system to system).
Standards must also define the protocols between peer layers
(each protocol must be identical for the two peer layers). The OSI
17
Computer Networks
model, by defining a seven-layer architecture, provides a

framework for defining these standards.
(N+1)
(N+1) entity
layer
(N-1) Service
access point
(N) (N) Protocol

layer entity
(N-1) Service
access point
(N-1) (N-1)
layer entity
(N-1) Connection
Fig. 2.2 : The layer concept.
Some useful OSI terminology is illustrated in Figure 2.2. For

simplicity, any layer is referred to as the (N) layer, and names of
constructs associated with that layer are also preceded by (N).
Within a system, there are one or more active entities in each
layer. An (N) entity implements functions of the (N) layer and also
the protocol for communicating with (N) entities in other systems.
There might be multiple identical (N) entities. There might also be
different (N) entities, corresponding to different protocol
standards at that level.
Each entity communicates with entities in the layers above and

below it across an interface. The interface is realized as one or
more service access points (SAPs). The (N-1) entity provides
Service access points services to an (N) entity via the invocation of primitives. A
primitive specifies the function to be performed and is used to
pass data and control information.
The OSI model is connection-oriented. Two (N) entities

communicate, using a protocol, by means of an (N-1) connection.
This logical connection is provided by (N-1) entities between (N-
1) SAPs.
Figure 2.1 illustrates the OSI principle in operation. When

application X has a message to send to application Y, it transfers
these data to an application entity in the application layer. A
header is appended to the data that contains the required
information for the peer layer 7 protocol (encapsulation). The
18
original data, plus the header, is now passed as a unit to layer 6.

The presentation entity treats the whole unit as data, and
appends its own header. This process continues down through
layer2, which generally adds both a header and a trailer. This
layer 2 unit, called a frame, is then passed by the physical layer
onto the transmission medium. When the frame is received by
the target system, the reverse process occurs. As the data
ascend, each layer strips off the outer most header, acts on the
protocol information contained therein, and passes the remainder
up to the next layer.
2.4. Service Primitives and Parameters
Each layer is defined in

Each layer is defined in two parts: the protocol between peer
two parts: the protocol entities in different systems and the services provided by one
between peer entities in layer to the next higher layer in the same system. Protocols are
different systems and the defined in terms of the formats of protocol data units (PDUs) that
services provided by one are exchanged and the rules governing the use of those PDUs.
layer to the next higher The services between adjacent layers are expressed in terms of
layer. primitives and parameters. A primitive specifies the function to be
performed, and the parameters are used to pass data and control
information.
Four types of primitives are used in standards to define the

interaction between adjacent layers in the architecture :
 REQUEST : A primitive issued by a service user to invoke

some service and to pass the parameters needed to fully
specify the requested service.
 INDICATION : A primitive issued by a service provider to
either (i) indicate that a procedure has been invoked by the
peer service user on the connection and to provide the
associated parameters, or (ii) notify the service user of a
provider-initiated action.
 RESPONSE : A primitive issued by a service user to
acknowledge or complete some procedure previously invoked
by an indication to that user.
 CONFIRM : A primitive issued by a service provider to
acknowledge or complete some procedure previously invoked
by a request by the service user.
The layout of figure 2.3 suggests the time ordering of these

events. For example, consider the transfer of data from an (N)
entity to a peer (N) entity in another system. The following steps
occur :
19
Computer Networks
1. The source (N) entity invokes its (N-1) entity with a

DATA.request primitive. Associated with the primitive are the
parameters needed, such as the data to be transmitted and
the destination address.
2. The source (N-1) entity prepares an (N-1) PDU to be sent to
its peer (N-1) entity.
3. The destination (N-1) entity delivers the data to the
appropriate destination (N) entity via a DATA.indication, which
includes the data and source address as parameters.
4. If an acknowledgment is called for, the destination (N) entity
issues a DATA.response to its (N-1) entity.
5. The (N-1) entity conveys the acknowledgment in an (N-1)
PDU.
6. The acknowledgment is delivered to the (N) entity as a
DATA.confirm.
Service user Service provider Service user

(layer N) (layer N-1) (layer N)
X-request t1
t2 X-indication
X-confirm t3 X-response
t4
(a) Confirmed Service
Service user Service provider Service user

(layer N) (layer N-1) (layer N)
X-request t1
t2 X-indication
(b) Nonconfirmed Service
Fig. 2.3 : Time sequence diagrams for primitives.
This sequence of events is referred to as a confirmed service, as

the initiator receives confirmation that the requested service has
had the desired effect at the other end. If only request and
indication primitives are involved (corresponding to steps 1
through 3), then the service dialogue is a nonconfirmed service;
20
the initiator receives no confirmation that the requested action

has taken place (figure 2.3b).
2.5. Exercise
a. In the OSI reference model, which of the following is true?
i) layers N uses services provided by layer N-1

ii) layer N provides services to layer N+1
iii) layer N communicates with the peer layer N of the target
machine
iv) all of the above.
b. In the OSI reference model, physical communication takes

place in
i) Transport Layer
ii) Network Layer
iii) Data Link Layer
iv) Physical Layer.
a) Name the seven layers of the OSI reference model.

b) What is service access points (SAPs)?
c) What are primitives and parameters?
a) Discuss the OSI reference model with neat diagram.

b) Discuss the four types of standard primitives used to
define the interaction between adjacent layers.
21
Computer Networks
Lesson 3 : Layers of the OSI Model

3.1. Learning Objective
 know the functions of the seven layers of the OSI model

 know useful perspective on OSI architecture.
3.2. Layers of the OSI Model
Physical Layer
The physical layer covers the physical interface between devices

and the rules by which bits are passed from one to another. The
physical layer has four important characteristics :
The physical layer has  Mechanical

four important  Electrical
characteristics.  Functional
 Procedural.
Data Link Layer
While the physical layer provides only a raw bit stream service,
the data link layer attempts to make the physical link reliable and
provides the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the link.
The principal service provided by the data link layer to the higher
layers is that of error detection and control. Thus, with a fully
functional data link layer protocol, the next higher layer may
assume virtually error-free transmission over the link.
Network Layer
The network layer provides the transfer of information between

end systems across some sort of communication network. It
relieves higher layers of the need to know anything about the
underlying data transmission and switching technologies used to
connect systems. At this layer, the computer system engages in a
dialogue with the network to specify the destination address and
to request certain network facilities, such as priority.
Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that data units are delivered error-
free, in sequence, with no losses or duplications. The transport
22
layer may also be concerned with optimizing the use of network

services and providing a requested quality of service to session
entities. For example, the session entity might specify acceptable
error rates, maximum delay, priority, and security. In effect, the
transport layer serves as the user’s liaison with the
communications facility.
Session Layer
The session layer provides the mechanism for controlling the

dialogue between applications in end systems. The key services
provided by the session layer include :
 Dialogue discipline : This can be full duplex or half duplex.

 Grouping : The flow of data can be marked to define groups
The key services provided of data.
by the session layer  Recovery : The session layer can provide a check pointing
include. mechanism, so that if a failure of some sort occurs between
checkpoints, the session entity can retransmit all data since
the last checkpoint.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax of the data

The presentation layer exchanged between application entities. Its purpose is to resolve
defines the syntax used differences in format and data representation. The presentation
between application layer defines the syntax used between application entities and
entities.
provides for the selection and subsequent modification of the
representation to be used.
Application Layer
The application layer provides a means for application process to

access the OSI environment. This layer contains management
functions and generally useful mechanisms to support distributed
applications.
Figure 2.4 provides a useful perspective on the OSI architecture.

The annotation along the right-side suggests viewing the seven
layers in three parts. The lower three layers contain the logic for a
The lower two layers deal computer to interact with a network. The host is attached
with the link between the physically to the network, uses a data link protocol to reliably
host and the network. The communicate with the network, and uses a network protocol to
next three layers are all request data exchange with another device on the network and to
involved in transferring request network services. Continuing from this perspective, the
data from one host to transport layer provides a reliable end-to-end service regardless
another.
23
Computer Networks
of the intervening network facility; in effect, it is the user’s liaison

to the communications facility. Finally, the upper three layers,
taken together, are involved in the exchange of data between
end users, making use of a transport service for reliable data
transfer.
3.3. Perspective on the OSI Architecture
Application
User-oriented
Presentation Users of
transport service
Session
End-to-end Transport
Connection-oriented
Network
Data Link Network

Point-to-point Service
link-oriented Physical
Fig. 2.4 : Perspective on the OSI Architecture.
Another perspective is suggested by the annotation to the left.

The lower two layers deal with the link between the host and the
network. The next three layers are all involved in transferring data
from one host to another: The network layer makes use of the
communication network facilities to transfer data from one host to
another; the transport layer assures that the transfer is reliable;
and the session layer manages the flow of data over the logical
connection. Finally, the upper two layers are oriented to the
user’s concerns, including considerations of the application to be
performed and any formatting issues.
3.4. Exercise
a. The physical layer provides
i) only a raw bit stream service

ii) the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the
physical link
24
iii) for the transfer of information between end systems

across some sort of communication network
iv) a means for application process to access the OSI
environment.
b. The session layer provides
i) for the transfer of information between end systems

across some sort of communication network
ii) the means to activate, maintain, and deactivate the
physical link
iii) a means for application process to access the OSI
environment
iv) the mechanism for controlling the dialogue between
applications in end systems.
a) What is the principal service provided by the data link

layer to the higher layers?
b) What are the key services provided by the session layer?
c) What is the purpose of the presentation layer?
a) Briefly discuss the seven layers of OSI model.

b) Discuss the perspective of the OSI architecture.
25
Computer Networks
Lesson 4 : The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 know the TCP/IP protocol architecture

 grasp the operation of TCP and IP protocols.
4.2. Introduction
The experience already gained in the development and use of

protocols within ARPANET has led to the TCP/IP
communications architecture. The TCP/IP protocol suite deals
Four fundamental
with communications among heterogeneous computers.
differences between the
TCP/IP protocol suit and
the OSI model. There are four fundamental differences between the TCP/IP
protocol suit and the OSI model :
 Hierarchy versus Layering : The OSI model is layered, but

the TCP/IP protocol suit is modular and hierarchical and gives
the designer more freedom to develop efficient, cost-effective,
and rich protocols.
 Internetworking : Unlike the OSI model, the TCP/IP protocol
suit places importance on internetworking between two
different networks.
The TCP/IP protocol suite  Connectionless Service : A connectionless service is one in
is based on a view of which data are transferred from one entity to another without
communication that the prior mutual construction of a connection (e.g., datagram).
involves three agents: The TCP/IP protocol suit places equal importance on
process, hosts, and connectionless and connection-oriented services, whereas
networks. the OSI model is couched solely in terms of connection-
oriented service. A primary use of the connectionless service
within the TCP/IP protocol suit is in internetworking.
 Management Functions : The TCP/IP protocol suit and the
OSI model differently treats the management-related
functions.
4.3. TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
26
The TCP/IP protocol suite is based on a view of communication

that involves three agents: process, hosts, and networks.
Processes are the fundamental entities that communicate. A
process executes on hosts, which can often support multiple
simultaneous processes. Communication between processes
takes place across networks to which the hosts are attached.
These three concepts yield a fundamental principle of the TCP/IP
protocol suit: the transfer of information to a process can be
accomplished by first getting it to the host in which the process
resides and then getting it to the process within the host. These
two levels of demultiplexing can be handled independently.
Therefore, a network need only be concerned with routing data
between hosts, as long as the hosts agree how to direct data to
processes.
The protocols are organized into four layers :
 Network access layer

 Internet layer
 Host-host layer
 Process/application layer.
An entity in a layer may use the services of another entity in the

same layer, or directly use the services of an entity in a lower but
not adjacent layer.
The Network Access Layer
The network access layer contains those protocols that provide

access to a communication networks. Protocols at this layer are
between a communications node and an attached host. A
A function of all these function of all these protocols is to route data between hosts
protocols is to route data attached to the same network. Other services provided are flow
between hosts attached to control and error control between hosts, and various quality of
the same network. service features such as priority and security. A network layer
entity is typically invoked by an entity in either the internet or
host-host layer, but may be invoked by a process/application
layer entity.
The Internet Layer

A gateway is a processor
connecting two networks The internet layer consists of the procedures required to allow
whose primary function is data to traverse multiple networks between hosts. Thus it must
to relay data between provide a routing function. This protocol is usually implemented
networks using an within hosts and gateways. A gateway is a processor connecting
internetworks protocol.
27
Computer Networks
two networks whose primary function is to relay data between

networks using an internetworks protocol.
The Host-Host layer
The host-host layer contains protocol entities with the ability to

deliver data between two processes on different host computers.
A protocol entity at this level may (or may not) provide a logical
connection between higher-level entities. Other possible services
include error and flow control and the ability to deal with control
signals not associated with a logical data connection.
Four general types of protocols seen to be needed at this level :
 A reliable connection-oriented data protocol

 A datagram protocol
 A speech protocol
 A real-time data protocol.
The Process/Application Layer
The process/application layer contains protocols for resource

TCP/IP protocol sharing and remote access. Within the TCP/IP protocol suit
architecture, there are the following protocol standards :
 Internet layer : Internet Protocol (IP), which provides a

connectionless service for end systems to communicate
across one or more networks and does not assure the
networks to be reliable.
 Host-to-host layer : Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
which provides a reliable end-to-end data transfer service.
 Process/application layer :
i) File Transfer Protocol (FTP), which is a simple

application for transfer of ASCII, EBCDIC, and binary files.
ii) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), which is a simple
electronic mail facility.
iii) Telnet Protocol (TELNET), which provides a simple
asynchronous terminal capability.
4.4. Operation of TCP and IP
Figure 4.5 indicates how TCP and IP protocols are configured for
communications. The total communications facility may consist of
multiple networks, the constituent networks are usually referred to
as subnetworks. Some sort of network access protocol is used
28
to connect a computer to a subnetwork. This protocol enables the

host to send data across the subnetwork to another host or, in
the case of a host on another subnetwork, to a router. IP is
implemented in all of the end systems and the routers. It acts as
a relay to move a block of data from one host, through one or
more routers, to another host. TCP is implemented only in the
end systems; it keeps track of the blocks of data and assure that
all are delivered reliably to the appropriate application.
Host Host
Application Application
Operatibg System
Operatibg System
TCP TCP
IP IP
Network access Network access

protocol 1 protocol 2
Router
IP
Subnetwork 1 Subnetworks 2
NAP 1 NAP 2
Fig. 4.5 : Communications using the TCP/IP protocol architecture.
For successful communication, every entity in the overall system

must have a unique address. Actually, two levels of addressing
Every entity in the overall are needed. Each host on a subnetwork must have a unique
system must have a global internet address; this allows the data to be delivered to the
unique address. proper host. Each process with a host must have an address that
is unique within the host; this allows the host-to-host protocol
(TCP) to deliver data to the proper process. These latter
addresses are known as ports.
Suppose that a process, associated with port 1 at host A, wishes

to send a message to another process, associated with port 2 at
host B. The process at A hands the message down to TCP with
instructions to send it to host B, port 2. TCP hands the message
down to IP with instructions to send it to host B. Next, IP hands
the message down to the network access layer with instructions
to send it to router X.
29
Computer Networks
To control this operation, control information as well as user data

must be transmitted, as in figure 4.6. The sending process
TCP appends control generates a block of data and passes this to TCP. TCP may
information known as the break this block into smaller pieces to make it more manageable.
TCP header, forming a To each of these pieces, TCP appends control information known
TCP segment. as the TCP header, forming a TCP segment. The control
information is to be used by the peer TCP protocol entity at host
B. Examples of items that are included in this headed are
Destination port, Sequence number, and Checksum.
User Data THLNETFIP

SMTP
Byte Stream
TCPH TCP
Segment
IPH IP
Datagram
Network
NetH level
Packet
Fig. 4.6 : Protocol data units in the TCP/IP architecture.
Next, TCP hands each segment over to IP, with instructions to

transmit it to B. These segments must be transmitted across one
Thus IP appends a or more subnetworks and relayed through one or more
header of control intermediate routers. This operation requires the use of control
information to each information. Thus IP appends a header of control information to
segment to form an IP each segment to form an IP datagram. An example of an item
datagram. stored in the IP header is the destination host address.
Finally, each IP datagram is presented to the network access

layer for transmission across the first subnetwork in its journey to
the destination. The network access layer appends its own
header, creating a packet, or frame. The packet is transmitted
acroos the subnetwork to router X. The packet header contains
the information that the subnetwork needs to transfer the data
across the subnetwork. Examples of items that may be contained
in this header include Destination subnetwork address and
Facilities requested.
30
At router X, the packet header is stripped off and the PP header

examined. On the basis of the destination address information in
the IP header, the router directs the datagram out across
subnetwork 2 to B. To do this, the datagram is again augmented
with a network access header.
When the data are received at B, the reverse process occurs. At

each layer, the corresponding header is removed, and the
remainder is passed on to the next higher layer until the original
user data are delivered to the destination process.
4.5. Exercise
a. A function of networks access layer protocols is to route

data between
i) hosts attached to the same network

ii) hosts attached to different networks
iii) routers of different networks
b. The host-host layer contain protocol entities with the

ability to deliver data between
i) the process on the host and the process on the router

ii) two processes on different routers
iii) two processes on different host computers
a) Define process, hosts, and networks with respect to

TCP/IP protocol architecture.
b) What is a gateway?
c) Name the general types of protocols seen to be needed at
host-host layer.
d) What is a subnetwork?
e) What is a port?
a) Briefly discuss the differences between the TCP/IP

protocol suit and the OSI model.
b) Discuss the layers of the TCP/IP protocol architecture.
31
Computer Networks
c) Discuss the protocol standards within the TCP/IP protocol

suit architecture.
d) Discuss the operation of TCP and IP protocols with
suitable diagram.
32
Data Transmission Fundamentals
Unit 3 : Data Transmission

Fundamentals
Introduction
The major task of a computer network is to perform data

communications between two hosts (computers), between two
routers, or between host and routers. In this unit, elementary
concepts of data and transmission are introduced. Transmission
impairments and the maximum possible data rate of a
transmission channel are presented. Transmission media and
various transmission systems are also presented in this unit.
Lesson 1 : Basic Concepts
On completion of this lesson you will be able to:
 grasp the elementary concepts of data communications

 know the basic definitions pertaining to data communications.
1.2. A Communications Model
The fundamental purpose of data communications is to exchange

The fundamental purpose information between two agents (hosts or routers) that are directly
of data communications is connected by a single transmission path.
to exchange information
between two agents.
Data: Data is a representation of facts, concepts, or instructions in
a formalized manner suitable for communication, interpretation, or
processing by human beings or by computers.
Information: Information is the meaning that is currently assigned

to data by means of the conventions applied to these data.
A block diagram of a simplified communications system is shown

in figure 3.1.
Computer Networks
Fig. 3.1: Block diagram of a simplified communications system.
In figure 3.1, the information to be exchanged is a message

labeled m. This information is represented as data g and is
generally presented to a transmitter in the form of a time-varying
signal, gi(t). The signal gi(t) is to be transmitted. Generally, the
signal will not be in a form suitable for transmission and must be
Concept of Analog and converted to a signal s(t) that is in some sense matched to the
Digital characteristics of the transmission medium. This sort of
conversion is known as data encoding. The signal s(t) is then
transmitted across the transmission medium. On the other end, a
signal r(t) is received. This signal is then converted by a receiver
into a form suitable for output. The converted signal go(t), or data
go, is an approximation of the input. Finally, the output device
presents the approximated message, mo, to the destination agent.
In a data communications system, the following concepts are very

important:
 Data are entities that convey meaning.

 Signals are electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
 Signaling is the act of propagating the signal along a suitable
medium.
 Transmission is the communication of data by the propagation
and processing of signals.
1.3. Concept of Analog and Digital
Analog Data: Analog data take on continuous values on some

interval. For example, voice and video are continuously varying
patterns of intensity.
Digital Data: Digital data take on discrete values. For example,

text and integers are discrete.
34
Analog Signal: An analog signal is a continuously varying

electromagnetic wave that may be propagated over a variety of
media.
Digital Signal: A digital signal is a sequence of voltage pulses

that may be transmitted over a medium. For example, a constant
positive voltage level may represent binary 1 and a constant
negative voltage level may represent binary 0.
Types of Data Analog Transmission: Analog transmission is a means of

Transmission transmitting analog signals without regard to their content; the
signal may represent analog data or digital data.
Digital Transmission: Digital transmission is a means of

transmitting digital signals.
1.4. Types of Data Transmission
Simplex Data Transmission: In simplex data transmission,

signals are transmitted in only one direction; one station is
transmitter and the other is receiver.
Half-Duplex Data Transmission: In Half-duplex data

transmission, both station may transmit, but only one at a time.
Full-Duplex Data Transmission: In full-duplex data transmission,

both stations may transmit simultaneously. In this case, the
medium is carrying signals in both directions at the same time.
1.5. Exercise
a. The fundamental purpose of data communications is to

exchange information
i) among many agents connected by many lines

ii) between two agents connected by a single line
iii) among three agents connected by two lines
b. Digital data take on
i) continuos values on an interval

ii) discrete values
iii) combination of continuos and discrete values
35
Computer Networks
a) What do you mean by data?

b) What do you mean by information?
c) What are signal and signaling?
d) What do you mean by transmission?
a) Describe the simplified model of data communications.

b) Discuss the difference between analog and digital data.
c) Discuss the difference between analog and digital
signaling.
d) Discuss the difference between analog and digital
transmission.
e) Discuss different types of data transmission.
36
Lesson 2 : Frequency-Domain Consideration

and Transmission Impairments
 grasp the frequency-domain concept of signal

 know the different impairments of a transmission channel
 know the maximum data rate or capacity of a channel.
2.2. Frequency-Domain Concepts of Signals
A signal s(t) is a function of time. But it can also be expressed as

a function of frequency. From Fourier Series analysis, we know
that any signal is made up of components at various frequencies,
in which each component is a sinusoid.
The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it

contains.
Frequency-Domain The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum,

Concepts of Signals that is, the difference between the highest and the lowest
frequencies of the spectrum.
Many signals have an infinite bandwidth. However, most of the

energy in the signal is contained in a relatively narrow band of
frequencies. This band is referred to as the effective bandwidth, or
just bandwidth.
If a signal includes a component of zero frequency, that

component is a direct current (dc) or constant component.
Although a given waveform may contain frequencies over a very
broad range, as a practical matter any transmission medium that
is used will be able to accommodate only a limited band of
frequencies. This in turn limits the data rate that can be carried on
the transmission medium. In general, any digital waveform will
have infinite bandwidth. If we attempt to transmit this waveform as
a signal over any medium, the nature of the medium will limit
bandwidth that can be transmitted. This limiting of bandwidth will
introduce distortion of the waveform and thus will introduce error
in the receiver.
37
Computer Networks
2.3. Transmission Impairments
With any communication system, the signal that is received will

differ from the signal that is transmitted due to various
transmission impairments. The most significant impairments are :
 Attenuation and attenuation distortion

 Delay distortion
The signal that is received  Noise.
will differ from the signal
that is transmitted due to Attenuation: The strength of a signal falls off with distance over
various transmission any transmission medium. Attenuation of signal strength is higher
impairments. for high frequency signals. If the signal strength falls below a
certain level, the transmitter fails to recognize the signal.
Delay Distortion: The velocity of propagation of a signal through

a medium varies with frequency. Thus various frequency
components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different times.
The received signal is distorted due to variable delay in its
components. This effect is referred to as delay distortion.
Noise: Sometimes the received signal may consist of the

transmitted signal plus additional unwanted signals that are
inserted somewhere between transmission and reception. These
undesired signals are referred to as noise.
2.4. Channel Capacity
The rate at which digital data can be transmitted over a given

communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is
referred to as the channel capacity. In a finite bandwidth noise-
free channel, the limitation on data rate is simply the bandwidth of
the signal. Nyquist’s formula for maximum data rate in a finite
bandwidth noise-free channel is given below
The rate at which digital
data can be transmitted
over a given C = 2W log2 M (3.1)
communication path, or
channel, under given where C is the capacity or the maximum data rate of the channel
conditions, is referred to in bits/sec (bps), W is the bandwidth of the channel in cycles/sec
as the channel capacity. (Hz), and M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels of
the signal.
As a numerical example, if 8-level discrete signal is used and the

bandwidth of the channel is 3100Hz, the C = 2 x 3100 log2 8 =
18,600 bps, that is, the maximum possible data rate in this
channel is 18,600 bps.
38
If a 2-level discrete (binary) signal is used, the equation (3.1)

reduces to
C = 2W (3.2)
For a binary digital signal, the highest data rate that can be carried
is 2W bps for a channel with W Hz bandwidth.
As a numerical example, if the bandwidth of the channel is

3100Hz, then C = 2 x 3100 = 6,200 bps, that is, the maximum
possible data rate in this channel is 6,200 bps.
It must be noted that for error-free transmission, the bandwidth of

the signal must not exceed the bandwidth of the channel.
Shannon’s formula for the maximum data rate in a finite-

bandwidth noisy-channel is given below
For error-free
transmission, the C = W log2 (1 + S/N) (3.3)
bandwidth of the signal
must not exceed the where C is the capacity or the maximum data rate of the channel
bandwidth of the channel. in bps, W is the bandwidth of the channel in Hz, S is the power in
the signal and N is the power in the noise.
S/N is referred to as signal-to-noise ratio and often reported in

decibels:
Signal Power S
(S / N ) dB  10 log  10 log (3.4)
Noise Power N
As a numerical example, suppose that the bandwidth of a channel
is 3100Hz and S/N is 30dB. Here
30 = 10 log S/N
or S/N = log -1 (30/10) = 1000
Then, C = 3100 log2 (1 + 1000) = 30,898 bps.

2.5. Exercise

a. The spectrum of a signal is
i) the difference between the highest frequency and the
lowest frequency of the signal.
ii) the range of frequencies of the signal.
iii) the power of the frequency components of the signal.
39
Computer Networks
b. The dc component of a signal is the component of the

signal
i) where frequency is zero.

ii) where frequency is the lowest.
iii) where frequency is the highest.
c. In general, a digital waveform has
i) finite bandwidth.
ii) infinite bandwidth.
iii) zero bandwidth.
d. Attenuation of a signal strength is
i) lower for higher frequency

ii) higher for lower frequency
iii) higher for higher frequency
a) Give the names of the most important transmission

impairments.
b) State Nyquist’s formula for capacity of a finite bandwidth
noise-free channel.
c) State Shannon’s formula for capacity in a finite-bandwidth
noisy-channel.
a) What is the difference between absolute bandwidth and

effective bandwidth.
b) Discuss the various transmission impairments that affect
the transmission of digital data.
c) The bandwidth of a given channel is 1600Hz. If 16 discrete
levels are used for signal encoding, what will be the
maximum data rate of the channel in bps?
d) The bandwidth of a given channel is 1600Hz. If the signal-
to-noise ratio is 20dB, what will be the maximum data rate
of the channel in bps?
40
Lesson 3 : Metallic Transmission Media

 learn basic concepts of transmission media

 classify the transmission media
 grasp the physical description, uses and transmission
characteristics of two commonly used types of metallic
transmission media.
3.2. Introduction to Transmission Media
The transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter

and receiver in a data transmission system. The characteristics
and quality of data transmission are determined both by the nature
The characteristics and
quality of data of the signal and the nature of the medium. Transmission media
transmission are are of two types: Guided Media and Unguided Media. Guided
determined both by the media is subdivided into two groups: Metallic transmission media
nature of the signal and and Optical fiber. Commonly used metallic transmission media are
the nature of the medium. twisted pair and coaxial cables. Commonly used unguided
transmission techniques are terrestrial microwave, satellite
microwave and radio.
3.3. Twisted Pair
Physical Description
A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a

regular spiral pattern (as shown in figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2 : Twisted-pair wire configuration.
41
Computer Networks
A wire pair acts as a single communication link. Typically, a

number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by
wrapping them in a tough protective sheath. The twisting of the
individual pairs minimizes electromagnetic interference between
the pairs.
The twisting of the
individual pairs minimizes Uses
electromagnetic
interference between the By far the most common transmission medium for both analog
pairs. and digital data is twisted pair. It is the backbone of the telephone
system as well as the workhorse for intrabuilding communications.
Transmission Characteristics
Wire pairs may be used to transmit both analog and digital

signals. For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5
to 6 km. For digital signals, repeaters are used every 2 or 3 km.
For point-to-point analog signaling, a bandwidth of up to about 250
kHz is possible. For digital point-to-point lines, data rates of up to
a few Mbps are possible.
3.4. Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core,

surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by
a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided mesh.
The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath. A
cutaway view of a coaxial cable is shown in figure 3.3.
Wire pairs may be used to

transmit both analog and
digital signals.
Fig. 3.3: A coaxial cable.
Uses
Coaxial cable has been perhaps the most versatile transmission

medium and is enjoying utilization in a wide variety of applications.
The most important of these are :
42
 Long-distance telephone and television transmission

 Television distribution
 Local area networks
 Short-run system links.
Coaxial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals.

Coaxial cable has superior frequency characteristics to twisted
pair, and can hence be used effectively at higher frequencies and
data rates.
For long-distance transmission of analog signals, amplifiers are

For long-distance needed every few kilometers, with closer spacing requirement if
transmission of analog higher frequencies are used. The usable spectrum for analog
signals, amplifiers are signaling extends to about 400 MHz. For digital signaling,
needed every few repeaters are needed every kilometers or so, with closer spacing
kilometers. needed for higher data rates. On experimental systems, data rates
as high as 800 Mbps have been achieved with a repeater spacing
of 1.6 km.
3.5. Exercise
a. The characteristics and quality of data transmission are

determined by
i) the nature of the signal

ii) the nature of the medium
iii) both the nature of the signal and the nature of the medium
b. Commonly used metallic transmission media are
i) twisted pair, coaxial cable and optical fiber.

ii) twisted pair and coaxial cable.
iii) optical fiber and microwave.
iv) microwave and radio.
c. Commonly used unguided transmission technologies are
i) terrestrial microwave, satellite microwave and radio.

ii) optical fiber, microwave and radio.
iii) coaxial cable, optical fiber and microwave.
iv) coaxial cable, microwave and radio.
43
Computer Networks
d. The most commonly used transmission medium for both

analog and digital data is
i) twisted pair
ii) coaxial cable
iii) optical fiber
a) What is a transmission medium?

b) Give the names of different metallic transmission media.
c) Give the names of different unguided transmission
techniques.
d) Why are pairs of wires twisted in twisted pair?
e) Name the applications of coaxial cable.
a) Classify the transmission media.

b) Discuss the physical construction, uses, and transmission
characteristics of twisted pair.
c) Discuss the physical construction, uses, and transmission
characteristics of coaxial cable.
44
Lesson 4 : Optical Fiber

 grasp physical description,

 uses and transmission characteristics
 of optical fiber.
4.2. Optical Fiber
An optical fiber is a thin, flexible medium capable of conducting an

optical ray. An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and
consists of three concentric sections: the core, the cladding, and
the jacket. The core is the innermost section and consists of one
An optical fiber cable has or more very thin strands, or fibers, made of glass or plastic. Each
a cylindrical shape and
consists of three
fiber is surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or plastic coating
concentric sections: the that has optical properties different from those of the core. The
core, the cladding, and outermost layer, surrounding one or a bundle of cladded fibers, is
the jacket. the jacket. The jacket is composed of plastic and other materials
layered to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing, and other
environmental dangers. A cutaway view of an optical fiber is
shown in figure 3.4.
Fig. 3.4: (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath
with three fibers.
Uses
The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from twisted

pair and coaxial cable:
 Greater bandwidth
 Smaller size and higher weight
 Lower attenuation
45
Computer Networks
 Electromagnetic isolation
 Greater repeater spacing.
Five basic categories of applications have become important for

optical fiber:
 Long-haul trunks
 Metropolitan trunks
 Rural exchange trunks
 Local loops
 Local area networks.
Optical fiber transmit a signal-encoded beam of light by means of

total internal reflection. In effect, the optical fiber acts as a
waveguide for frequencies in the range 1014 to 1015 Hz, which
covers the visible spectrum and part of the infrared spectrum.
Light from a source enters the cylindrical glass or plastic core.

Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the
Optical fiber transmit a fiber; other rays are absorbed by the surrounding material. Two
signal-encoded beam of different types of light source are used in fiber optic systems: the
light by means of total light emitting diode (LED) and the injection laser diode (ILD). Both
internal reflection. are semiconductor devices that emit a beam of light when a
voltage is applied. The detector used at the receiving end to
convert the light into electrical energy is a photodiode.
In optical fiber, light propagates best in three distinct wavelength

“windows”, centered on 850, 1300, and 1500 nanometers (nm).
These are all in the infrared portion of the frequency spectrum.
Most local application today use 850 nm LED light sources. It is
generally limited to data rates under 100 Mbps and distance of a
few km. To achieve higher data rates and longer distances, a
1300 nm LED or laser source is needed. The highest data rates
and longest distances require 1500 nm laser sources.
46
4.3. Exercise
a. Which of the following is used as light source in optical

fiber systems?
i) Light Emitting Diode (LED) only.

ii) Injection Laser Diode (ILD) only.
iii) Both Light Emitting Diode (LED) and Injection Laser Diode
(ILD).
a) Give the names of applications of optical fiber.

b) Mention the characteristics that distinguish optical fiber
from twisted pair and coaxial cable.
4.3.3. Analytical question
a) Discuss the physical construction, uses, and transmission

characteristics of optical fiber.
47
Computer Networks
Lesson 5 : Unguided Transmission

Techniques
 grasp the physical description

 uses of three types of unguided transmission techniques
 transmission characteristics of three break into three sections.
5.2. Terrestrial Microwave
In terrestrial microwave, an antenna is fixed rigidly and focuses a

Microwave is commonly narrow beam to achieve line-of-sight transmission to the receiving
used for both voice and antenna. Two microwave antennas at a height of 100m may be as
television transmission. far as 82 km apart. To achieve long-distance transmission, a
series of microwave relay towers is used.
Uses
The primary uses for terrestrial microwave systems is in long-haul

telecommunications service. Microwave can support high data
rates over long distances. Microwave is commonly used for both
voice and television transmission. Another common use of
microwave is for short point-to-point links between buildings for
closed-circuit TV or as a data link between local networks. A
potential use for terrestrial microwave is for providing digital data
transmission in small region.
The common frequencies used for microwave transmission are in

The higher the frequency the range 2 to 40 GHz. The higher the frequency used, the higher
used, the higher the the potential bandwidth and therefore the higher the potential data
potential bandwidth and rate. Bandwidth and data rate for some typical microwave systems
therefore the higher the are shown in table 2.1.
potential data rate.
Table 2.1: Typical Digital Microwave Performances
Band (GHz) Bandwidth (MHz) Data Rate (Mbps)

2 7 12
6 30 90
11 40 90
18 220 274
48
5.3. Satellite Microwave
A communication satellite is, in effect, a microwave relay station. It

is used to link two or more ground-based microwave
transmitter/receivers, know as earth stations or ground stations.
The satellite receives transmission on one frequency band (up
link), amplifies the signal for analog transmission or repeats the
signal for digital transmission, and transmits it on another
frequency (down link). A single orbiting satellite will operate on a
number of frequency bands, called transponder channels, or
simply transponder.
Two common uses of communications satellite are depicted in

figure 3.5.
Satellite
A single orbiting satellite

will operate on a number
(a) Point-to-point link via satellite microwave
of frequency bands, called
transponder channels, or
simply transponder.
Satellite
Receiver
Multiple
Receivers Transmitter
(b) Broadcast link via satellite microwave
Fig. 3.5: Satellite communications configurations.
In the first use, the satellite is being used to provide a point-to-

point link between two distant ground-based antennas. In the
second use, the satellite provides communication between one
49
Computer Networks
ground-based transmitter and a number of ground-based

receivers.
A recent development is the very small aperture terminal (VSAT)

system. A typical VSAT configuration is depicted in figure 3.6.
Ku-band
satellite
256 kbps
256 kbps
1
56 kbps
2
The very small aperture 56 kbps
terminal (VSAT) system.

Hub Host
Front-end
Processor
3
Fig. 3.6: VSAT configuration.
A number of subscriber stations are equipped with low-cost VSAT

antennas. These stations share a satellite transmission capacity
for transmission to a hub station. The hub station can exchange
messages with each of the subscribers and can relay messages
between subscribers.
To remain stationary, the
satellite must have a For a communication satellite to function effectively, it is generally
period of rotation equal to
required that it remains stationary with respect to its position over
the earth’s period of
rotation.
the earth. To remain stationary, the satellite must have a period of
rotation equal to the earth’s period of rotation. This match occurs
at a height of 35,784 km.
Uses
The most important application for communications satellite are :
 Television distribution
 Long-distance telephone transmission.
50
The optimum frequency range for satellite transmission is the

range 1 to 10 GHz. Most satellites providing point-to-point service
today use a frequency bandwidth in the range 5.925 to 6.425 GHz
for transmission from earth to satellite (up link) and a bandwidth in
the range 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for transmission from satellite to earth
(down link). This combination is referred to as the 4/6 GHz band,
or C band.
5. 4. Radio
Radio is omnidirectional and the antennas need not be rigidly

mounted to a precise alignment.
Uses
Radio covers 30MHz to 1 GHz band. This range covers FM radio

and VHF and UHF television. A well-known use of radio for digital
data communications is packet radio. A packet radio system uses
ground-based antennas to link multiple sites in a data
transmission network.
The range 30 MHz to 1 GHz is a very effective one for broadcast

The range 30 MHz to 1 radio communications. The transmission is limited to the line of
GHz is a very effective
sight and distant transmitters will not interfere with each other due
one for broadcast radio
communications. to reflection from the atmosphere. For digital communications,
lower data rates are achieved in the kilobit range. Radio waves
suffer less attenuation.
51
Computer Networks
5.5. Exercise
a. Two microwave antennas at a height of 100m may be as

far as
i) 82 km
ii) 100 km
iii) 82 m
iv) 100 m.
b. The common frequencies used for microwave transmission

are in the range of
i) 30 MHz to 1 GHz
ii) 2 to 40 GHz
iii) 0 to 30 MHz
c. The common frequencies used for broadcast radio

communications are in the range of
i) 30 MHz to 1 GHz
ii) 2 to 40 GHz
iii) 0 to 30 MHz
b) What are the primary uses for terrestrial microwave?

c) What do you mean by up link and down link of a
communication satellite?
d) What is a transponder?
e) At what height does a satellite remain stationary with
respect to earth station?
a) Discuss physical description, uses, and transmission

characteristics of terrestrial microwave.
b) Discuss physical description, uses, and transmission
characteristics of satellite microwave.
c) Discuss physical description, uses, and transmission
characteristics of radio.
d) Briefly discuss the VSAT system.
52
Lesson 6 : Transmission Systems
 know the different types of transmission systems

 uses of transmission systems.
6.2. Types of Transmission Systems
Voice-Band Transmission System
The voice-grade channel of already existing worldwide and

ubiquitous telephone networks is extensively used for data
communications over long distances. Telephone networks evolved
with the objective of providing good quality analog voice
communication and for this reason the bandwidth is kept to 4000
Hz to accommodate the voice band of 300 to 3400 Hz. Analog
signaling is mainly used and using suitable modulation of the
signal an average data rate of 2400 bps can be achieved. Higher
data rates can be achieved using advanced modulation
techniques. The voice band transmission is bi-directional.
Baseband Transmission System
A baseband transmission system is defined as one that uses

Baseband systems can digital signaling. Digital signals are inserted on the line as voltage
extend only a limited pulses. The entire frequency spectrum of the medium is used to
distance, about a form the signal. Transmission is bi-directional. The digital signaling
kilometer at most. requires a bus topology. Baseband systems can extend only a
limited distance, about a kilometer at most.
The most popular form of baseband system uses coaxial cable.

Most baseband coaxial systems use 50-ohm cable. Using 50-ohm
cable with a 0.4-inch diameter, a data rate of 10 Mbps is achieved
for a cable distance of 500 meters. To extend the length of the
network, a repeater may be used between two segments.
Broadband Transmission System
A broadband transmission system is defined as one that uses

analog signaling. In broadband system frequency-division
multiplexing is possible. The frequency spectrum of the cable can
be divided into channels or sections of bandwidth.
53
Computer Networks
Separate channels can support data traffic, TV, or radio signals. A

distance of tens of kilometers are possible with broadband
system. Broadband is inherently a unidirectional medium. This
unidirectional property means that only those stations downstream
from a transmitting station can receive its signals. To achieve full
connectivity, two data paths are needed. These paths are joined
at a point on the network known as the headend. All stations
transmit on one path toward the headend (inbound). Signals
received at the headend are then propagated along a second data
A distance of tens of
path away from the headend (outbound). All stations receive on
kilometers are possible
with broadband system. the outbound path. Broadband systems use 75-ohm coaxial cable.
Broadband is suitable for tens of kilometers’ radius from the
headend. The broadband system can be used to carry multiple
channels, some used for analog signals, such as video and voice,
and some for digital. Digital channels can generally carry a data
rate of somewhere between 0.25 and 1 bps/Hz.
Carrierband Transmission System
An abridged form of broadband, known as single-channel

broadband or carrierband, is one in which the entire spectrum of
the cable is devoted to a single transmission path for analog
signals. In a single-channel broadband system, bi-directional
transmission is employed using a bus topology. Hence there is no
need for a headend.
6.3. Exercise
a. Analog signaling is used in
i) voiceband transmission system only

ii) Baseband transmission system only
iii) Broadband transmission system only
iv) voiceband, broadband and carrierband transmission
systems.
b. Digital signaling is used in
i) voiceband transmission system only.

ii) voiceband, baseband, broadband and carrierband
transmission systems.
iii) carrierband transmission system only.
iv) baseband transmission system only.
54
a) What is the distance limit of a baseband transmission

system?
b) What is the distance limit of a broadband transmission
system?
c) What is a headend?
a) Briefly discuss various types of transmission systems.
55
Computer Networks
56
Data Encoding
Unit 4 : Data Encoding

Introduction
The main task of a data communications system is to transmit

data over a physical transmission medium. The data to be
transmitted may be either analog or digital data and is generally
presented as a time-varying signal. The data signals will not be in
a form suitable for transmission and must be converted to a
signal that is in some sense matched to the characteristics of the
physical transmission medium. Therefore, data encoding is
required to achieve this sorts of conversion. The transmitted
signal may be either analog or digital. Either form of data can be
encoded into either form of signal. In this unit four types of data
encoding are discussed.
Lesson 1 : Encoding of Digital Data into

Digital Signals
 learn basic definitions regarding digital encoding of digital

data
 understand different techniques of digital encoding of digital
data.
1.2. Basic Definitions and Concepts
Signal Element : A digital signal is a sequence of discrete,

discontinuous voltage pulses. Each pulse is a signal element.
Definitions and Concepts
Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal
elements.
Unipolar Signal : If the signal elements all have the same

algebraic sign, that is, all positive or negative, then the signal is
unipolar.
Bipolar : In bipolar signal, one logic state is represented by a

positive voltage level, and the other by a negative voltage level.
Data Signaling Rate : The data signaling rate, or just rate, of a

signal is the rate, in bits per second, that data are transmitted.
Computer Networks
Bit Duration : The bit duration is the amount of time it takes for
the transmitter to emit the bit. For a data rate R, the bit duration is
1/R.
Modulation Rate : The modulation rate is the rate at which signal

level is changed. The modulation rate is expressed in baud,
which means signal elements per second.
Mark and Space : The terms mark and space refer to the binary
digit 1 and 0 respectively.
Digital encoding of digital data is generally used to generate or

interpret digital data by terminals and other devices. It is also
used for digital magnetic recording.
1.3. Techniques of Digital Encoding of Digital Data
Nonreturn-to-Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Coding
In this coding, two different voltage levels are used for the two
binary digits as stated below :
Techniques of Digital
Encoding 0 = high voltage level (more commonly a positive voltage level).
1 = low voltage level (more commonly a negative voltage level).
The voltage level remains constant for a bit duration.
This code is illustrated in figure 4.1.
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ-L
NRZI
Pseudoternary
Manchester
Differential
Manchester
Fig. 4.1 : Digital signal encoding formats.
58
Data Encoding
Nonreturn-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI) Coding
NRZI is a variation of NRZ. It maintains a constant voltage pulse

for bit duration. The data are encoded as the presence or
absence of a signal transition at the beginning of the bit duration
as below:
0 = no transition at the beginning of bit duration.

1 = transition at the beginning of bit duration.
Bipolar-alternate mark inversion (Bipolar-AMI) Coding
In Bipolar-AMI coding, binary digit are represented as below :
0 = no line signal.
1 = positive or negative voltage level, alternating for successive
ones.
Pseudoternary Coding
In pseudoternary coding, binary digits are represented as below:
0 = positive or negative voltage level, alternating for successive

zeros.
1 = no line signal.
Manchester Coding
In the Manchester code, there is a transition at the middle of each

bit duration and a binary digit is represented as below :
0 = transition from high to low in middle of bit duration.

1 = transition from low to high in middle of bit duration.
59
Computer Networks
Differential Manchester Coding
In Differential Manchester code, there is always a transition at the

middle of each bit duration and a binary digit is represented as
below :
0 = transition at beginning of bit duration.

1 = no transition at beginning of bit duration.
1.4. Exercise
a. The code depicted in the following figure uses
i) NRZ-L coding
ii) Bipolar-AMI coding
iii) Manchester coding
iv) Differential Manchester coding.
b. In NRZI coding, a 0 is represented by
i) no transition at beginning of bit duration

ii) transition from high to low in middle of bit duration
iii) transition at beginning of bit duration
a) What is a signal element?

b) What is data rate?
c) What is bit duration?
d) Give the Manchester code for the binary string 0100110.
a) Discuss the various schemes of digital encoding of digital

data.
60
Data Encoding
Lesson 2 : Encoding of Digital Data into

Analog Signals
 understand different techniques of analog encoding of digital

data.
2.2. Techniques of Analog Encoding of Digital Data
In analog encoding of digital data, modulation of carrier signal is

involved. Modulation involves operation on one or more of the
three characteristics of a carrier signal: amplitude, frequency, and
phase. Accordingly, there are three encoding or modulation
techniques for transmitting digital data into analog signals :
 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)

 Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
 Phase-shift keying (PSK).
In all these cases, the resulting signal occupies a bandwidth

centered on the carrier frequency.
Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)

In ASK, the two binary
digits are represented by In ASK, the two binary digits are represented by two different
two different amplitudes of amplitudes of the carrier frequency. Binary digit 1 is represented
the carrier frequency. by the presence, at constant amplitude, of the carrier, and binary
0 is represented by the absence of the carrier.
This encoding is illustrated in figure 4.2.
On voice-grade lines, ASK is typically used only up to 1200 bps.

This technique is also used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber.
Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)
In FSK, the two binary digits are represented by two different

frequencies near the carrier frequency. This encoding scheme is
illustrated in figure 4.2. On voice-grade lines, FSK is typically
used up to 1200 bps. It is also commonly used for high-frequency
(3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission.
61
Computer Networks
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Amplitude-shift keying
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Frequency-shift keying
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Phase-shift keying
Fig. 4.2 : Modulation of analog signals for digital data.
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal shifted to represent data.

In this system, a binary 0 is represented by sending a signal burst
of the same phase as the previous signal burst sent. A binary 1 is
represented by sending a signal burst of opposite phase to the
preceding one.
This encoding scheme is illustrated in figure 4.2.
62
Data Encoding
2.3. Exercise
a. In ASK, the following characteristics of the carrier signal is

modulated
i) amplitude
ii) frequency
iii) phase
iv) amplitude and phase.
b. In PSK, a binary 0 is represented by
i) the absence of the carrier signal.

ii) changing the frequency of the carrier to a lower value.
iii) sending a signal burst of the same phase as the previous
signal burst sent.
iv) sending a signal burst of opposite phase to the preceding
one.
a) Give the names of different techniques of analog

encoding of digital data.
b) What are the characteristics of a carrier signal that are
modulated in analog encoding of digital data?
a) Discuss different techniques of analog encoding of digital

data.
63
Computer Networks
Lesson 3 : Encoding of Analog Data into

Digital Signal
 learn the basic concepts of digital encoding of analog signal

 learn various techniques of coding and decoding of analog
data.
3.2. Basic Concepts
Analog data is first converted into digital data. The process of

converting analog data into digital data is known as digitization.
After digitization, one of the following three things is done :
i) The digital data is transmitted using NRZ-L.

ii) The digital data is encoded as a digital signal using a code
other than NRZ-L.
iii) The digital data is converted into an analog signal using one
of the ASK, FSK and PSK modulation techniques.
The device used for converting analog data into digital form for
transmission, and subsequently recovering the original analog
data from the digital is known as codec (coder-decoder).
Codec coder-decoder.
3.3. Techniques of Coding and Decoding of Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is based on the sampling theorem,

which is stated below:
Sampling Theorem : If a signal f(t) is sampled at regular intervals

of time and at a rate higher than twice the highest significant
signal frequency, then the samples contain all the information of
the original signal. The function f(t) may be reconstructed from
these samples by the use of a low-pass filter.
In PCM, the original signal is assumed to be bandlimited with a

bandwidth of B. Samples are taken at a rate 2B, or once every
1/2B seconds. These samples are represented as narrow pulses
whose amplitude is proportional to the value of the original signal.
This process is known as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM). To
64
Data Encoding
produce PCM data, the PAM samples are quantized. That is, the
amplitude of each PAM pulse is approximated by an n-bit integer.
The PCM pulse is then converted into a block of n bits. This
process is illustrated in figure 4.3.
(a) Original
signal 6.2 5.9
4.1
3.0 2.8
1.4 1.3
Ts
The output of the delta (b) PAM pulses
modulation process is
represented as a single 6 6
binary digit for each
4
sample.
3 3
1 1
011 001 110 001 011 110 100
(c) PCM pulses
011001110001011110100
(c) PCM output
Fig. 4.3 : Pulse-code modulation.
Delta Modulation (DM)
In delta modulation, an analog input is approximated by a

staircase function that moves up or down by one quantization
level () at each sampling interval (Ts). An example is shown in
figure 4.4. At each sampling time, the staircase function moves
up or down a constant amount . The output of the delta
modulation process is represented as a single binary digit for
each sample. In essence, a bit stream is produced where a 1 is
generated if the staircase function is to go up during the next
interval and a 0 is generated otherwise. For transmission, at each
sampling point, the analog input is compared to the most recent
65
Computer Networks
value of the approximating staircase function. If the value of the

sampled waveform exceeds that of the staircase function, a 1 is
generated; otherwise, a 0 is generated. The output of DM
process is a binary sequence that can be used at the receiver to
reconstruct the staircase function. The staircase function can
then be smoothed by some type of integration process or by
passing it through a low-pass filter to produce an analog
approximation of the analog input signal.
Fig. 4.4 : Example of delta modulation.
66
Data Encoding
3.4. Exercise
a. In analog to digital encoding, the digitized data
i) is always encoded using NRZ-L.

ii) is encoded using code other than NRZ-L.
iii) is encoded using ASK, FSK or PSK modulation
techniques.
iv) is encoded either using NRZ-L or other coding or using
ASK, FSK or PSK modulation techniques.
b. Suppose that bandwidth of an analog signal is 2B. In

PCM, sampling is done
i) once every 1/B seconds.

ii) once every 1/2B seconds.
iii) once every 1/3B seconds.
iv) once every 1/4B seconds.
a) What is a codec?
b) What is PAM?
c) State sampling theorem.
a) Discuss PCM technique of coding analog data.

b) Discuss DM technique of coding analog data.
67
Computer Networks
Lesson 4 : Encoding of Analog Data into

Analog Signal
 learn various techniques of encoding analog data into analog

signal
 techniques of modulation.
4.2. Introduction
Baseband Signal: If analog data are transmitted at their original

spectrum, then the signal is referred to as baseband signal. In
telephone lines, voice signals are transmitted as baseband
signal.
In most of the analog transmission of analog data, some sorts of

modulation of carrier signals by the baseband signal is done. The
principal reasons are :
 For unguided transmission, it is virtually impossible to transmit

baseband signal, because the required antennas would be
Modulation many kilometers in diameter.
 Modulation permits frequency-division multiplexing.
The principal techniques for modulation by analog data are :
 Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Phase Modulation (PM).
Carrier : The signal that is modulated by the data is referred to

as carrier.
Modulating Signal : The data signal by which the carrier is

modulated is referred to as modulating signal.
In amplitude modulation 4.3. Techniques of Modulation

(AM), input modulating
signal is multiplied with Amplitude Modulation (AM)
the carrier signal.
In amplitude modulation (AM), input modulating signal is
multiplied with the carrier signal. The envelops of the resulting
68
Data Encoding
modulated signal exactly represents the original signal, that is,

the envelop of the modulated signal is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal. This technique is shown in
figure 4.5.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
In frequency modulation (FM), the carrier is modulated by the

modulating signal in such a way that the frequency or the
derivative of the phase of the modulated signal is proportional to
the modulating signal. This process is shown in figure 4.5.
Carrier
Modulating sine-wave signal
Amplitude-modulated (DSBTC) wave
Phase-modulated wave
Frequency-modulated wave
69
Computer Networks
Fig. 4.5 : Amplitude, phase and frequency modulation of a sine-

wave carrier by a sine-wave signal.
Phase Modulation (PM)
In phase modulation (PM), the carrier is modulated by the

modulating signal in such a way that the phase of the modulated
signal is proportional to the modulating signal. This process is
4.4. Exercise
a. In FM,
i) the frequency of the modulated signal is proportional to

the modulating signal.
ii) the phase of the modulated signal is proportional to the
modulating signal.
iii) the envelop of the modulated signal is proportional to the
modulating signal.
b. In AM, the envelop of the modulated signal is proportional

to
i) the frequency of the modulating signal

ii) the phase of the modulating signal
iii) the derivative of the phase of the modulating signal
iv) the amplitude of the modulating signal.
a) What is a baseband signal?

b) What are the reasons for which an analog data is
modulated for transmission?
c) Give the names of different modulation techniques by
analog signals.
a) Discuss various types of modulation by analog signals.
70
Digital Data Communications Techniques
Unit 5 : Digital Data Communications

Techniques
Introduction
For two devices linked by a transmission medium to exchange

data, a high degree of cooperation is required. Typically, data are
transmitted one bit at a time over the medium. The timing of
these bits must be the same for transmitter and receiver.
Transmission modes to achieve this cooperation are discussed in
this unit.
Data transmission is always subject to some sorts of errors. In

this unit, means of accounting for data transmission errors are
discussed.
Typically, digital data devices do not attach to and signal across a

transmission medium directly. Rather, this process is mediated
through a standardized interfaces. In this unit, standard
transmission line interfaces are also discussed.
Lesson 1 : Transmission Mode

Data are transmitted one  grasp the two transmission modes used to achieve
bit at a time over the cooperation between transmitter and receiver
medium.  asynchronous
 synchronous.
1.2. Introduction
For two devices linked by a transmission medium to exchange

data, a high degree of cooperation is required. Typically, data are
transmitted one bit at a time over the medium. The timing, that is,
rate, duration and spacing of these bits must be the same for
transmitter and receiver. To achieve this cooperation between
transmitter and receiver, two modes of data transmission are
used. They are :
 Asynchronous Data Transmission

 Synchronous Data Transmission.
Computer Networks
1.3. Asynchronous Data Transmission
In asynchronous data transmission, data are transmitted one

character at a time, where each character is five to eight bits in
length. Timing or synchronization is maintained within each
character; the receiver has the opportunity to resynchronize at
the beginning of each new character.
The technique is explained with reference to figure 4.1. When no

character being transmitted, the line between transmitter and
receiver is in an “idle” state. The definition of idle is equivalent to
the signaling element for binary 1. The beginning of a character is
signaled by a start bit with a value of binary 0. This is followed by
the five to eight bits that actually make up the character. The bits
of the character are transmitted starting with the least significant
bit. Usually, the character bits are followed by a parity bit, which
therefore is in the most-significant bit position. The parity bit is set
When no character being by the transmitter such that the total number of ones in the
transmitted, the line character, including the parity bit, is even (even parity) or odd
between transmitter and (odd parity), depending on the convention being used. The final
receiver is in an “idle” element is a stop, which is a binary 1. A minimum length for the
state. stop is specified, and this is usually 1, 1.5, or 2 times the duration
of an ordinary bit. Since the stop is the same as the idle state, the
transmitter will continue to transmit the stop signal until it is ready
to send the next character.
Remain
Odd, even idle or next
Idle state 1-2
or unused
of line Start 5 to 8 data bit bit times
start bit
bit
0 P
bit Stop
1
(a) Character format

Unpredictable time interval
between characters
Start Start Stop
bit Stop bit bit
bit
//
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
(b) 8 bit asynchronous Character stream
Transmitter timing
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
start 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Stop
0 93 186 279 372 465 558 651 744 Receiver timing
(c) Effect of timing error
72
Fig. 5.1 : Asynchronous data transmission.

If a steady stream of characters is sent, the interval between two
characters is uniform and equal to the stop element. For
example, if the stop bit has unit length and the ASCII character
ABC are sent (without parity bit), the pattern is
0100000110010000110110000111
The start bit (0) starts the timing sequence for the next eight
elements, which are the 7-bit ASCII code and the stop bit. In the
idle state, the receiver looks for a transition from 1 to 0 to begin
the next character and then samples the input signal at one-bit
intervals for seven intervals. It then looks for the next 1-to-0
transition.
1.4. Synchronous Data Transmission
In synchronous data transmission, blocks of characters or bits are

transmitted. To synchronize the clocks of the transmitter and the
receiver, the clocking information is embedded in the data signal
with biphase encoding of digital signals. Each block begins with a
preamble bit pattern and generally ends with postamble bit
pattern. These patterns are control information rather than data.
In addition, other control information is included. The data plus
control information is called frame. There are two formats of the
frame: character-oriented and bit-oriented. The frame format is
SYN SYN ...

One or more Control characters Data characters Control characters
SYN character
The data plus control
information is called (a) Character-oriented trame
frame. //
F F
//
8-bit Control 8-bit

Control fields Data field
flag field flag
(a) Bit-oriented trame
Fig. 5.2 : Synchronous frame.
With character-oriented transmission, the block of data is treated

as a sequence of characters (usually 8-bit characters). All control
information is in character form. The frame begins with one or
73
Computer Networks
more “synchronization characters” (SYN). The SYN is a unique bit

pattern that signals the receiver that this is the beginning of a
block. The postamble is another unique character used in some
schemes. The receiver thus is alerted to an incoming block of
data by the SYN characters and accepts data until the postamble
character is seen.
The SYN is a unique bit
pattern that signals the With bit-oriented transmission, the block of data is treated as a
receiver that this is the sequence of bits. A special bit pattern (flag) signals the beginning
beginning of a block. of a block. This preamble flag is eight bit long. The same flag is
also used as a postamble.
1.5. Exercise
a. In asynchronous mode of data transmission, the idle state

is indicated by signaling element for
i) binary 1
ii) binary 0
iii) transition of 1-to-0
b. In synchronous mode of data transmission, data are

transmitted
i) one character at a time

ii) as blocks of characters
iii) as blocks of bits
iv) as blocks of characters or bits.
a) How many modes of data transmission are there? Name

them.
b) What is a frame?
c) How many formats of frame are there and what are they?
a) Discuss asynchronous mode of data transmission.

b) Discuss synchronous mode of data transmission.
74
Lesson 2 : Error Detection Techniques

 know the classification of error detection techniques

 grasp the details of each of the error detection techniques.
2.2. Introduction
Regardless of the design of the transmission system, there will be

errors. To ensure error-free transmission, three types of error-
detection techniques are commonly used. They are :
 Parity check
 Longitudinal redundancy check
 Cyclic redundancy check.
2.3. Parity Check
Typically even parity is The simplest bit error detection scheme is to append a parity bit
used for asynchronous to the end of each word in the frame. A typical example is ASCII
transmission. transmission, in which a parity bit is attached to each 7-bit ASCII
character.
Even Parity : In even parity, the value of the parity bit is selected
so that the word has an even number of 1’s. Typically even parity
is used for asynchronous transmission.
Odd Parity : In odd parity, the value of the parity bit is selected
so that the word has an odd number of 1’s. Typically odd parity is
used for synchronous transmission.
For example, if the transmitter is transmitting an ASCII G

(1110001) and using odd parity, it will append a 1 and transmit
1110001. The receiver examines the received character and if
the total number of 1’s is odd, assumes that no error has
occurred. If one bit (or any odd number of bits) is erroneously
inverted during transmission (e. g., 11000011), then the receiver
will detect an error. However, if any even number of bits are
inverted, parity check will not detect the error.
75
Computer Networks
2.4. Longitudinal Redundancy Check
In longitudinal redundancy check, the frame is viewed as a block

of character arranged in two dimensions. To each character is
appended a parity bit. In addition, a parity bit is generated for
each bit position across all characters. That is, an additional
character is generated in which the Ith bit of the character is a
parity bit for the Ith bit of all other characters in the block. This
technique is illustrated below :
Parity
bit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bit
Character 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
1
2 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
3 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
4 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
5 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
6 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
Parity Check 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 LRC
Character
VRC
The parity bit at the end of each character (row parity bit) is
The parity bit at the end of
generated using the bits of that character. For the parity check
each character are
referred to as the vertical character, each bit is generated using the corresponding bits of
redundancy check (VRC). all characters. The parity bit at the end of each character are
referred to as the vertical redundancy check (VRC).
The parity check character is referred to as the longitudinal

redundancy check (LRC)
2.5. Cyclic Redundancy Check
A very powerful but easily implemented error detecting technique

is cyclic redundancy check (CRC). In this technique, given a k-bit
message, the transmitter generates an n-bit sequence, known as
a frame check sequence (FCS), so that the resulting frame,
consisting of k+n bits, is exactly divisible using modulo-2 division
by some predetermined number. The receiver then divides the
incoming frame by the same number and, if there is no
remainder, assumes that there was no error. CRC frame is shown
below :
76
Message, M FCS, F
Transmitted Frame
Let us define the following :
T = (k+n)-bit frame to be transmitted, with n < k.

M = k-bit message, the first k bits of T.
F = n-bit FCS, the last n bits of T.
P = pattern of n+1 bits, the predetermined divisor.
We would like T/P to have no remainder. The problem is to find

F.
As M occupies the most significant k bits of T, in respect to T, it

can be viewed that M is shifted n bits left, that is, M is multiplied
n
by 2 . Then, it should be clear that
n
T=2 M+F (5.1)
It should be noted that the addition is modulo-2 addition.
Let us suppose that
2n M R
 Q (5.2)
P P
As P is an n+1 bit number, the remainder R is always an n bit

number. The value of the remainder R is used as F, that is, F =
R.
Then
n
T=2 M+R (5.3)
From (5.2), we have that

n
R = 2 M + QP (5.4)
Substituting (5.4) in (5.3), we have that

n n
T = 2 M + 2 M + QP = QP
That is, T is always divisible by P.
77
Computer Networks
For example, let us consider that

Message M = 1010001101 (10 bits)
Pattern P = 110101 (6 bits)
FCS R = to be calculated (5 bits0
n
Multiplying M by 2 yields 101000110100000. This product is
divided by P
1101010110 Q
n
P 110101 101000110100000 2 M
110101
111011
110101
111010
110101
111110
110101
101100
110101
110010
110101
1110 R
n
The remainder R = 01110 is then added to 2 M to have T :
101000110100000
01110
T 101000110101110
This T is transmitted.
If there are no errors, the receiver receives T intact. The received

frame is then divided by P:
1101010110
110101 101000110101110
110101
111011
110101
111010
110101
111110
110101
101111
110101
110101
110101
00
78
Since there is no remainder, it is assumed that there have been

no error.
The pattern P is chosen to be one bit larger than the desired FCS
and both the high- and low-order bits of P must be 1.
A second way of viewing the CRC process is to express all

values as polynomials in a dummy variable X with binary
coefficients. The coefficients corresponds to the bits in the binary
5 4
number. Thus for M = 110011, we have M(X) = X +X +X+1, and
5 3
for P = 11001, we have P(X) = X +X +1. Arithmetic operations
are modulo-2. The CRC process can now be described as
X n M (X ) R(X )
 Q( X ) 
P( X ) P(X )
T ( X )  X n M ( X )  R( X )
Four versions of P(X) are widely used :

12 11 3 2
CRC-12 = X +X +X +X +X+1
16 15 2
CRC-16 = X +X +X +1
16 12 5
CRC-CCITT = X +X +X +1
CRC-
32 26 23 22 16 12 11 10 8 7 5 4 2
32=X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X +X+1
The CRC-12 system is used for transmission of streams of 6-bit

characters and generates a 12-bit FCS. Both CRC-16 and CRC-
CCITT are popular for 8-bit characters, in the United States and
Europe respectively, and both results in a 16-bit FCS. CRC-32 is
specified as an option in some point-to-point synchronous
transmission standards, and generates a 32-bit FCS.
2.6. Exercise
a. Typically even parity is used for
i) asynchronous transmission
ii) synchronous transmission
iii) both of the above
b. Typically odd parity is used for
79
Computer Networks
i) asynchronous transmission
ii) synchronous transmission
a) Classify error detection techniques.

b) What is VRC?
c) What is LRC?
d) What is FCS?
a) Discuss parity bit technique of error detection.

b) Discuss Longitudinal Redundancy Check technique of
error detection.
c) Discuss Cyclic Redundancy Check technique of error
detection.
d) Given that
Message M = 0101110010 (10 bits)
Pattern P = 100101
Calculate the FCS R (5bits).
80
Lesson 3 : Transmission Line Interfaces

 know the preliminary ideas about various interface standards

of digital data transmission
 EIA-232-D
 DIA-530
 ISDN physical interface.
3.2. Introduction
Most digital data processing devices do not attach directly to a

transmission medium. The more common situation is depicted in
Figure 5.3
Signal and Bit-Serial

Control leads Transmission
Medium
DTE DCE DCE DTE
Fig. 5.3 : Generic interface to transmission medium.
The devices are generally referred to as data terminal equipment

The DCE is responsible (DTE). A DTE makes use of the transmission system through the
for transmitting and mediation of data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). On one
receiving bits over a side, the DCE is responsible for transmitting and receiving bits
transmission medium. over a transmission medium. On the other side, the DCE must
interact with the DTE. In general, this requires both data and
control information to be exchanged.
A variety of standards for interfacing between the DTE and the

DCE exist. The most important interface standards are :
 EIA-232-D
 EIA-530
 ISDN Physical Interface.
81
Computer Networks
3.3. EIA-232-D
By far the most common interface standard in the United States

is the 232 standard issued by the Electronic Industries
Association. The RS-232 standard was first issued in 1962, and
its third version, RS-232-C, was published in 1969. EIA-232-D
was introduced in 1987. It is compatible with RS-232-C. This
interface is used to connect DTE devices to voice-grade modems
for use on public analog telecommunications systems.
The mechanical specification for EIA-232-D calls for a 25-pin

connector with a specific arrangement of leads. The electrical
specification defines the signaling between DTE and DCE. Digital
signaling is used on all interchange circuits. With respect to a
common ground, a voltage more negative than -3 volts is
interpreted as binary 1 and a voltage more positive than +3 volts
is interpreted as binary 0. The interface is rated at a signal rate of
The interchange circuits <20 kbps and a distance of <15m. The same voltage levels apply
are grouped into to control signals: a voltage more negative than -3 volts is
categories of data, interpreted as an OFF condition and a voltage more positive than
control, timing, and +3 volts is interpreted as an ON condition. The interchange
ground. circuits are grouped into categories of data, control, timing, and
ground. There is one data circuit in each direction, so full-duplex
operation is possible. In addition, there are two secondary data
circuits that are useful when the device operates in half-duplex
fashion.
There are fourteen control circuits. Eight of these relate to the

transmission of data over the primary channel. For asynchronous
transmission, six of these circuits are used. In addition to these
six circuits, two other control circuits are used in synchronous
transmission. There are three timing circuits that may be used
with synchronous transmission; these provide clock pulses. The
final set of circuits deal with grounding and shielding.
3.4. EIA-530
In 1987 EIA-530 was introduced. This standard is intended to

operate at data rates from 20 kbps to 2 Mbps using the same 25-
pin connector used by EIA-232-D and RS-232-C. In this standard,
Two modes of
two modes of transmission are used: balanced transmission and
transmission are used:
balanced transmission unbalanced transmission. Balanced transmission line consists of
and unbalanced two conductors. Signal are transmitted as a current that travels
transmission. down one conductor and returns on the other, the two conductors
form a complete circuit. Unbalanced transmission uses a single
conductor to carry the signal, with ground providing the return
82
path. The balanced mode tolerates more, and produces less,

noise than the unbalanced.
In the unbalanced case, a positive voltage of between 2 and 6
volts, with respect to ground, is interpreted as a binary 0, and a
negative voltage of between 4 and 6 volts is interpreted as binary
1. In the balanced case, a voltage difference between the two
circuits in the range 2 to 6 volts is interpreted as a binary digit,
with the direction of the difference determining whether it is
interpreted as binary 0 or binary 1.
3.5. ISDN Physical Connector
In Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) terminology, a

physical connection is made between terminal equipment (TE)
and network-terminating equipment (NT). These terms closely
corresponds to DTE and DCE respectively. The physical
Contact points are used to
connect twisted-pair leads connection, defined in ISO standard 8877 (ISO 8877), specifies
coming from the NT and that the NT and TE cables shall terminate in matching plugs that
TE devices. provide for 8 contacts. Two contact points each are needed to
provide balanced transmission in each direction. These contact
points are used to connect twisted-pair leads coming from the NT
and TE devices.
The electrical specification for the interface dictates the use of a

pseudoternary coding scheme. Binary one is represented by the
absence of voltage, binary zero is represented by a positive or
negative pulse of 750 mV  10%. The data rate is 192 kbps.
83
Computer Networks
3.6. Exercise
a. In EIA-232-D standard, the interchange circuits are

grouped into the categories of
i) data and control

ii) data, control and timing
iii) data, control and ground
iv) data, control, timing and ground.
b. In EIA-232-D standard, the following are possible
i) full-duplex operation only

ii) half-duplex operation only
iii) both full- and half-duplex operations
c. In EIA-232-D standard, the number of pins used for timing

is
i) 3
ii) 14
iii) 8
iv) 6.
3.6.2. Question for short answer
a) Name the most important interface standards used in

digital data transmission.
a) Discuss EIA-232-D standard for interfacing digital devices.

b) Discuss EIA-530 standard for interfacing digital devices.
c) Discuss ISO 8877 standard for ISDN physical connection.
84
Unit 6 : Data Link Control
Introduction
The physical layer is concerned with sending signals over a

transmission link. For effective digital data communications much
more is needed to control and manage the exchange. This is
done by the data link layer. The data link control or data link
protocol is concerned with sending data over a data
communications link. This unit, presents some of the key features
of data link protocols, such as : line configuration, flow control,
and error control. A specific data link protocol is also
presented in this unit.
Lesson 1 : Line Configuration

 review the concepts of topology and duplexity of data link

 understand the discipline of transmission link.
1.2. Topology and Duplexity
The topology of a data link refers to the physical arrangement of

stations on a link. If there are only two stations, the link is point-
to-point. If there are more than two stations, then it is a
multipoint topology.
The topology of a data The duplexity of a link refers to the direction and timing of signal
link refers to the physical flow. In simplex transmission, the signal flow is always in one
arrangement of stations direction. A half-duplex link can transmit and receive but not
on a link. simultaneously. On a full-duplex link, two stations can
simultaneously send and receive data from each other.
With digital signaling, full-duplex usually requires two separate

transmission paths, while half-duplex requires only one. For
analog signaling, duplexcity depends on frequency, whether
guided or unguided transmission is used. If a station transmits
and receives on the same frequency, it must operate in half-
duplex mode. If a station transmits on one frequency and
receives on another, it may operate in full-duplex mode.
Computer Networks
1.3. Line Discipline
Some discipline is needed in the use of a transmission link. On a

half-duplex line, only one station at a time should transmit. On
either a half- or full-duplex line, a station should only transmit if it
knows that the intended receiver is prepared to receive.
Point-to-point Links
Line discipline is simple with a point-to-point link. Let us consider

first a half-duplex link in which either station may initiate an
exchange. If either station wishes to send data to the other, it first
performs an inquiry of the other station to see if it is prepared to
receive. The second station responds with a positive
acknowledgment to indicate that it is ready. The first station then
sends some data. In asynchronous communication, the data
would be sent as an asynchronous stream of character. In any
case, after some quantum of data is sent, the first station pauses
to await results. The second station acknowledges successful
receipt of the data. The first station then sends an end of
transmission message which terminates the exchange and return
the system to its initial state.
There are three distinct phases in this communication control

procedure :
 Connection Establishment : This determines which station is

to transmit and which to connection receive, and that the
receiver is prepared to receive.
 Data Transfer : The data are transferred in one or more
acknowledgment blocks.
 Termination : This terminates the logical connection.
A common situation is to have one of the stations designated

primary and the other secondary. The primary has the
responsibility of initiating the exchange. If the secondary has data
to send, it must wait for the primary to request the data, and only
then enter a data transfer phase. If the link is full-duplex, data
and control messages can be transmitted in both directions
simultaneously.
Multipoint Links
When there is a primary station, data are exchanged only

between the primary and a secondary, not between two
86
Data Link Control
secondaries. The most common disciplines used in this situation

are all variants of a scheme known as poll and select :
 Poll : The primary requests data from a secondary.
 Select : The primary has data to send and informs a
secondary that data are coming.
Figure 6.1 illustrates these concepts. In figure 6.1(a), the primary

polls a secondary by sending a brief polling message. In this
case, the secondary has nothing to send and responds with
some sort of negative acknowledgment (NAK) message. Figure
Poll and select
6.1(b) depicts the case of a successful poll. The most common
form of polling is roll-call polling, in which the primary selectively
polls each secondary in a predetermined sequence. In the
simplest case, the primary polls each secondary in a round-robin
fashion. Variants of roll-call polling permit priority handling by
polling some stations more than once per cycle.
P P S P
Secondary S
S
10
POLL 11 POLL
SEL SEL
12 +
13
DATA
ACK
14
POLL
The most common form 15 DATA
of polling is roll-call ACK
polling. DATA
ACK
ACK
(a) Polled terminal has (b) Polled terminal has (d) Fast select
(c) Select
nothing Data to send
Fig. 6.1 : Poll and Select sequences.
The select function is shown in figure 6.1(c). Note that four

separate transmissions are required to transfer data from the
primary to the secondary. An alternative technique is fast select.
In this case, the selection message includes the data to be
transferred (figure 6.1(d)). The first reply from the secondary is an
acknowledgment that indicate4s that the station was prepared to
receive and did receive the data successfully. Fast selection is
particularly well suited for applications where short messages are
frequently transmitted and the transfer time for the message is
not appreciably larger than the reply time.
87
the line is free; otherwise,
it must wait.
Computer Networks
Another form of line discipline is contention. In this mode, there

is typically no primary but rather a collection of peer stations. A
station can transmit if the line is free; otherwise, it must wait.
A characteristics of all multipoint line discipline is the need for
addressing. In the case of roll-call polling, transmission from the
primary must indicate the intended secondary; transmission from
a secondary must identify the secondary. In a peer situation, both
transmitter and receiver must be identified. Thus there are three
cases :
 Point-to-point : no address needed.
 Primary-secondary multipoint : one address needed, to
identify secondary.
 Peer multipoint : two addresses needed, to identify
transmitter and receiver.
In practice, the first case is subsumed into the second, so that
most data link control protocols require one address even for
point-to-point transmission.
1.4. Exercise
a. In the contention line discipline
i) a station can transmit if the line is free in a peer multipoint
link.
ii) a primary station can transmit to the secondary station in
a primary-secondary multipoint link.
iii) a primary station can transmit to the secondary station in
a point-to-point link.
iv) a secondary station can transmit to the primary station in
a point-to-point link.
a) Define the terms topology and duplicity.
b) Define simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex links.
c) Define primary and secondary stations.
d) Define poll and select.
e) What is roll-call polling?
a) Discuss line discipline for point-to-point link.
b) Discuss line discipline for multipoint link.
c) Discuss need for addresses in line discipline.
88
Data Link Control
Lesson 2 : Flow Control

 know two mechanisms for flow control between a transmitting

station and a receiving station.
2.2. Introduction
Flow control is a technique for assuring that a transmitting station

does not overwhelm a receiving station with data. The receiver
In the absence of flow will typically allocate a data buffer with some maximum length.
control, the receiver’s When data are received, it must do a certain amount of
buffer may overflow while processing before it can clear the buffer and be prepared to
it is processing old data. receive more data. In the absence of flow control, the receiver’s
buffer may overflow while it is processing old data.
For asynchronous transmission, the data are sent in a sequence

of frames with each frame containing a portion of the data and
some control information. We assume that all frames that are
transmitted are successfully received; no frames are lost and
none arrive with errors. Furthermore, frames arrive in the same
order in which they are sent. However, each transmitted frame
suffers an arbitrary and variable amount of delay before
reception.
There are two mechanisms for flow control in the absence of

errors :
There are two
mechanisms for flow
control.  Stop-and-wait flow control.
 The sliding window flow control.
2.3. Stop-and-wait Flow Control
Stop-and-wait flow control works as follows. A source entity

transmits a frame. After reception, the destination entity indicates
its willingness to accept another frame by sending back an
acknowledgment to the frame just received. The source must wait
until it receives the acknowledgment before sending the next
frame. The destination can thus stop the flow of data by simply
withholding acknowledgment.
89
Computer Networks
2.4. The Sliding Window Flow Control
With the use of multiple frames for a single message, the simple
stop-and-wait flow control procedure may be inadequate. This
problem is overcome by using the sliding-window flow control.
Let us suppose that two stations, A and B, are connected via a

full-duplex link. Station B allocates buffer space for n frames.
Thus station B can accept n frames, and station A is allowed to
send n frames without waiting for an acknowledgment. To keep
track of which frames have been acknowledgment, each is
labeled with a sequence number. Station B acknowledges a
frame by sending a acknowledgment that includes the sequence
number of the next frame expected. This acknowledgment also
implicitly announces that station B is prepared to receive the next
Sliding-window flow n frames beginning with the number specified. This scheme can
control. also be used to acknowledge multiple frames. For example,
station B could receive frames 2, 3, and 4, but without
acknowledgment until frame 4 has arrived. By then returning a
acknowledgment with sequence number 5, station B
acknowledges frames 2, 3, and 4 at one time. Station A
maintains a list of sequence numbers that it is allowed to send
and station B maintains a list of sequence numbers that it is
prepared to receive. Each of these lists can be thought of as a
window of frames. The operation is referred to as sliding-
window flow control.
Since the sequence number to be used occupies a field in the

frame, it is clearly of bounded size. For a k-bit field, the sequence
k
number can range from 0 to (2 - 1). Accordingly, frames are
k k
numbered modulo 2 ; that is, after sequence number (2 - 1), the
next number is zero.
Figure 6.2 depicts the sliding-window process. It assumes the use

of a 3-bit sequence number, so that frames are numbered
sequentially from 0 through 7, and then the same numbers are
reused for subsequent frames. The shaded rectangle represents
the window of frames that may be transmitted. The figure
indicates that the sender may transmit 7 frames, beginning with
frame 6. Each time a frame is sent, the shaded portion will shrink;
each time a new acknowledgment is received, the shaded portion
will grow.
90
Data Link Control
Window of frames that may be

Frames alreads transmitted transmitted
... 0 1 2 3 4 567 0 1 2 3 4 56 7 ...
Frame Last trame Window shriks Window expands

sequence transmitted from trailing edge from edge as
numbers as frames are sent acknowledgements
are received
(a) Transmitter's perspective
Window of frames that may be

Frames alreads receuved
transmitted
... 0 1 2 3 4 567 0 1 2 3 4 56 7 ...
Last trame Window shriks Window expands

acknowledged from trailing edge from edge as
as frames are received acknowledgements
Fig. 6.2 : Sliding-window depiction. are sent
(b) Receiver's perspective
Fig. 6.2 : Example of sliding-window flow control.
An example is shown in Figure 6.2. The example assumes a 3-bit

sequence number field and a maximum window size of seven.
Initially, station A and station B have windows indicating that
station A may transmit seven frames, beginning with frame 0
(F0). After transmitting three frames (F0, F1, F2) without
acknowledgment, station A has shrunk its window to four frames.
The window indicates that station A may transmit four frames,
beginning with frame number 3. Station B then transmit an ACK3,
which indicates that station B received all frames up through
frame number 2 and now ready to receive seven frames
beginning with frame number 3. With this acknowledgment,
91
Computer Networks
station A is back up to permission to transmit seven frames, still

beginning with frame 3. Station A proceeds to transmit frames 3,
4, 5, and 6. Station B returns ACK4, which acknowledges frame
3, and allows the transmission of frames 4 through 2. But, by the
time that this acknowledgment reaches station A, it has already
transmitted frames 4, 5, and 6. The result is that station A may
only open its window to permit the transmission of 4 frames,
beginning with frame 7.
To supplement the above flow control, most protocols allow a

station to completely cut off the flow of frames from the other side
by sending a Receive Not Ready (RNR) message, which
acknowledges former frames but forbids transfer of future
frames. Thus RNR5 indicates that the station received all frames
up through number 4 and now unable to accept any more. At
some subsequent point, the station must send a normal
acknowledgment to reopen the window.
2.5. Exercise
a. In the sliding-window flow control mechanism, using a 4-

bit sequence number, the frames are numbered
i) from 0 to 7
ii) from 0 to 16
iii) from 0 to 15
b. In a sliding-window flow control mechanism with sequence

number ranging from 0 to 7, a ACK4 from station B to
station A indicates that
i) station B received all frames up through frame number 4

and now ready to receive seven frames beginning with
frame number 5.
ii) station B received all frames up through frame number 3
and now ready to receive seven frames beginning with
frame number 4.
iii) station A already transmitted 5 frames beginning from
frame number 0.
iv) station A may transmit 5 frames beginning from frame
number 0.
92
Data Link Control
a) Why is flow control needed between a transmitting station

and a receiving station?
b) Name the different mechanisms for flow control in
absence of error.
c) What does ACK5 mean in a sliding-window flow control
mechanism with frame sequence ranging from o to 7?
d) What does RNR5 mean in a sliding-window flow control
mechanism with frame sequence ranging from o to 7?
a) Discuss stop-and-wait flow control mechanism.

b) Discuss sliding-window flow control mechanism.
93
Computer Networks
Lesson 3 : Error Control

 know three mechanisms of error control between a

transmitting station and a receiving station.
3.2. Introduction
Error control refers to mechanisms to detect and correct errors

that occur in the transmission of frames.
There is possibility of two types of errors :
 Lost frame : A frame fails to arrive at the other side.

 Damaged frame : A frame does arrive but some of the bits
are in error.
The most common techniques for error control are based on

some or all of the following ingredients :
 Error Detection : Typically CRC is used.

 Positive acknowledgment : The destination returns a
positive acknowledgment to successfully received, error-free
frames.
 Retransmission after time-out : The source retransmits a
Automatic repeat request frame that has not been acknowledged after a predetermined
(ARQ). amount of time.
 Negative acknowledgment and retransmission : The
destination returns a negative acknowledgment to frames in
which an error is detected. The source retransmits such
frames.
Collectively, these mechanisms all referred to as automatic

repeat request (ARQ). Three versions of ARQ are in common
use:
 Stop-and-wait ARQ
94
Data Link Control
 Go-back-N ARQ
 Selective-reject ARQ.
All of these forms are based on the use of flow control

techniques.
3.3. Stop-and-wait ARQ
Stop-and-wait ARQ is based on the stop-and-wait flow control

technique, and is depicted in figure 6.3. The source station
transmits a single frame and then must await an acknowledgment
(ACK). No other data frames can be sent until the destination
station’s reply arrives at the source station.
The frame transmitted by the source could suffer an error. If the

error is detected by the destination, it discards the frame and
sends a negative acknowledgment (NAK), causing the source to
retransmit the damaged frame. On the other hand, if the
transmitted frame is so corrupted by noise as not to be received,
the destination will not respond. To account for this possibility,
the source is equipped with a timer. After a frame is transmitted,
Stop-and-wait ARQ is the source waits for an acknowledgment (ACK or NAK). If no
based on the stop-and- recognizable acknowledgment is received during the time-out
wait flow control period, then the frame is retransmitted. Note that this system
technique. requires that the source maintain a copy of a transmitted frame
until an ACK is received for that frame.
A B
Time
Frame 0
ACK 1
Frame 1
ACK 0
Time
out Frame 0
*
Frame lost: Frame 0
A retransmits
ACK 1
Frame 1
Time ACK 0
out *
ACK 0 lost:
Frame 1
A retransmits
B discards
ACK 0
duplicate frame
95
Computer Networks
Fig. 6.3: Stop-and-wait ARQ.
If a frame is sent correctly but the acknowledgment is damaged in

transit, then the source will time out and retransmit that frame.
The destination will now receive and accept two copies of the
same frame. To avoid this problem, frames are alternately
labeled with 0 or 1 and positive acknowledgments are of the form
ACK0 or ACK1: an ACK0 (ACK1) acknowledges receipt of a
frame numbered 1(0) and indicates that the receiver is ready for
a frame numbered 0(1).
3.4. Go-back-N ARQ
The sliding-window flow control technique can be adapted to

provide more efficient error control and it is referred to as
continuous ARQ. One variant of continuous ARQ is known as
go-back-N ARQ. In this technique, a station may send a series of
frames determined by window size, using the sliding-window flow
control technique. While no errors occur, the destination will
acknowledge (ACK) incoming frames as usual.
Consider that station A is sending frames to station B. After each

transmission, station A sets an acknowledgment timer for the
Go-back-N ARQ
frame just transmitted. The go-back-N technique takes into
account the following contingencies :
1. Damaged frame : There are three subcases :
a) Station A transmits frame i. Station b detects an error and has

previously successfully received frame (i-1). Station B sends
a NAKi, indicating that frame i is rejected. When station A
receives this NAK, it must retransmit frame i and all
subsequent frames that it has transmitted.
b) Frame i is lost in transit. Station A subsequently sends frame
(i+1). Station B receives frame (i+1) out of order, and send a
NAKi.
c) Frame i is lost in transit and station A does not soon send
additional frames. Station B receives nothing and returns
neither an ACK or a NAK. Station A will time out and
retransmit frame i.
2. Damaged ACK: There are two subcases :
a) Station B receives frame i and sends ACK(i+1), which is lost

in transit. Since ACKs are cumulative (e.g., ACK6 means that
all frames through 5 are acknowledged), it may be that A will
96
Data Link Control
receive a subsequent ACK to a subsequent frame that will do

the job of the lost ACK before the associated time expires.
b) If station A’s time expires, station A retransmits frame i and all
subsequent frames.
3. Damaged NAK : If a NAK is lost, station A will eventually time

out on the associated frame and retransmit that frame and all
subsequent frames.
Figure 6.4(a) shows the frame flow for go-back-N ARQ on a full-
duplex line, assuming a 3-bit sequence number.
With go-back-N ARQ, it is not required that each individual frame

be acknowledged. For example, station A sends frames 0, 1, 2,
and 3. Station B responds with ACK1 after frame 0, but then
does not respond to frames 1 and 2. After frame 3 is received,
station B issues ACK4, indicating that frame 3 and all previous
frames are accepted.
Fig. 6.4: Examples of continuous ARQ.
In most continuous ARQ implementation, the receiving station

sends acknowledgment with the next return frame using a fixed
length acknowledgment field. This is known as piggybacking.
97
Computer Networks
3.5. Selective-reject ARQ

With selective-reject ARQ, With selective-reject ARQ, the only frames retransmitted are
the only frames
those that received a NAK or which time out. Figure 6.5(b), which
retransmitted are those
that received a NAK or exhibits the same error pattern as figure 6.5(a), illustrates
which time out. selective-reject. Because of various complications, the selective-
reject ARQ is rarely implemented.
3.6. Exercise
a. In Go-back-N ARQ, a ACK5 means that
i) frame 5 and all subsequent frames are to be retransmitted

ii) frame 5 is to be retransmitted
iii) frame 4 and all subsequent frames are to be retransmitted
b. In Go-back-N ARQ, if a NAK5 is lost, then
i) station A will eventually time out on the frame 4 and

retransmit frame 4 and all subsequent frames.
ii) station A will eventually time out on the frame 5 and
retransmit frame 5 and all the subsequent frames.
iii) station A will not be able to detect the case.
a) Briefly discuss the possible types of errors that occur in

frame transmission between two stations.
a) Briefly discuss the different ingredients of ARQ.

b) Discuss Stop-and-wait ARQ.
c) Discuss Go-back-N ARQ.
d) Discuss Selective-reject ARQ.
98
Data Link Control
Lesson 4 : HDLC and Data Link Control

Protocol
 learn details of a widely used data link protocol named High-

level Data Link Control (HDLC)
 learn names of other variants of HDLC.
4.2. Introduction
A number of very similar data link control protocols have

achieved wide-spread use :
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) : developed by the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO 3309, ISO
4335).
 Advanced Data Communication Control Procedures
(ADCCP) : developed by the American National Standards
Institution (ANSI X3.66). With very minor exceptions, ADCCP
has been adopted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards
(FIPS PUB 71-1) for use of federal government
procurements, and by the Federal Telecommunications
Standards Committee (FED-STD-10034) as the standard for
the national-defense-related national Communications
Systems.
 Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAP-B) : adopted by the
International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative
Committee (CCITT) as part of its X.25 packet switched
network standard.
 Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) : used by IBM. This
is not a standard, but is in wide-spread use.
There are virtually no differences between HDLC and ADCCP.

LAP-B is a subset of HDLC. SDLC is also a subset HDLC, but
also includes several minor additional features.
4.3. Basic Characteristics of HDLC
HDLC defines three types of stations, two link configurations, and

three data transfer modes of operation.
The three station types are :
99
Computer Networks
 Primary station : has the responsibility for controlling the

operation of the link. Frames issued by the primary station are
called commands.
 Secondary station : operates under the control of the
primary station. Frames issued by the secondary station(s)
are called responses. The primary maintains a separate
logical link with each secondary station on the line.
 Combined station : combines the features of primary and
secondary stations. A combined station may issue both
commands and responses.
The two link configurations are :
 Unbalanced configuration : used in point-to-point and

multipoint operations. This configuration consists of one
primary and one or more secondary stations and support both
full-duplex and half-duplex transmissions.
 Balanced configuration : used only in point-to-point
operation. This configuration consists of two combined
stations and supports both full-duplex and half-duplex
transmissions.
The three data transfer modes of operation are :
 Normal Response Mode (NRM) : This is an unbalanced

configuration. The primary may initiate data transfer to a
secondary, but a secondary may only transmit data in
response to a poll from the primary.
 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) : This is a balanced
configuration. Either combined station may initiate
transmission without receiving permission from the other
combined station.
 Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM) : This is an
unbalanced configuration. In this mode, the secondary may
initiate transmission without explicit permission of the primary
(i.e., send a response without waiting for a command). The
primary still retains responsibility for the line, including
initialization, error recovery, and logical disconnection.
4.4. Frame Structure of HDLC
HDLC uses synchronous transmission. All transmissions are in

frames, and a single frame format suffices for all types of data
and control exchanges.
100
Data Link Control
101
Computer Networks
FLAG ADDRESS CONTROL INFORMATION FCS FLAG
8 8 8 or 16 Variable 16 or 32 8
bit Extendable Extendable
(a) Frame format
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
I: Information O N(S) P/F N(R)
S: Supervisory 1 O S P/F N(R)
1 1 M P/F M
U: Unnumbered
N (S) = Send sequence number
N (R) = Receive sequence number
S = Supervisory function bits
M = Unnumbered function bits
P/F = Poll/final bit
(b) Control field format
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13 14 15 16 8n
0 0 ...... 1
(c) Extended address field

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Information 0 N(S) P/F N(R)

Supervisory 1 0 S 0 0 0 0 P/F N(R)
(d) Extended control fields
Fig. 6.5: HDLC frame structure.
Figure 6.5 depicts the structure of the HDLC frame. The frame
has the following fields :
 Flag : 8 bits
 Address : One or more octets
 Control : 8 or 16 bits
 Information : variable
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS) : 16 or 32 bits
 Flag : 8 bits.
The flag, address, and control fields that precede the data field
are known as a header. The FCS and flag fields following the
data field are referred to as a trailer.
102
Data Link Control
Flag Fields
Flag fields delimit the frame at both ends with the unique pattern
01111110. A single flag may be used as the closing flag for one
frame and the opening flag for the next. All active stations
attached to the link are continuously hunting for the flag
sequence to synchronize on the start of a frame. While receiving
a frame, a station continues to hunt for that sequence to
determine the end of the frame. However, since the HDLC frame
allows arbitrary bit patterns, there is no assurance that the pattern
01111110 will not appear somewhere inside the frame, thus
destroying frame-level synchronization. To avoid this problem, a
procedure known as bit stuffing is used. The transmitter will
always insert an extra 0 bit after each occurrence of five 1’s in the
frame. After detecting a starting flag, the receiver monitors the bit
stream. When a pattern of five 1’s appears, the sixth bit is
examined. If this bit is 0, it is deleted. If the sixth bit is a 1 and the
seventh bit is a 0, the combination is accepted as a flag. If the
Bit stuffing sixth and seventh bits are both 1, the sending station is signaling
an abort condition. With the use of bit stuffing, arbitrary bit
patterns can be inserted into the data field of the frame. This
property is known as data transparency. An example of the bit
stuffing is given below :
Original pattern : 111111111111011111101111110

After bit stuffing : 1111101111101101111101011111010
Address Field
The address field is used to identify the secondary station that

transmitted or is to receive the frame. This field is not needed for
point-to-point links, but is always included for the sake of
uniformity. An address is normally eight bits long but, by prior
agreement, an extended format may be used in which the
address length is a multiple of seven bits. The least significant bit
in each octet is 1 or 0 according as it is or is not the last octet of
the address field. The remaining seven bits form part of the
address. The single octet address of 11111111 is interpreted as
the all-stations address in both basic and extended formats. It is
used to allow the primary to broadcast a frame for reception by all
secondaries.
Control Field
HDLC defines three types of frames, each with a different control

field format. Information frames (I-frames) carry the data to be
103
Computer Networks
transmitted for the station, known as used data. Additionally, flow

and error control data, using ARQ mechanism, may be
piggybacked on an information frame. Supervisory frames (S-
frames) provide the ARQ mechanism when piggybacking is not
used, and unnumbered frames (U-frames) provide
supplemental link control functions. The first one or two bits of the
control field serves to identify the frame type, the remaining bit
positions are organized into subfields as indicated in figure 6.6(b)
and (d). Note that the basic control field for S- and I-frames uses
3-bit sequence numbers. With the appropriate set-mode
command, an extended control field can be used for S- and I-
frames that employs 7-bit sequence numbers.
Information Field
HDLC defines three types The information field is present only in I-frames and some
of frames, each with a unnumbered frames. The field can contain any sequence of bits.
different control field Its length is undefined in the standard, but is generally limited by
format. each implementation to a specified maximum.
Frame Check Sequence Field
The frame check sequence is applied to the remaining bits of the

frame, exclusive of flags. The normal FCS is the 16-bit CRC-
CCITT. An optional 32-bit FCS, using CRC-32, may be employed
if the frame length or line reliability dictates this choice.
4.5. Exercise
a. In HDLC, a command is issued by
i) primary station
ii) secondary station
iii) both primary and secondary stations
b. In HDLC, a response is issued by
i) primary station
ii) secondary station
iii) both primary and secondary stations
104
Data Link Control
c. In HDLC, unbalanced configuration is used
i) only in point-to-point operation

ii) only in multipoint operation
iii) in both point-to-point and multipoint operations
a) Name the different widely used data link protocol along

with their standardizing organization.
b) What is a command in HDLC?
c) What is a response in HDLC?
d) What is a primary station in HDLC?
e) What is a secondary station in HDLC?
f) What is a combined station in HDLC?
g) Name the header fields and trailer fields of HDLC.
h) Name the different fields of HDLC.
a) Discuss the characteristics of HDLC.

b) Discuss the different fields of HDLC frame format.
c) Discuss the bit stuffing procedure in HDLC.
105
Computer Networks
Lesson 5 : Operation of HDLC

 grasp the operation of HDLC.
5.2. Introduction
The operation of HDLC consists of the exchange of I-frames, S-

frames, and U-frames between a primary and a secondary or
between two primaries. To describe HDLC operation, we will
discuss these three types of frames.
5.3. Information Frames
The basic operation of HDLC involves the exchange of

information frames (I-frames) containing user-data. Each I-frame
contains the sequence number of the transmitted frame as well
as a piggybacked positive acknowledgment. The
acknowledgment is the sequence number of the next frame
The acknowledgment is expected. A maximum window size of 7 or 127 is allowed. The I-
the sequence number of frame also contains a poll/final (P/F) bit. The bit is a poll bit for
the next frame expected. commands (from primary) and a final bit (from secondary) for
responses. In normal response mode (NRM), the primary issues
a poll giving permission to send by setting the poll bit to 1, and
the secondary sets the final bit to 1 on the last I-frame of its
response. In asynchronous response mode (ARM) and
asynchronous balanced mode (ABM), the P/F bit is sometimes
used to coordinate the exchange of S- and U-frames.
5.4. Supervisory Frames
The supervisory frames (S-frames) is used for flow and error

control. Both go-back-N (REJ) and selective-reject (SREJ) ARQ
are allowed. The latter is rarely implemented because of the
buffering requirements. A frame may be positively acknowledged
with a receive ready (RR) when an I-frame is not available for
The supervisory frames
piggybacking. In addition, a receive not ready (RNR) is used to
(S-frames) is used for
accept a frame but request that no more I-frames be sent until a
flow and error control.
subsequent RR is used. For the RR, RNR, and REJ frames, N(R)
indicates the sequence number of the next expected I-frame. For
SREJ, N(R) is the sequence number of the rejected frame.
106
Data Link Control
The P/F bit on a supervisory frame may be employed as follows.

The primary may set the P bit in an RR frame to poll the
secondary. This is done when the primary has no I-frame upon
which to piggyback the poll. The secondary responds with an I-
frame if it has one; otherwise, it sends an RR with the F bit set to
indicate that it has no data to send. The primary (combined
station) may set the P bit in the RNR command to solicit the
receiver status of a secondary/combined station. The response
will be an RR with the F bit set if the station can receive I-frames,
and an RNR with the F bit set if the station is busy.
5.5. Unnumbered Frames
Unnumbered frames are used for a variety of control functions.

These frames do not carry sequence numbers and do not alter
the sequencing or flow of numbered I-frames. We can group
these frames into the following categories :
 Mode-setting commands and responses.

 Information transfer commands and responses.
 Recovery commands and responses.
 Miscellaneous commands and responses.
Mode-setting commands are transmitted by the

primary/combined station to initialize or change the mode of the
secondary/combined station. The secondary/combined station
acknowledges acceptance by responding with an unnumbered
acknowledgment (UA) frame; the UA has the F bit set to the
same value as the received P bit. Once established, a mode
remains in effect at a secondary station until the next mode-
setting command is accepted, and at a combined station until the
next mode-setting command is either accepted or transmitted and
The secondary/combined acknowledged. Upon acceptance of any of the commands Set
station acknowledges Normal Response/Extended Mode (SNRM/SNRME), Set
acceptance by responding
Asynchronous Response/Extended Mode (SARM/SARME), Set
with an unnumbered
acknowledgment (UA).
Asynchronous Balanced/Extended Mode (SABM/SABME), the I-
frame sequence numbers in both directions are set to 0. The Set
Initialization Mode (SIM) command is used to cause the
addressed secondary/combined station to initiate a station-
specified procedure to initialize its data link control functions
(e.g., accept a new program or update operational parameters).
While in initialization mode, the required information is sent using
unnumbered information (UI) frames. The Disconnect command
(DISC) is used to inform the addressed station that the
transmitting station is suspending operation.
107
Computer Networks
Information transfer commands and responses are used to

exchange information between stations. This is done primarily
through the Unnumbered Information (UI) command/response.
Example of UI frame information are higher-level status,
operational interruption, time of day, and link initialization
parameters. The Unnumbered Poll (UP) command is used to
solicit an unnumbered response, as a way of establishing the
status of the addressed station.
Recovery commands and responses are used when the normal

ARQ mechanism does not apply or will not work. The Frame
Reject (FRMR) response is used to report an error in a received
frame, such as :
 Invalid control field.

 Data field to long.
 Data field not allowed with received frame type.
 Invalid receive count (i.e., a frame is acknowledged that has
not yet been sent).
The Reset (RSET) command is used to clear the FRMR

condition. RSET announces that the sending station is resetting
its send sequence number, and the addressed station should
reset its receive sequence number.
Miscellaneous commands/responses fit into no neat category.

The Exchange Identification (XID) command/response is used for
two stations to exchange station identification and the
characteristics of the two stations. The actual information
exchanged is implementation dependent. A Test (TEST)
command/response is used for testing that the link and the
addressed station are still functioning. A test command must be
echoed with a test response at the earliest opportunity.
108
Data Link Control
5.6. Exercise
a. The operation of HDLC consists of the exchange of
i) I-frames between a primary and a secondary or between

two primaries.
ii) S-frames between a primary and a secondary or between
two primaries.
iii) U-frames between a primary and a secondary or between
two primaries.
a) Name the categories of Unnumbered frames in HDLC.

b) Name the different mode-setting commands and
responses in HDLC.
c) Name the different information transfer commands and
responses in HDLC.
d) Name the different recovery commands and responses in
HDLC.
e) Name the different miscellaneous commands and
responses in HDLC.
a) Discuss different types of frames in HDLC.
109
Multiplexing
Unit 7 : Multiplexing
Introduction
Transmission facilities are, by and large, expensive. It is often the

case that two communicating stations will not utilize the full
capacity of a data link. For efficiency, it should be possible to
share that capacity. The generic term for such sharing is
multiplexing. In this unit different types of multiplexing is
discussed.
Lesson 1 : Frequency Division Multiplexing

 know the classification of multiplexing techniques

 know details of frequency-division multiplexing technique.
1.2. Classification Of Multiplexing Techniques
n inputs n outputs
D
M E
U M
1 link, n channels U
X
X
Fig. 7.1: Multiplexing.
Figure 7.1 depicts the multiplexing function generically. There are

n inputs to a multiplexer. The multiplexer is connected by a single
data link to a demultiplexer. The link is able to carry n separate
channels of data. The multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data
from the n input lines and transmits over a higher-capacity data
link. The demultiplexer accepts the multiplexed data stream,
separates (demultiplexes) the data according to channel, and
delivers them to the appropriate output lines.
Multiplexing techniques are of two types:
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

 Time-division multiplexing (TDM).
Computer Networks
TDM are of two types:
 Synchronous TDM
 Statistical TDM.
1.3. Frequency Division Multiplexing
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is possible when the

useful bandwidth of the medium exceed the required bandwidth of
signals to be transmitted. A number of signals can be carried
simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a different carrier
frequency, and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated
that the bandwidths of the signals do not overlap.
m1(t) Subcarrier SSC1(t)
fSC1
m2(t) Subcarrier SSC2(t)

fSC1 mc(t) s(t)=FDM
Transmitter
 fc
mN(t) Subcarrier
fSC1 SSCN(t)
(a) Transmitter
|Mc(f)|
0 fSC1
f
fSC2 fSCN
BSC1 B SC2 BSCN
B
(b) Spectrum of composit signal (positive f)
m1(t)
Bandpass filter, fSC1 Demodulator, fSC1
m2(t)
Bandpass filter, fSC2 Demodulator, fSC2
Receiver
mN(t)
Bandpass filter, fSCN Demodulator, fSCN
(C) Receiver
Fig. 7.2: Frequency division multiplexing.
106
Multiplexing
Each modulated signal requires a certain bandwidth centered

around its carrier frequency, referred to as a channel. To prevent
interference, the channels are separated by guard bands, which
are unused portion of the spectrum. The composite signal
transmitted across the medium is analog. Note, however, that the
input signals may be either digital or analog.
A generic depiction of an FDM system is shown in figure 7.2. A

number of analog or digital signals [mi(t), i=1,N] are to be
Each modulated signal multiplexed onto the same transmission medium. Each signal mi(t)
requires a certain is modulated onto a carrier fsci; since multiple carrier are to be
bandwidth centered used, each is referred to as a subcarrier. Any type of modulation
around its carrier may be used. The resulting analog, modulated signals are then
frequency, referred to as a summed to produce a composite signal mc(t). Figure 7.2(b) shows
channel. the result. The spectrum of signal mc(t) is shifted to be centered on
fsci. For this scheme to work, fsci must be chosen so that the
bandwidth of the various signals do not overlap. Otherwise, it will
be impossible to recover the original signals. The composite signal
may then be shifted as a whole to another carrier frequency by an
additional modulation step. This second modulation step need not
use the same modulation techniques as the first. The composite
N
signal has a total bandwidth, B, where B  B
i 1
sci . This analog
signal may be transmitted over a suitable medium. At the

receiving end, the composite signal is passed through N bandpass
filters, each filter centered on fsci and having width Bsci, for 1  i N.
In this way, the signal is again split into its component parts. Each
component is then demodulated to recover the original signal.
107
Computer Networks
1.4. Exercise
a. In FDM, the composite signal transmitted across the

medium is
i) analog
ii) digital
iii) either analog or digital
iv) both analog and digital.
b. In FDM, the composite signal has a total bandwidth B,

where
N
i) B   B sci
i 1
N
ii) B   Bsci
i 1
N
iii) B   Bsci
i 1
a) Give the classification of multiplexing techniques.

b) What is guard bands in FDM system?
c) What is a subcarrier in FDM system?
a) Discuss the FDM technique.
108
Multiplexing
Lesson 2 : Time Division Multiplexing

 learn details of Synchronous TDM

 learn details of Statistical TDM.
2.2. Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous time-division Multiplexing is possible when the
achievable data rate of the medium exceeds the data rate of
digital signals to be transmitted. Multiple digital signals (or analog
signals carrying digital data) can be carried on a single
transmission path by interleaving portions of each signal in time.
Buffer Scan
Operation
m1(t)
m2(t)
mc(t) s(t)
Modem
mn(t)
Multiple digital signals can (a) Transmitter

be carried on a single
transmission path by
interleaving portions of Frame Frame
each signal in time.
1 2 N 1 2 N
Time slot: may be empty or occupied

(b) TDM frames
m1(t)
m1(t)
m2(t)
mc(t)
mn(t)
Scan Buffer
Operation
(c) Receiver
Fig. 7.3: Synchronous time-division multiplexing.
109
Computer Networks
A generic depiction of a synchronous TDM system is provided in

figure 7.3. A number of signals [mi(t), i=1,N] are to be multiplexed
onto the same transmission medium. The signals carry digital data
and are generally digital signals. The incoming data from each
source are briefly buffered. Each buffer is typically one bit or one
character in length. The buffers are scanned sequentially to form a
composite digital data stream mc(t). The scan operation is
sufficiently rapid so that each buffer is emptied before more data
can arrive. Thus the data rate of mc(t) must at least equal the sum
of the data rates of the mi(t). The digital signal mc(t) may be
transmitted directly, or passed through a modem so that an analog
signal is transmitted. In either case, transmission is typically
The slot length equals the synchronous. The transmitted data may have a format something
transmitted buffer length, like figure 7.3(b). The data are organized into frames. Each frame
typically a bit or a contains a cycle of time slots. In each frame, one or more slots is
character. dedicated to each data source. The sequence of slots dedicated
to one source, from frame to frame, is called a channel. The slot
length equals the transmitted buffer length, typically a bit or a
character. At the receiver, the interleaved data are demultiplexed
and routed to the appropriate destination buffer. For each input
source mi(t), there is an identical output source which will receive
the input data at the same rate at which it was generated.
2.3. Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
In a synchronous time-division multiplexing, it is generally the

case that many of the time slots in a frame are wasted. An
alternative to synchronous TDM is statistical TDM. The statistical
multiplexer exploits this common property of data transmission by
dynamically allocating time slots on demand. As with a
synchronous TDM, the statistical multiplexer has a number of I/O
The statistical multiplexer lines on one side and a higher speed multiplexed line on the other.
exploits this common Each I/O line has a buffer associated with it. In the case of the
property of data statistical multiplexer, there are n I/O lines, but only k, where k < n,
transmission by time slots available on the TDM frame. For input, the function of
dynamically allocating the multiplexer is to scan the input buffers, collecting data until a
time slots on demand. frame is filled, and then send the frame. On output, the multiplexer
receives a frame and distributes the slots of data to the
appropriate output buffers. Since data arrive from and are
distributed to I/O lines unpredictably, address information is
required to assure proper delivery.
110
Multiplexing
2.4. Exercise
a. TDM system is used for

i) only analog input signals
ii) only digital input signals
iii) both analog and digital signals
b. The data rate of the composite signal mc(t) of a

synchronous TDM system
i) must equal the sum of the data rates of the input signal
mi(t).
ii) must at least equal the sum of the data rates of the input
signal mi(t).
iii) must be less than the sum of the data rates of the input
signal mi(t).
c. In statistical TDM system, the number of time slots
i) is equal to the number of input I/O lines

ii) is greater than the number of input I/O lines.
iii) is less than the number of input I/O lines.
2.4.2. Questions for short answer
a) Why is the number of time slots in statistical TDM system

kept less than the number of input I/O lines?
a) Discuss synchronous TDM system.

b) Discuss statistical TDM system.
111
Computer Networks
112
Switched Data Communication Networking
Unit 8 : Switched Data

Communication Networking
Introduction
In a computer network, generally computers are not connected by

point-to-point links. Often they are connected to a data
communication network.
Data communication networks can be categorized as follows:
 Switched networks
 Circuit-switched networks
 Packet-switched networks.
 Broadcast network
 Local area networks (LANs)
 Metropolitan area networks (MANs).
In this unit, switched networks, viz., circuit-switched networks and

packet-switched networks are discussed. Broadcast networks are
discussed in the next unit.
Lesson 1 : Circuit Switching

 understand operation of switching networks

 understand circuit switching.
1.2. Switching Networks
A collection of devices In a network, there is a collection of devices that need to

that need to communicate; we refer to them generically as station. Each
communicate; we refer to station attaches to a network node. The set of nodes to which
them generically as stations attach is the boundary of the communication network,
station. Each station which is capable of transferring data between pairs of attached
attaches to a network stations. The communication network is not concerned with the
node. content of the data exchanged between stations; its purpose is
simply to move those data from source to destination.
A switched communication network consists of an

interconnected collection of nodes; in which data are transmitted
from source station to destination station by being routed through
Computer Networks
the network of nodes. Figure 8.1 is a simplified illustration of the

concept. The nodes are connected by transmission paths. Data
Data entering the network entering the network from a station are routed to the destination
from a station are routed by being switched from node to node. For example, data from
to the destination by being station A intended for station F are sent to node 4. They may then
switched from node to be routed via nodes 5 and 6 or nodes 7 and 6 to the destination.
node. Several observations are in order:
B 1 3 D
A 4 6
F
=Communications network node
=Network station
Fig. 8.1: Generic switching network.
1. Some nodes connect only to other nodes. Their sole task is

the internal switching of data. Other nodes have one or more
stations attached as well; in addition to their switching
functions, such nodes accept data from and deliver data to the
attached stations.
2. Node-node links are usually multiplexed links, using either
FDM or TDM.
3. Usually, the network is not fully connected; that is, there is not
a direct link between every possible pair of nodes. However, it
is always desirable to have more than one possible path
through the network for each pair of stations. This enhances
the reliability of the network.
114
1.3. Circuit Switching
Communication via circuit switching implies that there is a

dedicated communication path between two stations. That path is
a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On each
physical link, a channel is dedicated to the connection.
Communication via circuit switching involves three phases, which

can be explained with reference to figure 8.1.
1. Circuit establishment. Before any signals can be transmitted,

an end-to-end (station-to-station) circuit must be established.
For example, station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a
connection to station E. Typically, the link from A to 4 is a
dedicated line, so that part of the connection already exists.
Communication via circuit Node 4 must find the next leg in a route leading to node 6.
switching implies that Based on routing information and measures of availability and
there is a dedicated perhaps cost, node 4 selects the link to node 5, allocates a
communication path
free channel on that link and sends a message requesting
between two stations.
connection to E. So far, a dedicated path has been established
from A through 4 to 5. The remainder of the process proceeds
similarly. Node 5 dedicates a channel to node 6 and internally
ties that channel to the channel from node 4. Node 6
completes the connection to E. In completing the connection, a
test is made to determine if E is busy or is prepared to accept
the connection.
2. Data transfer: Information can now be transmitted from A
through the network to E.
3. Circuit disconnect. After some period of data transfer, the
connection is terminated, usually by the action of one of the
two stations. Signals must be propagated to nodes 4, 5, and 6
to deallocate the dedicated resources.
Note that the connection path is established before data

transmission begins and channel is dedicated for the duration of a
connection, even if no data are being transferred. Thus circuit
switching can be rather inefficient.
115
Computer Networks
1.4. Exercise
a. In a circuit switching network
i) a dedicated communication path is established between

two stations before data transfer begins.
ii) a communication path is established when data is ready
for transmission.
iii) any of the above two may be adopted.
a) Define station and node in a switching network.
a) Discuss different phases of communication via a circuit-

switching network.
116
Lesson 2 : Control Signaling in Circuit-

Switched Network
 learn details of control signaling needed in a circuit-switched

network.
2.2. Signaling Functions
In a circuit-switched network, control signals are the means by

The functions performed which the network is managed and by which calls are established,
by control signaling. maintained, and terminated. The functions performed by control
signaling are as follows:
1. Audible communication with the station, including dial tone,

ringing tone, busy signal, and so on.
2. Transmission of the number dialed to switching offices that will
attempt to complete a connection.
3. Transmission of information between switches indicating that a
call con not be completed.
4. Transmission of information between switches indicating that a
call has ended and that the path can be disconnected.
5. A signal to make a station ring.
6. Transmission of information used for billing purposes.
7. Transmission of information giving the status of equipment or
trunks in the network. This information may be used for routing
and maintenance purposes.
8. Transmission of information used in diagnosing and isolating
system failures.
9. Control of special equipment such as satellite channel
equipment.
An example of the use of control signaling is shown in figure 8.2,

which illustrates a typical connection sequence from one station to
another in the same node. The steps involved appears as circled
numbers in the figure:
1. Prior to the call, both stations are not in use (on-hook). The
call begins when one station lifts the receiver (off-hook), which
is automatically signaled to switch.
2. The switch responds with an audible dial tone, signaling the
station that the number may be dialed.
3. The caller dials the number, which is communicated as a
destination address to the switch.
117
Computer Networks
4. If the called station is not busy, the switch alerts the station to
an incoming call by sending a ringing signal, which causes the
station to ring.
Originating Terminating Called

Calling
central office central office customer
customer
Line c Line
On-hook On-hook
On-hook
Off-hook
1
Dial tone
2
(Address) 9 On-hook (Connect)

3
Off-hook
10 "Wink"
On-hook
Address
11
Audible ringing tone 5a 4 Ringing (20 Hz)
6
Off-hook (answer) Off-hook
Audible ringing 7 Ringing

terminated terminated
(Customers connected
conversation ensues)
On-hook On-hook
8 8
Disconnect
Fig. 8.2: Signaling on a typical completed call.
5. Feedback is provided to the calling station by the switch:
a. If the called station is not busy, the switch returns an

audible ringing tone to the caller while the ringing signal is
being sent to the called station.
b. If the called station is busy, the switch sends an audible
busy signal to the caller.
c. If the call cannot be completed through the switch, the
switch sends an audible “reorder” message to the caller.
6. The called station accepts the call by lifting the receiver (off-
hook), which is automatically signaled to the switch.
118
7. The switch terminates the ringing signal and the audible

ringing tone, and establishes a connection between the two
stations.
8. The connection is released when either station hangs up.
When the called station is attached to a different switch than the

calling station, the following switch-to-switch trunk signaling
functions are required:
1. The originating switch seizes an idle interswitch trunk, sends

an off-hook indication on the trunk, and requests a digit
register at the far end, so that the address may be
communicated.
2. The terminating switch sends an off-hook followed by an on-
hook signal, known as a “wink”. This indicates a register-ready
status.
3. The originating switch sends the address digits to the
terminating switch.
The functions performed by control signals can be roughly

grouped into the following category:
 Supervisory
 Address
 Call information
 Network management.
2.3. Location of Signaling
Control signaling needs to be considered in two contexts:

signaling between a station and the network and signaling within
the network. Typically, signaling operates differently within these
two contexts.
The signaling between a station and the switching office to which

it attaches is, to a large extent, determined by the characteristics
Control signaling needs to of the station and the needs of the human user. Signals within the
be considered in two
network are entirely computer-to-computer. The internal signaling
contexts: signaling
between a station and the is concerned not only with the management of station calls but
network and signaling with the management of the network itself. Thus, for this internal
within the network. signaling, a more complex repertoire of commands, responses,
and set of parameters is needed.
Because two different signaling techniques are used, local

switching office to which the station is attached must provide a
mappings between the relatively less complex signaling technique
used by the station and the more complex technique used within
the network.
119
Computer Networks
2.4. Types of Control Signaling
Traditional control signaling in circuit-switched networks has been

on a per-trunk or inchannel basis. With inchannel signaling, the
The facilities for signal
transmission are shared same channel is used to carry control signals as is used to carry
with control signaling. the call to which the control signals relate. Such signaling begins
at the originating station and follows the same path as the call
itself. This has the merit that no additional transmission facilities
are needed for signaling; the facilities for signal transmission are
shared with control signaling.
Two forms of inchannel signaling are in use:
 Inband signaling
 Out-of-band signaling.
Inband signaling uses not only the same physical path as the call
it serves, it also uses the same frequency band as the signals that
are carried. This form of signaling has several advantages.
Because the control signals have the same electromagnetic
Inband signaling
properties as the signals, they can go anywhere that the signals
go. Thus there are no limits on the use of inband signaling
anywhere in the network, including places where analog-to-digital
or digital-to-analog conversion takes place. In addition, it is
impossible to set up a call on a faulty path, since the control
signals that are used to set up that path would have to follow the
same path.
In out-of-band signaling, a separate narrow signaling band is

used to send control signals. The major advantage of this
approach is that the control signals can be sent whether or not
Out-of-band signaling signals are on the line, thus allowing continuous supervision and
control of a call. However, an out-of-band scheme needs extra
electronics to handle the signaling band, and the signaling rates
are slower because the signaling has been confined to a narrow
bandwidth.
The information transfer rate is quite limited with inchannel

signaling. It is difficult to accommodate, in a timely fashion, any
but the simplest form of control messages. A second drawback of
inchannel signaling is the amount of delay from the time a station
enters an address and the connection is established. Both of
these problems can be addressed with common channel
signaling, in which control signals are carried over paths
completely independent of the signal channel. One independent
control signal path can carry the signals for a number of station
channels, and hence is a common control channel for these
station channels.
120
Two modes of operation are used in common channel signaling.

In the associated mode, the common channel closely tracks
along its entire length the interswitch trunk groups that are served
between endpoints. The control signals are on different channels
from the station signals, and inside the switch, the control signals
are routed directly to a control signal processor. A more complex,
but the more powerful, mode is the nonassociated mode. With
Two modes of operation
this mode, the network is augmented by additional nodes, known
are used in common as signal transfer points. There is now no close or simple
channel signaling. assignment of control channels to trunk groups. In effect, there are
now two separate networks, with links between them so that the
control portion of the network can exercise control over the
switching nodes that are servicing the station calls. Networks
management is more easily exerted in the nonassociated mode
since control channels can be assigned to task in a more flexible
manner.
2.5. Exercise
a. The signaling within the network is concerned with the

management of
i) the station calls

ii) the networks
iii) all of the above
b. With inchannel signaling
i) the same channel is used to carry control signals.

ii) a different channel on the same physical path is used to
carry control signals.
iii) a different physical path is used to carry control signals.
c. With common channel signaling
i) the same channel is used to carry control signals.

ii) a different channel on the same physical path is used to
carry control signals.
iii) a different physical path is used to carry control signals.
121
Computer Networks
a) What is a “wink”?
b) Name the different categories of functions performed by
control signals.
c) What is the merit of inchannel signaling?
d) Name the different types of inchannel signaling.
e) What are the demerits of inchannel signaling?
a) Discuss the functions performed by control signaling.

b) With neat figure, illustrate the steps involved in a typical
connection sequence from one station to another in the
same node.
c) Discuss the function of switch-to-switch trunk signaling.
d) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of out-of-band
signaling.
e) Discuss the modes of operation of common channel
signaling.
122
Lesson 3 : Packet Switching

 introduce yourself to packet-switched network principles

 understands the switching technique used in packet-switched
network.
3.2. Introduction
A key characteristic of circuit-switched networks is that resources

within the network are dedicated to a particular call. For data
connection on circuit-switched network, two shortcoming became
apparent:
 In a typical terminal-to-host data connection, much of the time

the line is idle.
 The connection provides for transmission at constant data
rate. Thus each of the two devices that are connected must
transmit and receive at the same data rate as the other. This
limits the utility of the network in interconnecting a variety of
host computers and terminals.
Packet switching addresses these problems of circuit switching. In

packet switching data are transmitted in short packets. If a
source has a larger message to send, the message is broken up
into a series of packets. Each packet contains a portion (or all for
Each packet contains a a short message) of the user’s data plus some control information.
portion (or all for a short At each node en route, the packet is received, stored briefly, and
message) of the user’s passed on to the next node. Let us consider figure 8.1, but now
data plus some control consider that this is a simple packet-switched network. Consider a
information.
packet to be sent from station A to station E. The packet will
include control information that indicates that the intended
destination is E. The packet is sent from station A to node 4. Node
4 stores the packet, determines the next leg of the route (say 5),
and queues the packet to go out on that link (the 4-5 link). When
the link is available, the packet is transmitted to node 5, which will
forward the packet to node 6, and finally to station E.
Packet-switching has a number of advantages over circuit-

switching:
 Line efficiency is greater, since a single node-to-node link can

be dynamically shared by many packets over time.
123
Computer Networks
 A packet-switched network can carry out data-rate conversion.

Two stations of different data rates can exchange packets,
since each connects to its node at its proper data rate.
 When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit-switched network,
some calls are blocked; that is, the network refuses to accept
additional connection requests until the load on the network
decreases. On a packet-switched network, packets are still
accepted, but delivery delay increases.
 Priorities can be used. Thus, if a node has a number of
packets queued for transmission, it can transmit the higher-
priority packet first.
3.3. Switching Technique
There are two approaches of routing stream of packets through

the network and deliver them to the intended destination:
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit.
In the datagram approach, each packet is treated independently,

with no reference to packets that have gone before. Suppose that
station A in figure 8.1 has a three-packet message to send to
station E. It transmits the packets, 1-2-3, to node 4. On each
packet, node 4 must make a routing decision. Packet 1 arrives for
delivery to station E. Node 4 could plausibly forward this packet to
either node 5 or node 7 as the next step in the route. Similarly,
Two approaches of node 4 could forward packets 2 and 3 to either node 5 or node 7.
routing stream of packets So the packets, each with the same destination address, do not all
through the network. follow the same route. Thus it is possible that the packets will be
delivered to station E in a different sequence from the one in
which they were sent. It is up to station E to figure out how to
reorder them and to detect the loss of a packet and figure out how
to recover it. In this technique, each packet, treated
independently, is referred to as a datagram.
In the virtual circuit approach, a preplanned route is established

before any packets are sent. For example, suppose that, in figure
8.1, station A has one or more packets to send to station E. It first
sends a special control packet, referred to as a Call Request
packet, to node 4, requesting a logical connection to station E.
Node 4 decides to route the request and all subsequent packets to
node 5, which decides to route the request and all subsequent
packets to node 6, which finally delivers the Call Request to
station E. If station E is prepared to accept the connection, it
sends a Call Accept packet to node 6. This packet is passed back
through nodes 5 and 4 to station A. Stations A and E may now
exchange data over the route that has been established. Because
124
the route is fixed for the duration of the logical connection, it is

some what similar to a circuit in a circuit-switching network and is
referred to as a virtual circuit. Each packet now contains a virtual
circuit identifier as well as data. Each node on the preestablished
route knows where to direct such packets; no routing decisions
The route is fixed for the are required. Eventually, one of the stations terminates the
duration of the logical. connection with a Clear Request packet. At any time, each station
can have more than one virtual circuit to any other station and can
have virtual circuits to more than one stations. The main
characteristic of the virtual-circuit technique is that a route
between stations is set up prior to data transfer. Note that this
does not mean that this is a dedicated path, as in circuit switching.
3.4. Exercise
a. In a virtual-circuit packet switching technique
i) a route between stations is set up prior to data transfer.

ii) a route between stations is set up independently for each
packet.
iii) a physical path between stations is set up prior to data
transfer.
iv) either (i) or (ii) may be used.
b. In a datagram packet switching technique
i) a route between stations is set up prior to data transfer.

ii) a route between stations is set up independently for each
packet.
iii) a physical path between stations is set up prior to data
transfer.
iv) either (i) or (ii) may be used.
a) What are the shortcomings of data connection on a circuit-

switched network?
b) Name the different switching technique used in packet
switching.
a) Discuss the advantages of packet-switching over circuit-

switching.
b) Discuss datagram technique of packet switching.
c) Discuss virtual circuit technique of packet switching.
125
Computer Networks
Lesson 4 : Routing in Packet-Switched

Network
 introduce yourself to the routing function

 learn a least-cost routing algorithm
 learn routing strategies.
4.2. Introduction
The primary function of a packet-switched network is to accept

packets from a source station and deliver them to a destination
station. To accomplish this, a path or route through the network
must be selected; generally, more than one route is possible.
Thus a routing function must be performed. The desirable
attributes of the routing function are:
 Correctness
 Simplicity
 Robustness
 Stability
 Fairness
 Optimality
 Efficiency.
With these attributes in mind, the techniques of routing are

employed. The selection of a route is generally based on some
performance criterion. The simplest criterion is to chose the
The selection of a route is “shortest” route through the network. This results in the least
generally based on some number of hops per packet (one hop = traversal of one node-to-
performance criterion. node link). A generalization of the shortest-route criterion is least-
cost routing. In this case, a cost is associated with each link, and
the route through the network that accumulates the least cost is
sought. For example, figure 8.3 illustrates a network in which two
arrowed lines between a pair of nodes represent a link between
these nodes; the numbers on the lines represent the current link
cost in each direction. The shortest path from node 1 to node 6 is
1-3-6, but the least cost path is 1-4-5-6. The cost assignment is
intended to support one or more design objectives. For example,
the cost could be related to the capacity of the link, or the current
queueing delay to use the link.
126
5 3
3
2 6
5
2 8
3 3 6
2 3 3
1 1 1 4
1 2
7
1
4 1 5
Fig. 8.3 : Example packet-switched network.
4.3. Least-Cost Routing Algorithm
Virtually all packet-switched networks base their routing decision

on some form of least-cost criterion. The least-cost routing
algorithm can be simply stated as:
Given a network of nodes connected by bidirectional links, where

each link has a cost associated with it in each direction, define the
cost of a path between two nodes as the sum of the costs of the
links traversed. For each pair of nodes find the path with least
cost.
One of the most common least-cost algorithm is Dijkstra’s

algorithm. The algorithm can be described as follows:
Define:
N = Set of nodes in the network

s = Source node
M = Set of nodes so far incorporated by the algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
dij = link cost from node i to node j; dii = 0, and dij =  if the
two nodes are not directly connected; dij  0 if the two
nodes are directly connected
Dn = cost of the least-cost path from node s to node n that
is currently known to the algorithm
The algorithm has three steps; steps 2 and 3 are repeated until M
= N.
127
Computer Networks
1. Initialize:
M = {s} i.e., set of nodes incorporated is only the source
node.
Dn = dsn for n  s i.e., initial path costs to neighboring
nodes are simply the link costs.
2. Find the neighboring node not in M that has the least-cost
path from node s and incorporate that node into M:
min
Find w  M such that Dw = Dj
j M
Add w to M.
3. Update least-cost paths:
Dn = min[Dn, Dw + dwn} for all n  M
If the latter term is the minimum, the path from s to n is

now the path from s to w concatenated with the link from w
to n.
One iteration of steps 2 and 3 adds one new node to M and

defines the least-cost path from s to that node.
Table 8.1: Example of Dijkstra’s Algorithm (s = 1) using figure 8.3.
Iteration M D2 Path D3 Path D4 Path D5 Path D6 Path

1 {1} 2 1-2 5 1-3 1 1-4  -  -
2 {1,4} 2 1-2 4 1-4-3 1 1-4 2 1-4-5  -
3 {1,2,4} 2 1-2 4 1-4-3 1 1-4 2 1-4-5  -
4 {1,2,4,5} 2 1-2 3 1-4-5-3 1 1-4 2 1-4-5 4 1-4-5-6
5 {1,2,3,4,5} 2 1-2 3 1-4-5-3 1 1-4 2 1-4-5 4 1-4-5-6
6 {1,2,3,4,5,6} 2 1-2 3 1-4-5-3 1 1-4 2 1-4-5 4 1-4-5-6
Table 8.1 shows the result of applying this algorithm to figure 8.3,
using s = 1. Note that at each step the path to each node plus the
total cost of that path is generated. After the final iteration, the
least-cost path to each node and the cost of that path have been
developed.
4.4. Routing Strategies
A large number of routing strategies have evolved. These are

discussed below.
Fixed Routing
In fixed routing, a route is selected for each source-destination

pair of nodes in the network using least-cost routing algorithm.
The routes are fixed, or at least only change when there is a
change in the topology of the network. In this routing, there is no
128
difference between routing for datagrams and virtual circuits. All

packets from a given source to a given destination follow the
same route. The advantage of fixed routing is its simplicity, and it
should work well in a reliable network with steady load. Its
disadvantage is its lack of flexibility. It does not react to network
congestion or failures.
Flooding
In flooding, a packet is sent by a source node to every one of its

neighbors. At each node, an incoming packet is retransmitted on
all outgoing links except for the link that it arrived from. As an
example, consider figure 8.3. If node 1 has a packet to send to
node 6, it sends a copy of that packet to nodes 2, 3, and 4. Node
In flooding, a packet is 2 will send a copy to nodes 3 and 4. Node 4 will send a copy to
sent by a source node to nodes 2, 3, and 5. And so it goes. Eventually, a number of copies
every one of its neighbors. of the packet will arrive at node 6. The packet must have some
unique identifier (e. g. source node, sequence number; or virtual
circuit number, sequence number) so that node 6 knows to
discard all but the first copy.
The flooding technique has two remarkable properties:
 All possible routes between source and destination are tried.

Thus, no mater what link or node outage have occurred, a
packet will always get through as long as at least one path
between source and destination exists.
 Because all routes are tried, at least one copy of the packet to
arrive at the destination will have used a minimum-hop route.
Random Routing
Random routing is similar to flooding, but in this case, a node

selects only one outgoing path for retransmission of an incoming
packet. The outgoing link is chosen at random, generally
excluding the link on which the packet arrived.
Adaptive Routing
Adaptive routing strategies are by far the most prevalent, for two
reasons:
 An adaptive routing strategy can improve performance as

seen by the network user.
 An adaptive strategy can aid traffic control.
In adaptive routing strategy, outgoing link is decided based on the

measurable changing conditions of the links.
129
Computer Networks
4.5. Exercise
a. In fixed routing,
i) all packets from a given source to a given destination

follow the same route.
ii) different packets from a given source to a given destination
may follow different route.
iii) either of the above two may be adopted.
a) What are the attributes of the routing function?

b) State least-cost routing algorithm.
c) What are the advantages of fixed routing?
d) What are the remarkable properties of flooding?
e) What are the reasons for which the adaptive routing is by
far the most prevalent?
a) Discuss Dijkstra’s least-cost routing algorithm.

b) Discuss different routing strategies.
130
Lesson 5 : Traffic Control in Packet

Switched Network
 learn different types and strategies of traffic control in packet

switched network.
5.2. Introduction
Traffic control deals with the control of the number of packets

entering and using the network. It is concerned with preventing the
network from becoming a bottleneck and in using it efficiently.
Traffic control mechanisms are of three general types:
 Flow control
 Congestion control
 Deadlock avoidance.
5.3. Flow Control
Flow control is concerned with the regulation of the rate of data

The basic purpose of flow
control is to enable the transmission between two points. The basic purpose of flow
receiver to control the rate control is to enable the receiver to control the rate at which it
at which it receives data. receives data, so that it is not overwhelmed. Typically, flow control
is exercised with some sort of sliding-window technique.
5.4. Congestion Control
The objective of congestion control is to maintain the number of

packets within the network below the level at which performance
falls off dramatically. In a packet switching network, any given
node has a number of transmission links attached to it. On each
link, packets arrive and depart. We can consider that there are two
fixed-length buffers at each link, one to accept arriving packets,
and one to hold packets that are waiting to depart. As packets
arrive, they are stored in the input buffer of the corresponding link.
The node examines each incoming packet to make a routing
decision, and then moves the packet to the appropriate output
buffer. Packets queued up for output are transmitted as rapidly as
possible. Now, if packets arrive too fast for the node to process
them or faster than packets can be cleaned from the outgoing
buffers, then eventually packets will arrive for which no memory is
131
Computer Networks
available. When such a saturation point reached, one of two

general strategies can be adopted:
 Simply discard any incoming packet for which there is no

available buffer space.
 Exercise some sort of flow control over neighboring nodes so
The objective of all that the traffic flow remains manageable.
congestion control
techniques is to limit The objective of all congestion control techniques is to limit queue
queue length at the length at the nodes so as to avoid throughput collapse. A number
nodes. of control mechanisms for congestion control have been
suggested and tried.
1. Send a control packet from a congested node to some or all

source nodes. This choke packet will have the effect of
stopping or slowing the rate of transmission from sources and
hence limit the total number of packets in the network.
2. Rely on routing information. Routing algorithms provide link
delay information to other nodes, which influence routing
decisions. This information could also be used to influence the
rate at which new packets are produced.
3. Make use of an end-to-end probe packet. Such a packet could
be time-stamped to measure the delay between two particular
endpoints.
4. Allow packet switching nodes to add congestion information to
packets as they go by. There are two possible approaches
there;
 A node could add such information to packets going in the

direction opposite of the congestion. This information quickly
reaches the source node, which can reduce the flow of
packets into the network.
 A node could add such information to packets going in the
same direction as the congestion. The destination either asks
the source to adjust the load or returns the signal back to the
source in the packets going in the reverse direction.
5.5. Deadlock Avoidance
Deadlock is a condition in which a set of nodes are unable to
forward packets because no buffers are available. This condition
Three types of deadlock. can occur even without a heavy load. Deadlock avoidance
techniques are used to design the network in such a way that
deadlock can not occur. There are three types of deadlock to
which a packet-switched network may be prone:
 Direct store-and-forward deadlock.
 Indirect store-and-forward deadlock.
 Reassembly deadlock.
132
Buffer pool full
A Buffer pool full B
(a) Direct store and forward deadlock
Packets
to C
Packets
A
to D
Packets
to B
E B
Packets
to A
Packets
to E
Direct store-and-forward
deadlock can be avoided
by not allowing all buffers
to end up dedicated to a D C
single link. (b) Indirect store and forward deadlock
3321 2322 1131 Host
A B C
(c) Reassembly deadlock
Fig. 8.4: Types of deadlock.
Direct Store-and-Forward Deadlock
Direct store-and-forward deadlock can occur if a node uses a

common buffer pool from which buffers are assigned to packets
on demand. Figure 8.4(a) shows a situation in which all of the
buffer space in node A is occupied with packets destined for node
B. The reverse is true at node B. Neither node can accept any
more packets since their buffers are full. Thus neither node can
transmit or receive on any link.
Direct store-and-forward deadlock can be avoided by not allowing

all buffers to end up dedicated to a single link. Using separate
fixed-size buffers will achieve this prevention. Even if a common
buffer pool is used, deadlock is avoided if no single link is allowed
to acquire all of the buffer space.
133
Computer Networks
Indirect Store-and-Forward Deadlock
Indirect store-and-forward deadlock is illustrated in figure 8.4(b).

For each node, the queue to the adjacent node in one direction is
full with packets destined for the next node beyond. One simple
way to prevent this type of deadlock is to employ a structured
buffer pool (figure 8.5). The buffers are organized in a hierarchical
fashion. The pool of memory at level 0 is unrestricted; any
incoming packet can be stored there. From level 1 to level N
(where N is the maximum number of hops on any network path),
buffers are reserved in the following way: Buffers at level k are
reserved for packets that have traveled at least k hops so far.
Thus, in heavy load conditions, buffers fill up progressively from
level 0 to level N. If all buffers up through level k are filled, arriving
packets that have covered k or less hops are discarded. It can be
shown that this strategy eliminates direct and indirect store-and-
forward deadlocks.
Class N
.
.
.
Class k
.
.
.
Buffer space for packets
Class 2 that have traveled k hops
Class 1
Common pool
(class 0)
Fig. 8.5: Structured buffer pool for deadlock avoidance.
Reassembly Deadlock
Figure 8.4(c) shows a situation in which node C has three of four

packets from message 1 and one from message 3. All of its
buffers are full, so it can accept no more packets. Yet, because it
has no complex message, it cannot reassemble packets and
deliver them to the host. The solution is to require that a source
node reserve space for each message in advance with a “request
for buffer space” packet. When a destination node receives this
request, and has available buffers for the packets that the
message might contain, it returns an “allocation” packet. After the
134
entire message is received and reassembled, the receiving node

sends back an acknowledgment known as ready for next
message (RFNM). If the node has buffer space for an additional
message, it piggybacks an allocation packet with the RFNM.
Thus, during stream transmission, the source node need not send
request packets. A time may come when the source has no
message to send but has collected one or more allocation permits.
The source node is then obligated to send a “give back” packet to
free up buffer space at the destination.
5.6. Exercise
a. Traffic control mechanisms concerned with
i) flow control
ii) congestion control
iii) deadlock avoidance
b. Flow control is concerned with
i) the regulation of the rate of data transmission between two

points.
ii) maintaining the number of packets within the network
below the level at which performance falls off dramatically.
iii) both of the above.
a) What is the objective of congestion control?

b) What are the strategies that can be adopted for congestion
control?
c) What is a choke packet?
d) What is a deadlock?
e) Name the types of deadlock.
a) Discuss control mechanisms for congestion control.

b) Discuss how direct store-and forward deadlock occurs and
how it is eliminated.
c) Discuss how indirect store-and forward deadlock occurs
and how it is eliminated.
d) Discuss how reassembly deadlock occurs and how it is
eliminated.
135
Computer Networks
Lesson 6 : X.25 Protocol Standard

 grasp details of a most widely used protocol standard

specifying an interface between a host system and a packet-
switched network.
6.2. Basic Concepts of X.25 Protocol
Perhaps the best-known and most widely used protocol standard

is X.25, which was originally approved in 1976 and subsequently
revised many times. The standard specifies an interface between
a host system and a packet-switched network.
User To remote
process user process
PacketUser
Packet
X.25, standard specifies process
an interface between a Multi-channel ligical
host system and a packet- interface
Link Link
switched network. access Lap-B link-level access
logical interface
Physical Physical
X.21 physical interface
DTE DCE
Fig. 8.6: X.25 interface.
The standard specifically calls out three layers of functionality

(figure 8.6):
 Physical layer
 Link layer
 Packet layer.
These three layers corresponds to the lowest three layers of the

OSI model. The physical layer deals with the physical interface
between an attached station and the link that attaches that station
to the packet-switching node. It makes use of the physical-layer
specification in a standard known as X.21. The link layer provides
for the reliable transfer of data across the physical link by
transmitting the data as a sequence of frames. The link layer
136
standard is referred to as LAP-B (Link Access Protocol-Balanced).

LAP-B is a subset of HDLC. The packet layer provides an external
virtual-circuit service.
User data
Layer 3
header
X.25 packet
LAP-B LAP-B
header trailer
LAP-frame
Fig. 8.7 User data and X.25 protocol control information.
X.25 standard refers to user machines as data terminal equipment

(DTE) and to a packet-switching node to which a DTE is attached
as data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). Figure 8.7 illustrates
the relationship between the levels of X.25. User data are passed
down to X.25 level 3, which appends control information as a
header, creating a packet. The entire X.25 packet is then passed
down to the LAP-B entity, which appends control information at
the front and back of the packet, forming a LAP-B frame.
6.3. Virtual-Circuit Service
With the X.25 packet layer, data are transmitted in packets over
external virtual circuits. The virtual-circuit service of X.25 provides
The virtual-circuit service for two types of virtual circuits:
of X.25 provides for two
types of virtual circuits.  Virtual call
 Permanent virtual circuit.
A virtual call is a dynamically established virtual circuit using a

call setup and call cleaning procedure. A permanent virtual
circuit is a fixed, network-assigned virtual circuit.
6.4. Packet Format
A variety of packet types are used, all using the same basic
format, with variations (figure 8.8). For user data, the data are
broken up into blocks of some maximum size, and a 24-bit or 32-
bit header is appended to each block to form a data packet. The
header includes a 12-bit virtual-circuit number (expressed as a 4-
bit group number and an 8-bit channel number). The P(S) and
P(R) fields support the functions of flow control and error control
137
Computer Networks
on a virtual circuit basis. The M and D bits are described in the

following sections. The Q bit is not defined in the standard.
Q D 0 1 Group # Q D 1 0 Group # Q D 0/1 1/0 Group #

Channel # Channel # Channel #
P(R) M P(S) 0 P(S) 0 Packet type 1
P(R) M
User Data Additional Information
User Data
(a) Data packet with 3-bit (b) Data packet with 7-bit
sequence numbers (c) Control packet
sequence numbers
Q D 0 1 Group # Q D 1 0 Group #
Channel # Channel #
P(R) Packet type Packet type
P(R) M
(e) RR, RNR and REJ packets (e) RR, RNR and REJ packets
with 3-bit sequence numbers with 7-bit sequence numbers
Fig. 8.8: X.25 packet formats.
In addition to transmitting user data, X.25 must transmit control

information related to the establishment, maintenance, and
termination of virtual circuits. Control information is transmitted in
a control packet. Each control packet includes the virtual-circuit
number; the packet type, which identifies the particular control
functions; and additional control information related to that
function.
6.5. Multiplexing
Perhaps the most important service provided by X.25 is

multiplexing. A DTE is allowed to establish up to 4095
simultaneous virtual circuits with other DTEs over a single
The most important physical DTE-DCE link. The DTE can internally assign these
service provided by X.25 circuits in any way it pleases. Individual virtual circuits could
is multiplexing. correspond to applications, processes, or terminals, for example.
The DTE-DCE link provides full-duplex multiplexing. To sort out
which packets belong to which virtual circuits, each packet
contains a 12-bit virtual-circuit number (expressed as a 4-bit
logical group number plus an 8-bit logical channel number).
6.6. Flow and Error Control
Flow control and error control at the X.25 packet layer are virtually
identical in format and procedure to flow control used for HDLC. A
138
sliding-window protocol is used. Each data packet includes a send

sequence number, P(S), and a receive sequence number, P(R).
As a default, 3-bit sequence numbers are used. Optionally, A DTE
may request, via the user facility mechanism, the use of extended
7-bit sequence numbers. As figure 8.8 indicates, for 3-bit
sequence numbers, the third and fourth bits of all data and control
packets are 01; for 7-bit sequence numbers, the bits are 10.
P(S) is assigned by the DTE on outgoing packets on a virtual

circuit basis. P(R) contains the number of the next packet
expected from the other side of a virtual circuit; this provides for
piggybacked acknowledgment. If one side has no data to send, it
may acknowledge incoming packets with the Receive Ready (RR)
and Receive Not Ready (RNR)control packets. The default
window size is 2, but it may be set as high as 7 for 3-bit sequence
numbers and as high as 127 for 7-bit sequence numbers.
Acknowledgment, and hence flow control, may have either local or

end-to-end significance, based on the setting of the D bit. When D
= ), (the usual case), acknowledgment is exercised between the
DTE and the network. This is used by the local DCE and/or the
network to acknowledge receipt of packets and control the flow
from the DTE into the network. When D = 1, a acknowledgment
come from the remote DTE.
The basic form of error control is go-back-N ARQ. Negative

acknowledgment is in the form of a Reject (REJ) control packet. If
a node receives a negative acknowledgment, it will retransmit the
specified packet and all subsequent packets.
6.7. Packet Sequences
X.25 provides the capability to identify a contiguous sequence of

data packets, which is called a complete packet sequence. This
feature has several uses. On important use is by internetworking
protocols, to allow longer blocks of data to be sent across a
network with a smaller packet size restriction without losing the
integrity of the block.
X.25 provides the To specify this mechanism, X.25 defines two types of packets: A
capability to identify a packets and B packets. An A Packet is one in which the M bit is
contiguous sequence of set to 1, the D bit is set to 0, and the packet is full (equal to the
data packets, which is maximum allowable packet length). A B packet is any packet that
called a complete packet is not an A packet. A complete packet sequence consists of zero
sequence. or more A packets followed by a B packet. The network may
combine this sequence to make one longer packet. The network
may also segment a B packet into smaller packets to produce a
complete packet sequence.
139
Computer Networks
6.8. Exercise
a. In X.25 system, a virtual call is
i) a dynamically established virtual circuit

ii) a fixed, network assigned virtual circuit
iii) any of the above two
b. In X.25 packet format, the header size is
i) 24 bit
ii) 32 bit
iii) any of the above two
c. In X.25 system, the maximum allowable number of virtual

circuits multiplexed over a single physical DTE-DCE link is
i) 1024
ii) 4095
iii) 2048
iv) 128.
d. In X.25 system, the default window size is
i) 2
ii) 7
iii) 127
iv) any of the above.
a) How many layers are there in X.25 standard? Name them.

b) How many types of virtual circuits are provided in X.25
system? Name them.
c) What are A packets and B packets in X.25 system?
a) Discuss packet formats used in X.25 system.

b) Discuss multiplexing used in X.25 system.
c) Discuss how flow and error control are done in X.25
system.
d) Discuss the concept of complete packet sequence as used
in X.25 system.
140
Local Area Networks
Unit 9 : Local Area Networks

Introduction
The local area networks (LANs) are distinguished from other types
of data networks in that they are optimized for a moderate-size
geographic area such as a single office building, a warehouse, or
a campus. These networks share the characteristics of being
packet broadcasting networks. The nature of a LAN is determined
primarily by three factors: transmission medium, topology, and
medium access control protocol. In this unit, these topics are
discussed.
Lesson 1 : LAN Technology

 learn details of transmission media and topology used in LAN

technology.
1.2. Topology and Transmission Medium
Common topologies used for LAN are (figure 9.1):
 Ring
 Bus
 Tree
 Star.
Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters

The repeater is capable of joined by point-to-point links in a closed loop. The repeater is
receiving data on one link capable of receiving data on one link and transmitting it, bit by bit,
and transmitting it, bit by on the other link as fast as it is received, with no buffering at the
bit. repeater. The links are unidirectional; that is, data are transmitted
in one direction only, and all oriented in same way. Thus data
circulate around the ring in one direction.
Each station attaches to the network at a repeater. Data are

transmitted in packets inserted onto the ring by the stations. The
packet containing source and destination address fields as well as
other control information and user data. As a packet circulates, the
destination station copies the data into a local buffer. Typically, the
Computer Networks
packet continues to circulate until it returns to the source station,

where it is absorbed, removing from the ring. Since multiple
devices share the ring, some form of medium access logic is
needed to control the order and timing of packet transmissions.
Repeater
Tap Terminating
resistance
Station
Flow of
data
(a) Ring (b) Bus
Twisted pair, coaxial

Headend
cable, and optical fiber are Passive
or active
used for constructing the star
coupler
ring.
(c) Tree (d) Star
Fig. 9.1: LAN topologies.
Twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are used for
constructing the ring. Table 9.1 summarizes representative
parameters for transmission media for commercially-available ring
LANs.
Table 9.1: Transmission Media for Ring LANs.
Transmission Medium Data Rate Distance Number of

(Mbps) Between Repeaters
Repeaters (km)
Unshielded twisted pair 4 0.1 72
Shielded twisted pair 16 0.3 250
Baseband coaxial cable 16 1.0 250
Optical fiber 100 2.0 240
Bus and Tree Topologies
Both bus and tree topologies are characterized by the use of a

multipoint medium. With the bus topology, all stations attach,
through appropriate interfacing hardware, directly to a linear
142
Local Area Networks
transmission medium, or bus. A transmission from any station

propagates the length of the medium in both directions and can be
received by all other stations.
In tree topology, the transmission medium is a branching cable

with no closed loops. The tree layout begins at a point known as
the headend. One or more cables start at the headend, and each
of these may have branches. The branches in turn may have
additional branches to allow quite complex layouts. Again, a
transmission from any station propagates throughout the medium,
can be received by all other stations, and is absorbed at the
endpoints. The transmission is in the form of packets containing
addresses and user data. Each station monitors the medium and
copies packets addressed to itself. Because all stations share a
common transmission link, only one station can successfully
transmit at a time, and some form of medium access control
technique is needed to regulate access.
Twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber are used as medium.
Table 9.2 summarizes representative parameters for transmission
media for commercially available bus/tree LANs.
Table 9.2: Transmission Media for Bus/Tree LANs.
Transmission Data Rate (Mbps) Range Number of

Medium (km) Taps
Twisted pair 1-10 <2 10’s
Baseband 10; 50 with <3 100’s
coaxial cable limitations
Broadband 500; 20 per channel <30 1000’s
coaxial cable
Optical fiber 45 <150 500’s
Star Topology
In the star topology, each station is directly connected to a

common central switch. The star topology is also employed for
The star topology is also implementing a packet-broadcasting LAN. In this case, each
employed for station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler,
implementing a packet-
via two point-to-point links, one for transmission in each direction.
broadcasting LAN.
A transmission from any one station enters the central node and is
retransmitted on all of the outgoing links. A transmission from any
station is received by all other stations, and only one station at a
time may successfully transmit. Thus, the medium access control
techniques used for the packet star topology are the same as for
bus and tree.
143
Computer Networks
There are two ways of implementing the star coupler:
 Passive coupler.
 Active coupler.
In the case of optical fiber, the passive star coupling is achieved

by fusing together a number of fibers, so that incoming light is
automatically split among all of the outgoing fibers. In the case of
coaxial cable or twisted pair, transformer coupling is used to split
the incoming signal.
In active star coupler, there is digital logic in the central node that
acts as a repeater. As bits arrive on any input line, they are
The star coupler automatically regenerated and repeated on all outgoing lines. If
multiple input signals arrive simultaneously, a collision signal is
transmitted on all outgoing lines. Table 9.3 summarizes
representative parameters for transmission media for
commercially available star LANs.
Table 9.3 : Transmission Media for passive or active star LANs.
Transmission Data Rate Distance from Number

Medium (Mbps) station to central of
switch (km) stations
Unshielded 1-10 0.5 (1 Mbps)-0.1 (10 10’s
twisted pair Mbps)
Baseband coaxial 70 <1 10’s
cable
Optical fiber 10-20 <1 10’s
1.3. LAN Implementation Using Metallic Transmission Media
Two transmission techniques are in use for bus/tree LANs using

metallic transmission media:
 Baseband transmission.
 Broadband transmission.
Baseband, using digital signaling, can be employed on twisted

The baseband digital pair or coaxial cable. Broadcast, using analog signaling in the RF
signaling requires a bus range, employs coaxial cable. There is also a variant known as
topology.
carrierband that uses analog signaling and the entire spectrum of
the cable is devoted to a single transmission path.
144
Local Area Networks
Baseband System
The baseband digital signaling requires a bus topology. The most

popular form of baseband bus LAN uses coaxial cable. Most
baseband coax systems use a special 50-ohm cable. Table 9.4
summarizes the IEEE specifications for 10-Mbps baseband
coaxial bus LANs. 10BASE5 is known as Ethernet and 10BASE2
is known as dubbed Cheapernet.
Table 9.4: IEEE specification for 10-Mbps Baseband Coaxial Bus

LANs.
Parameter 10BASE5 10BASE2

Data rate 10Mbps 10Mbps
Maximum segment length 500m 200m
Network span 2500m 1000m
Nodes per segment 100 30
Node spacing 2.5m 0.5m
Cable diameter 0.4m 0.25m
To extend the length of the network, a repeater may be used. It

consists, in essence, of two transceivers joined together and
connected to two different segments of coax cable. The repeater
passes digital signals in both directions between the two
segments, amplifying and regenerating the signals as they pass
through. A maximum of four repeaters is allowed in the path
between any two stations, extending the effective cable length to
2.5 km. Figure 9.2 is an example of a baseband system with three
segments and two repeaters.
Segment
A maximum of four
repeaters is allowed in the Repeater
path between any two Station
stations, extending the
effective cable length to
2.5 km.
Fig. 9.2: Baseband configuration.
145
Computer Networks
Unshielded twisted pair is used in baseband star LANs. The

products on the market use a scheme suggested by figure 9.3, in
which central element of the star is an active element, referred to
as the hub. Each station is connected to the hub by two twisted
pairs (transmit and receive). The hub acts as a repeater. Multiple
levels of hubs can be cascaded in a hierarchical configuration.
Figure 9.4 illustrates a two-level configuration. There is one
header hub and one or more intermediate hubs. Each hub may
have a mixture of stations and other hubs attached to it from
below.
HUB
Two twisted
pair
Transmit
Receive
Station Station Station Station Station
Fig. 9.3: Twisted-pair baseband star LAN.
HHUB
Two twisted
pair
Station
IHUB IHUB
Station Station Station Station
HHUB=Header hub
IHUB=Intermediate hub
Fig. 9.4: Two-level hierarchy of twisted-pair baseband star LAN.
146
Local Area Networks
Broadband Systems
In broadband system, analog signaling is used and the frequency

spectrum of the cable can be divided into channels using FDM. In
broadband system, both bus and tree topologies are possible.
Broadband is inherently a unidirectional medium; signals inserted
onto the medium can propagate in only one direction. This means
that only those stations “down stream” from a transmitting station
In broadband system, can receive its signals. For full connectivity, two data paths are
both bus and tree needed. These paths are joined at a point on the network known
topologies are possible. as the headend. For bus topology, the headend is simply one end
of the bus. For tree topology, the headend is the root of the
branching tree. All stations transmit on one path towards the
headend (inbound). Signals received at the headend are then
propagated along a second data path away from the headend
(outbound). All stations receive on the outbound path. Broadband
systems use 75-ohm coaxial cable.
1.4. LAN Implementation Using Optical Fiber
LAN is implemented using optical fiber in a bus topology. With an

optical fiber bus, either an active or passive tap can be use.
Optical Optical
fiber fiber
Optical Optical
Decoder Coder
detector transmitter
Node
(a) Active tap
Optical Optical
fiber fiber
0 E E 0
Receiver Transmitter
Node
(b) Passive tap
Fig. 9.5: Optical fiber taps.
147
Computer Networks
In the case of an active tap (figure 9.5(a)), the following steps

occur:
1. Optical signal energy enters the tap from the bus.

2. Clocking information is recovered from the signal and the
signal is converted to an electrical signal.
3. The converted signal is presented to the node.
4. The optical output (a light beam) is modulated according to the
electrical signal and launched into the bus.
Each tap actually consists of two of these active couplers and

require two fibers.
In the case of a passive tap (figure 9.5(b)), the tap extracts a

portion of the optical energy from the bus for reception and it
injects optical energy directly into the medium for transmission.
Thus, there is a single run of cable rather than a chain of point-to-
point links. Each tap must connect to the bus twice, once for
transmit and once for receive.
Unidirectional bus A
(a) Loop Bus
Unidirectional bus B
(b) Dual Bus
Fig 9.6: Optical fiber bus configuration.
148
Local Area Networks
Two configurations for the optical fiber bus have been proposed:
those that use a single bus and those that use two buses. Figure
9.6(a) shows a typical single-bus configuration, referred to as a
loop bus. Each station transmits on the bus in the direction toward
the headend and receives on the bus in the direction away from
the headend. Figure 9.6(b) shows the two-bus configuration. Each
station attaches to both buses and has both transmit and receive
taps on both buses.
1.5. LAN Implementation On Ring Topology
A ring consists of a number of repeaters, each connected to two

others by unidirectional transmission links to for a single closed
path. Data are transferred sequentially, bit by bit, around the ring
from one repeater to the next. Each repeater regenerates and
retransmits each bit.
For a ring to operate as a communication network, three functions

are required:
 Data insertion
 Data reception
 Data removal.
These functions are provided by the repeaters. Data insertion is

accomplished by the repeater. Data are transmitted in packets,
each of which contains a destination address field. As a packet
circulates past a repeater, the address field is copied. If the
attached station recognize the address, the remainder of the
packet is copied. Because the ring is a closed loop, a packet will
circulate indefinitely unless it is removed. A packet may be
removed by the addressed repeater. Alternatively, each packet
could be removed by the transmitting repeater after it has made
one trip around the loop.
The repeater can be seen to have two main purpose:
(1) To contribute to the proper functioning of the ring by passing

on all the data that come its way.
(2) To provide a access point for attached stations to send and
receive data.
149
Computer Networks
Corresponding to these two purposes are two states (figure 9.7):
 The listen state.

 The transmit state.
1 Bit delay
Listen state
To station From station
Transmit state
To station From station
Bypass state
Fig. 9.7: Ring repeater states.
In the listen state, each received bit is retransmitted with a small

delay. When a repeater’s station has data to send and when the
repeater has permission to send, the repeater enters the transmit
state. In this state, the repeater receives bits from the station and
retransmits them on its outgoing link. A third state, the bypass
state, is also useful. In this state, a bypass relay can be activated,
so that signals propagate past the repeater with no delay other
than medium propagation.
150
Local Area Networks
1.6. Exercise
a. In carrierband transmission
i) analog signaling is used and the entire spectrum of the

cable is devoted to a single transmission path.
ii) digital signaling is used and the entire spectrum of the
cable is devoted to a single transmission path.
iii) analog signaling is used and the spectrum of the cable is
frequency multiplexed for several transmission paths.
iv) digital signaling is used and the spectrum of the cable is
frequency multiplexed for several transmission paths.
b. Broadband system is
i) a bidirectional medium
ii) a unidirectional medium
iii) either of the above two
a) Name the common topologies used in LANs.

b) How data is removed in a ring topology?
c) What is the function of a headend in bus and tree
topologies?
d) How star coupler is implemented?
e) Name the different types of transmission technique used in
LANs using metallic transmission media.
f) What is a hub and an intermediate hub?
g) Name the functions required in ring to operate as a
communication network.
h) How many states are there in a ring repeater? Name them.
a) Discuss the common topologies that used in LANs.

b) Discuss different types of transmission techniques used in
LANs using metallic transmission medium.
c) Discuss the implementation of LANs using optical fiber.
d) Discuss the implementation of LANs on ring topology.
151
Computer Networks
Lesson 2 : Medium Access Control Protocols

 grasp medium access control techniques and protocols.
2.2. Medium Access Control Techniques
Medium access control techniques can be divided into two

categories:
 Round robin.
 Contention.
Round Robin
With round robin, each station in turn is given the opportunity to

transmit. During that opportunity, the station may decline to
transmit or may transmit subject to a specified upper bound,
With round robin, each
usually expressed as a maximum amount of data transmitted or
station in turn is given the
opportunity to transmit. time for this opportunity. In any case, the station, when it is
finished, relinquishes its turn, and the right to transmit passes to
the next station in logical sequence.
Contention
For bursty traffic (short, sporadic transmission), contention

techniques are usually appropriate. With these techniques, no
control is exercised to determine whose turn it is; all stations
contend for time in a way that can be rather rough and tumble.
2.3. Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)
CSMA/CD is a contention technique used in bus topology. In this

technique, a station wishing to transmit first listens to the medium
CSMA/CD is a contention to determine if another transmission is in progress (carrier sense).
technique used in bus If the medium is in use, the station must wait. If the medium is idle,
topology. the station may transmit. It may happen that two or more stations
attempt to transmit at about the same time. If this happens, there
will be a collision; the data from both transmission will be garbled
and not received successfully.
The following is the rules for CSMA/CD:
152
Local Area Networks
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; other wise, go to step 2.

2. If the medium is busy, continue to listen until the channel is
idle, then transmit immediately.
3. If a collision is detected during transmission, transmit a brief
jamming signal to assure that all stations know that there has
been a collision and then cease transmission.
4. After transmitting the jamming signal, wait a random amount of
time, then attempt to transmit again (repeat from step 1).
Figure 9.8 illustrates the technique for a baseband bus. At time t0,
station A begins transmitting a packet addressed to station D. At
time t1, both station B and station C are ready to transmit. Station
B senses a transmission and so defers. Station C, however, is still
unaware of A’s transmission and begins its own transmission.
When station A’s transmission reaches station C, at t2, station C
detects the collision and ceases transmission. The effect of the
collision propagates back to station A, where it is detected some
time later, t3, at which time station A ceases transmission.
t0
A B C D
t1
A B C D
t2
A B C D
t3
A B C D
Fig. 9.8: CSMA/CD operation.
153
Computer Networks
With CSMA/CD, a protocol is needed to specify what a station

should do if the medium is found busy. Three approaches are
used:
Nonresistant CSMA/CD:
A station wishing to transmit obeys the following rules:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise go to step 2.

2. If the medium is busy, wait an amount of time drawn from a
probability distribution (the retransmission delay) and repeat
step 1.
1-persistent CSMA/CD:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit; otherwise go to step 2.

sensed idle; then transmit immediately.
p-persistent CSMA/CD:
1. If the medium is idle, transmit with probability p, and delay one

time unit with probability (1-p). The time unit is typically equal
to the maximum propagation delay.
sensed idle repeat step 1.
3. If transmission is delayed one time unit, repeat step 1.
The most common choice is 1-persistent CSMA/CD.
2.4. Token Bus
Token bus is a technique Token bus is a round robin technique used in bus topology; that is,
in which the stations of the stations are assigned positions in an ordered sequence, with
the bus or tree form a the last member of the sequence followed by the first. Each
logical ring. station knows the identity of the stations preceding and following it
(figure 9.9).
A control packet known as the token regulates the right of access.

When a station receives the token, it is granted control of the
medium for a specified time. The station may transmit one or more
packets. When the station is done, or time has expired, it passes
the token to the next station in logical sequence. This station now
has permission to transmit.
154
Local Area Networks
A C
P=C P=C
S=D S=D
B D
P=C P=C
S=D S=D
Fig. 9.9: Token bus.
2.5. Token Ring
Token ring is a round robin technique used in ring topology. The

token ring technique is based on the use of a small token packet
that circulates around the ring. When all stations are idle, the
The token ring technique token packet is labeled as a “free token”. A station wishing to
is based on the use of a transmit must wait until it detects a token passing by. It then
small token packet that changes the token from “free token” to “busy token” by altering the
circulates around the ring. bit pattern. The station then transmits a packet immediately
following the busy token (figure 9.10). There is now no free token
on the ring, so other stations wishing to transmit must wait. The
packet on the ring will make a round trip and be purged by the
transmitting stations. The transmitting station will insert a new free
token on the ring when both of the following conditions have been
met:
 The station has completed transmission of its packets.

 The busy token has returned to the station.
When a transmitting station releases a new free token, the next

station downstream with data to send will be able to seize the
token and transmit.
155
Computer Networks
Sender looks for

free token
Free Token
A C
Changes free token
to busy token and
appends data
A C Receiver copies data

addressed to it
Data
Data Sender generates

free token upon
A C receipt of physical
Free Token transmission header
(From addressee)
Fig. 9.10: Token Ring.
156
Local Area Networks
2.6. Exercise
a. CSMA/CD is a
i) Contention technique used in bus topology.

ii) Contention technique used in ring topology.
iii) Round robin technique used in bus topology.
iv) Round robin technique used in ring topology.
b. Token bus is a

c. Token ring is a

a) Classify the medium access control techniques.
a) Discuss CSMA/CD protocol for MAC.

b) Discuss token bus protocol for MAC.
c) Discuss token ring protocol for MAC.
157
Computer Networks
Lesson 3 : LAN Standards
 grasp a logical link control standard for LAN

 grasp four physical layer and MAC standards for LAN.
3.2. Introduction
The standards for LANs were developed by a committee known

as IEEE 802 and are organized as a three-layer protocol
hierarchy. Logical link control (LLC) is responsible for addressing
The standards for LANs
were developed by a
and data link control. It is independent of the topology,
committee known as IEEE transmission medium, and medium access control technique
802. chosen and was issued as a separate standard. Below logical link
control are the medium access control (MAC) and physical layers.
Figure 9.11 relates the LAN standards to the OSI architecture.
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport Service Access Point
Application
Network
() ( ) ( )
Application
Data Link Logical Link Control
Medium Access Control
Physical Physical
Fig. 9.11: IEEE 802 reference model relationship to OSI model.
Figure 9.12 illustrates the relation between the levels of the

architecture and figure 9.13 shows the format of the LLC PDU and
MAC frames.
158
Local Area Networks
User Data
LLC
LLCPDU
header
MAC MAC
MAC frame
header trailer
Fig. 9.12: User data and LAN protocol control information.
Logical Link Control (LLC)

1 1 1-2 N bytes or octets
DSAP SSAP Control DATA
CSMA/CD
7 1 2,6 2,6 2 0-1500 4
Preamble SFD DA SA Length LLC PAD FCS
Token Bus
>1 1 1 2,6 2,6 >0 4 1
Preamble SD FC DA SA LLC FCS ED
Token Ring
1 1 1
SD AC ED
1 1 1 2,6 2,6 >0 4 1 1
SD AC FC DA SA LLC FCS ED FS
AC = Access Control
DA = Destination Address
DSAP = Destination Service Access Point
ED = Ending Delimiter
FC = Frame Control
FCS = Frame Check Sequence
FS = Frame Status
SA = Source Address
SD = Starting Delimiter
SFD = Start Frame Delimiter
SSAP = Source Service Access Point
Fig. 9.13: LAN standard formats.
159
Computer Networks
3.3. Logical Link Control (LLC) Standard (IEEE 802.2)
LLC Services
LLC specifies the mechanisms for addressing stations across the

medium and for controlling the exchange of data between two
users. The operation and format of this standard is based on
HDLC. Three services are provided as alternatives for attached
devices using LLC:
 Unacknowledged connectionless service.

 Connection-mode service.
 Acknowledged connectionless service.
LLC Protocol
The basic LLC protocol is modeled after HDLC and has similar
functions and formats. The differences between the two protocols
can be summarized as follows:
1. LLC makes use of the asynchronous balanced mode of

operation of HDLC, to support connection-mode LLC service;
this is referred to as type 2 operation. The other HDLC modes
are not employed.
2. LLC supports a connectionless service using the unnumbered
information PDU; this is known as type 1 operation.
3. LLC supports an acknowledged connectionless service by
using two new unnumbered PDUs; this is known as type 3
operation.
4. LLC permits multiplexing by the use of LLC service access
points (LSAPs).
All three LLC protocols employ the same PDU format (figure
9.13). The DSAP and SSAP fields each contain 7-bit address,
which specify the destination and source users of LLC. One bit of
the DSAP indicates whether this is an individual or group address.
One bit of the SSAP indicates whether it is a command or
response PDU.
For type 1 operation, the unnumbered information (UI) PDU is

used to transfer user data. There is no acknowledgment, flow
control, or error control. However, there are error detection and
discard at the MAC level.
With type 2 operation, a data link connection is established

between two LLC SAPs prior to data exchange. Connection
establishment is attempted by the type protocol in response to a
request from a user. The LLC entity issues a SABME PDU to
160
Local Area Networks
request a logical connection with the other LLC entity. If the

connection is accepted by the LLC user designated by the DSAP,
then the destination LLC entity returns an unnumbered
acknowledgment (UA) PDSU. The connection is henceforth
uniquely identified by the pair of user SAPS. If the destination LLC
user rejects the connection request, its LLC entity returns a
disconnected mode (DM) PDU. Once the connection is
established, data are exchanged using information PDUs, as in
HDLC. The information PDUs include send and receive sequence
numbers, for sequencing and flow control. The supervisory PDUs
are used, as in HDLC, for flow control and error control. Either
LLC entity can terminate a logical LLC connection by issuing a
disconnect (DISC) PDU.
With type 3 operation, each transmitted PDU is acknowledged. A

new (not found in HDLC) unnumbered PDU, the Acknowledged
Connectionless (AC) Information PDU, is defined. User data are
sent in AC command PDUs and must be acknowledged using an
AC response PDU. To guard against lost PDUs, a 1-bit sequence
number is used.
3.4. CSMA/CD Standard (IEEE 802.3)
The 802.3 medium access control technique is CSMA/CD. In

order to implement the CSMA/CD algorithm, data are transmitted
in the form of packets, referred to as MAC frames, which contain
The 802.3 medium access user information and the control information needed for the
control technique is algorithm. Figure 9.13 shows the format of the IEEE 802.3 MAC
CSMA/CD. frame. The preamble is a special 7-octet pattern used by each
receiver to establish bit synchronization. This is followed by a start
frame delimiter (SFD) which is a special pattern that signals the
beginning of the frame proper. The destination and source
address specify the transmitting station and the intended receiving
station respectively. The length field specify the number of data
octets that follow. The pad field is inserted by the transmitter if
needed to assure that the frame is long enough for proper collision
detection operation. Finally, the frame check sequence is a 32-bit
cyclic redundancy check for error detection.
Medium Options
Table 9.5: Physical layer specifications for IEEE 802.3 CSMA/CD

LAN standard.
161
Computer Networks
Option Transmission Signaling Data Maximum Maximum

Medium Technique Rate Segment Number of
(Mbps) Length (m) Taps per
Segment
10BASE5 Coaxial Cable Baseband 10 500 100
(Ethernet) (50 Ohms) (Manchester)
10BASE2 Coaxial Cable Baseband 10 185 30
(Cheapernet) (50 Ohms) (Manchester)
1BASE5 Unshielded Baseband 1 250
(Star LAN) Twisted Pair (Manchester)
10BASE-T Unshielded Baseband 10 100
Twisted Pair (Manchester)
10BROAD36 Coaxial Cable Broadband 10 3600
(75 Ohms) (DPSK)
Table 9.5 summarizes the options defined for the IEEE 802.3
medium. 1BASE5 and 10BASE-T standard support passive-star
topology.
3.5. Token Bus Standard (IEEE 802.4)
The 802.4 medium access control technique is the token bus

algorithm. Figure 9.13 shows the MAC frame format. The only
new field, compared to 802.3, is the frame control field. This field
contains information needed for the proper operation of the
algorithm.
Medium Options
Table 9.6: Physical layer specification for IEEE 802.4 (Token Bus)
LAN standard.
Option Transmission Signaling Data Rate Maximum Bandwidt

Medium Technique (Mbps) Segment h MHz
Length (m)
Broadband Coaxial Cable Broadband 1,5,10 Not specified 1.5,6,12
(75 Ohms) (AM/PSK)
Carrierband Coaxial Cable Broadband 1,5,10 7600
(75 Ohms) (FSK)
Optical Optical Fiber ASK- 5,10,20 Not specified
Fiber Manchester
The token bus standard specifies three physical layer options

(table 9.6). For optical fiber option, either a passive or active star
topology can be used.
162
Local Area Networks
3.6. Token Ring Standard (IEEE 802.5)
The 802.5 medium access control technique is token passing on a

ring topology. Figure 9.13 shows the frame format. The access
control field includes a token bit to indicate whether this is a frame
The 802.5 medium access or not. In the former case, the remainder of the frame simply
control technique is token consists of the ending delimiter. The access control field also
passing on a ring includes a 3-bit priority and a 3-bit reservation, used in the
topology. capacity allocation algorithm. The frame control field serves the
same function as in the 802.4 MAC frame. The frame status field
contains bits that may be set by the receiver to indicate that it has
recognized its address and copied the frame; these bits can then
be read by the source station when it absorbs the frame.
Medium Option
The IEEE 802.5 physical layer options are given in table 9.7.
Table 9.7: Physical layer specification for IEEE 802.5 (Token

Ring) LAN standard.
Transmissio Signaling Data Rate Maximum Maximum

n Medium Technique (Mbps) Number of Distance
Repeaters Between
Repeaters (m)
Shielded Differential 4,16 250 Not specified
Twisted Pair Manchester
Unshielded Differential 4 250 Not specified
Twisted Pair Manchester
3.7. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) Standard
The FDDI medium access The FDDI medium access control technique is also a token-
control technique is also a passing ring technique. FDDI does not use the priority/reservation
token-passing ring scheme of 802.5. Accordingly, the FDDI MAC frame (figure 9.13)
technique. is the same as that of 802.5 except that there is no access control
field in the FDDI frame.
Medium Option
FDDI physical layer option is given in table 9.8.
163
Computer Networks
Table 9.8: Physical layer specification for FDDI LAN standard.
Transmissio Signaling Data Maximum Maximum

n Medium Technique Rate Number of Distance
(Mbps Repeaters Between
) Repeaters (m)
Optical Fiber ASK-NRZI 100 1000 2000
3.8. Exercise
a. In LLC protocol for LANs, flow control is done for the

following types of operations:
i) Type 1 operation only.

ii) Type 2 operation only.
iii) Type 3 operation only.
iv) Type 1 and 3 operations only.
a) What are the services that are provided as alternatives for

attached devices using LLC?
a) Discuss LLC protocol (IEEE 802.2) for LAN.

b) Discuss CSMA/CD standard (IEEE 802.3) for LAN.
c) Discuss Token Bus standard (IEEE 802.4) for LAN.
d) Discuss Token Ring standard (IEEE 802.5) for LAN.
e) Discuss FDDI standard for LAN.
164
Transport Protocols
Unit 10 : Transport Protocols

Introduction
The transport protocol is the keystone of the whole concept of a

computer-communications architecture. The transport protocol
provides the basic end-to-end service of transforming data
between users. Any process or application can be programmed to
access directly the transport services without going through
session and presentation layers. In this unit services provided by a
transport protocol and the protocol mechanisms required to
provide these services are discussed. As might be expected, the
less the network service provides, the more the transport protocol
must do. The types of network services and protocol standards
are also discussed in this unit.
Lesson 1 : Transport Services and Protocol

Mechanisms
 learn services provided by a transport protocol

 the protocol mechanisms required to provide transport
services.
1.2. Transport Services
In a system, there is a transport entity which provides services to

The general service transport users, which might be an application process or a
provided by a transport session protocol entity. This local transport entity communicates
protocol is the end-to-end with some remote transport entity, using the services of some
transport of data in a way lower layer, such as the network layer. The general service
that shields the user from provided by a transport protocol is the end-to-end transport of data
the details of the in a way that shields the user from the details of the underlying
underlying communica- communications systems. To be more specific, the following
tions systems. categories of service are useful for describing the transport
service:
 Type of service.
 Quality of service.
 Data transfer.
 User interface.
 Connection management.
 Expedited delivery.
Computer Networks
 Status reporting.
 Security.
Types of Service
Two basic types of services are possible:
 Connection-oriented service.
 Connectionless or datagram service.
Quality of Service
The transport protocol entity should allow the transport user to

specify the quality of transmission service to be provided.
Examples of services that might be required:
 Acceptable error and loss levels.

 Desired average and maximum delay.
 Desired average and minimum throughput.
 Priority levels.
One approach to providing a variety of qualities of service is to

include a quality of service facility within the protocol. An
Examples of services. alternative is to provide a different transport protocol for different
classes of traffic. Four types of transport protocol are suggested:
 A reliable connection-oriented protocol.

 A less reliable connectionless protocol.
 A speech protocol, requiring sequenced, timely delivery.
 A real-time protocol that requires high reliability and timeliness.
Data Transfer
The whole purpose of a transport protocol is to transfer data

between two transport entities. Both user data and control data
must be transferred, either on the same channel or separate
channels. Full-duplex service must be provided.
The whole purpose of a
transport protocol is to User Interface
transfer data between two
transport entities. The mechanism of the user interface to the transport protocol
should be optimized to the station environment.
Connection Management
When connection-oriented service is provided, the transport entity

is responsible for establishing and terminating connections.
166
Transport Protocols
Expedited Deliver
Some data submitted to the transport service may supersede data

submitted previously. The transport entity will endeavor to have
the transmission facility transfer the data as rapidly as possible. At
the receiving end, the transport entity will interrupt the user to
notify it of the receipt of urgent data.
Status Reporting
A status reporting service allows the transport user to obtain or be

notified of information concerning the condition or attributes of the
transport entity or a transport connection. Examples of status
information:
 Performance characteristics of a connection.

 Addresses.
 Class of protocol in use.
 Current timer values.
 State of protocol “machine” supporting a connection.
 Degradation in requested quality of service.
Security
The transport entity may provide a variety of security services.
1.3. Protocol Mechanisms
As the network service is made less capable, the transport

protocol becomes more complex. The ISO has defined three types
of network service:
 Type A: network connections with acceptable residual error

Three types of network rate and acceptable rate of signaled failures.
service.  Type B: network connections with acceptable residual error
rate but unacceptable rate of signaled failure.
 Type C: network connections with residual error rate not
acceptable to the transport service user.
There are three subcases of Type A:
 Reliable, sequencing network service with arbitrary message

size.
 Reliable, nonsequencing network service with arbitrary
message size.
 Reliable, nonsequencing network service with maximum
message size.
167
Computer Networks
Reliable Sequencing Network service
In this case, we assume that the network service will accept

messages of arbitrary length and will, with virtually 100%
reliability, deliver them in sequence to the destination. These
assumptions allow the development of the simplest possible
transport protocol. Four issues need to be addressed.
 Addressing.
 Multiplexing.
 Flow control.
 Connection establishment/termination.
Reliable Nonsequencing Network Service
In this case, we assume that the network service will accept

messages of arbitrary length and will, with virtually 100%
reliability, deliver them to the destination. However, we now
assume that the TPDU’s may arrive out of sequence. This
seemingly trivial change has a number of consequences:
 Sequence numbers are required on TPDU’s for connection-

oriented service. The transport entity is required to deliver data
in sequence.
 The transport entity must keep track of control PDU’s, both in
relationship to each other and to data PDU’s.
Reliable Nonsequencing Network Service With Maximum

TPDU Size
In this case, the network service will only accept TPDU’s of some
maximum size for transfer. There are two types of data transfer
required by the user: stream-oriented and block-oriented. A
stream-oriented interface between transport and the user accepts
Two types of data transfer data as if they were a continuous stream of bits and reproduce the
required by the user: stream at the other end without conveying any information about
stream-oriented and the breakpoints in the stream submitted by the sender. A more
block-oriented. common occurrence is a transport user that sends data in blocks.
If a block exceeds the maximum allowable TPDU size, the
transport entity must segment the block before transmission, to be
reassembled at reception prior to delivery to the user.
Failure-Prone Network Service
This is a connection oriented network service and, while it delivers

data reliably, it suffers from network failures that cause it to reset
or restart network connections. Thus PDUs may be lost, but the
loss is reported to the transport entities affected. In any case, the
168
Transport Protocols
transport entity must cope with the problem of recovering from

known loss of data and/or network connections.
Unreliable Network Service
In this case, TPDUs are occasionally lost, and TPDUs may arrive
out of sequence. Six issues need to be addressed:
 Retransmission strategy.
 Duplication detection.
 Flow control.
 Crash recovery.
1.4. Exercise
a. The transport protocol provides
i) end-to-end service of transferring data between users.

ii) service of transferring data between station and node to
which the station is attached.
iii) service of transferring data between network nodes.
a) Name the categories of transport service.

b) Name the types of service offered by transport protocol.
c) Name the quality of service that might be required for
transport protocol.
d) Name the types of transport protocols.
e) Name the status information reported by transport protocol.
f) Name the issues need to be addressed in transport
protocol for reliable sequencing network service.
g) Name the issues need to be addressed in transport
protocols for unreliable network service.
a) Briefly discuss the types of network service defined by

ISO.
169
Computer Networks
Lesson 2 : Network Services And Transport

Protocols
 learn primitive used to provide a network service to a transport

entity
 learn a family transport protocol developed by ISO
 learn transport-level protocols of TCP/IP protocol suite.
2.2. Network Services
To function, a transport protocol must make use of the services of

some lower-level network-oriented protocol.
Service Primitives
ISO specified a set of primitives that might be used to provide a

network service to a transport entity. The network service must
If the service is not provide a means of delivering TPDUs to a remote correspondent.
connection-oriented, The transport entity uses N-DATA.request primitive to transfer
address information must data to the network service for transmission. The network service
be included in the passes up received data using N-DATA.indication primitive. If the
primitive invocation. service is not connection-oriented, address information must be
included in the primitive invocation.
If the network service is connection-oriented, additional primitives

are needed: N-CONNECT.request primitive signals a request by a
transport entity to open a connection. N-CONNECT.indication
presents this request to the correspondent transport entity
identified in the connection request. A transport entity signals its
willingness to accept the connection with N-CONNECT.response.
This willingness is communicated to the initiating transport entity
with N-CONNECT.confirm. N-DISCONNECT.request and N-
DISCONNECT.indication are used to terminate a connection.
Additional primitives may be provided by the network service for

enhancing the capability and efficiency of the transport protocol.
The N-DATA-ACKNOWLEDGE primitives permit the local
exercise of flow control across the transport/network interface in
both directions. N-EXPEDITED-DATA primitive provides direct
support of the transport expedited data feature. The N-RESET
primitives allow the transport entity to force a reset of the network
connection.
170
Transport Protocols
2.3. The ISO Transport Standards
ISO developed a family of transport protocols as an international

standard.
The Transport Protocol Family
In order to handle a variety of user service requirements and

available network service, ISO has defined five classes of
transport protocols:
ISO has defined five  Class 0: simple class.

classes of transport  Class 1: basic error recovery class.
protocols.  Class 2: multiplexing class.
 Class 3: error recovery and multiplexing class.
 Class 4: error detection and recovery class.
Classes 0 and 2 are used with Type A networks; Classes 1 and 3

are used with Type B networks; and Class 4 is used with Type C
networks. Class 0 was developed by CCITT and is oriented for
teletex, a text-transmission system. It provides the simplest kind of
transport connection. It provides a connection with flow control
based on network-level flow control, and connection release
based on the release of the network connection.
Class 1 was also developed by CCITT and is designed to run on

X.25 network and provide minimal error recovery. Flow control is
provided by the network layer. Expedited data transfer is also
provided.
Class 2 is an enhancement to Class 0 that assumes a highly

reliable network service. It provides multiplexing multiple transport
connections onto a single network connection and explicit flow
control on individual transport connection. A credit allocation
scheme is used.
Class 3 is basically the union of the Class 1 and 2 capabilities. It

provides the multiplexing and floe control capabilities of Class 2. It
also contains the resynchronization and reassignment capabilities
of Class 1, which are needed to cope with failure-prone networks.
Class 4 assumes that the underlying network service is unreliable.

Thus most of the protocol mechanisms discussed in lesson 1 must
be included.
171
Computer Networks
Transport Services
The transport service specification is the same for all classes. The
ISO specification is in the form of four primitive types and 10
primitives. The T-CONNECT primitives are used to established a
connection. The transport entity will either provide the requested
quality of service, or indicate in the indication and confirm
The ISO specification is in primitives a lesser quality of service that can be provided. T-
the form of four primitive DISCONNECT primitive provides for an abrupt connection
types and 10 primitives. termination. Termination can be initiated by either side or by one
of the transport entities. T-DISCONNECT can also be used by the
local transport entity or the remote addressee to reject a
connection attempt. T-DATA and T-EXPEDITED-DATA primitives
are used to transfer data over a transport connection.
Protocol Formats
The ISO protocol makes use of 10 types of transport protocol data

units (TPDUs):
 Connection request (CR).

 Connection confirm (CC).
 Disconnect request (DR).
 Disconnect confirm (DC).
 Data (DT).
 Expedited data (ED).
 Acknowledgment (AK).
 Expedited acknowledgment (EA).
 Reject (RJ).
 TPDU error (ER).
Each TPDU consists of three parts:
 A fixed header.
 A variable header.
 A data field.
The latter two optionally may not be present in a TPDU. The fixed
header contains the frequently occurring parameters and the
variable header contains optional or infrequently occurring
parameters.
Protocol Mechanisms
Protocol mechanisms are discussed under the following topics:
172
Transport Protocols
 Data transfer.
Connection Establishment
The connection establishment phase requires the exchange of a

CR and a CC TPDU. This two-way handshake suffices for
Classes 0 through 3. For Class 4, a third TPDU is needed to
acknowledge the CC; this may be an AK, DT, or ED. The purpose
of this phase is to establish a transport connection with agreed-
upon characteristics.
A transport connection invokes four different types of identifiers:
A transport connection  User identifier (service access point).

invokes four different  Transport/network address.
types of identifiers.  Transport protocol identifier.
 Transport connection identifier.
Data Transfer
Normal data transfer over a connection is accomplished using

DTs. DTs are numbered sequentially. This is used in Classes 2 through
4 for flow control. A credit-allocation scheme is used. The initial credit is
set in the CC and CR TPDUs. Subsequent credit is granted with an AK.
Acknowledgments are in separate TPDUs, and never piggybacked onto
DTs. In Class 4, sequence numbers are also used for
resequencing DTs that arrive out of order. Another mechanism
Normal data transfer over unique to Class 4 is the DT checksum. If an error is detected, an
a connection is ER is returned. Expedited data transfer uses the ED and EA data
accomplished using DTs. units. Sequence numbers are used, but only one ED may be
outstanding at a time. The sender must receive an EA before
sending another ED. In Classes 1 through 4, an ED is sent before
any DTs queued for that connection. The Class 4 entity suspends
the transfer of new DTs until an EA is received.
Connection Termination
An abrupt termination is achieved by the exchange of a DR and a

DC. When a transport entity receive a disconnect request from its
user, it discards any pending DTs and issues the DR. The entity
that receives DR issues a DC, discarding any pending DTs, and
informs its user.
2.4. TCP And UDP
The TCP/IP protocol suite includes two transport-level protocols:
173
Computer Networks
 The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is

connection-oriented.
 The User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is connectionless.
TCP Services
TCP is designed to provide reliable communication between pairs

of processes (TCP users) across a variety of reliable and
unreliable networks and internets. Functionally, it is equivalent to
Class 4 ISO Transport. TCP is stream oriented, that is, TCP users
TCP is stream oriented, exchange streams of data. The data are placed in allocated
that is, TCP users buffers and transmitted by TCP in segments (TPDUs0. TCP
exchange streams of supports security and precedence labeling. In addition, TCP
data. provides two useful facilities for labeling data: push and urgent.
There are nine TCP service request (user to TCP) and eight TCP
service response (TCP to user) primitives.
TCP Header Format
TCP uses only a single type of TPDU, called a TCP segment. The
header is shown in figure 10.1(a). The header fields are:
 Source port (16 bits): identifies source service access point.

 Destination port (16 bits): identifies destination service
access point.
 Sequence number (32 bits):
 Acknowledgment number (32 bits): a piggybacked
acknowledgment.
 Data offset (4 bits): number of 32-bit words in the header.
 Reserved (6 bits): reserved for future use.
 Flags (6 bits):
 URG: urgent pointer field significant.
 ACK: acknowledgment field significant.
 PSH: push function.
 RST: reset the connection.
 SYN: synchronize the sequence numbers.
 FIN: no more data from sender.
 Window (16 bits): flow control credit allocation, in octets.
 Checksum (16 bits):
 Urgent Pointer (16 bits): points to the octet following the
urgent data.
174
Transport Protocols
 Options (variable): at present, only one option is defined,

which specifies the maximum TPDU size that will be accepted.
1111111111122222222233
01234567890123456789012345678901
Source port Destination port
Sequence number
Acknowledgement number
Data
Reserved Window
offset
Ckecksum Urgent pointer
Options Padding
(a) Transmission control protocol (TCP)

1111111111222222222233
01234567890123456789012345678901
Source port Destination port
Length Ckecksum
(b) User datagram protocol (UDP)
Fig. 10.1: TCP header format.
TCP Mechanism
Connection Establishment: Connection establishment in TCP

always uses a three-way handshake. When the SYN flag is set,
Connection establishment the TPDU is essentially a request for connection (RFC). To initiate
in TCP always uses a a connection, an entity sends an RFC X, where X is the initial
three-way handshake. sequence number. The receiver responds with RFC Y, ACK X by
setting both the SYN and ACK flags. Finally, the initiator responds
with ACK Y. If both sides issue crossing RFCs, no problem
results: Both sides respond with ACKs.
Data Transfer: Although data are transferred in TPDUs over a

transport connection, data transfer is viewed logically as
consisting of a stream of octets. Hence every octets is numbered,
modulo 232. Each TPDU contains the sequence number of the first
175
Computer Networks
octet in the data field. Flow control is exercised using a credit

allocation scheme in which the credit is a number of octets.
Data are buffered by the entity on both transmission and

reception. TCP normally exercise its own discretion as to when to
construct a TPDU for transmission and when to release received
data to the user. The PUSH flag is used to force the data so far
Data are buffered by the accumulated to be sent by the transmitter and passed on by the
entity on both receiver. The user may specify a block of data as urgent. TCP will
transmission and designate the end of that block with an urgent pointer and send it
reception.
out in the ordinary data stream. The receiving user is alerted that
urgent data are being received. If, during data exchange, a TPDU
arrives which is apparently not meant for the current connection,
the RST flag is set on an outgoing TPDU.
Connection Termination: For normal termination, each transport

user must issue a CLOSE primitive. The transport entity sets the
FIN bit on the last TPDU that it sends out, which also contains the
last of the data to be sent on this connection.
An abrupt termination occurs if the user issues an ABORT

primitive. In this case, the entity abandons all attempts to send or
receive data and discards data in its transmission and reception
buffers. An RST TPDU is sent to the other side.
User datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP provides a connectionless service for application-level

procedures. Thus UDP is basically an unreliable service; delivery
and duplicate protection are not guaranteed. UDP sits on top of
IP. Essentially, it adds a port addressing capability to IP. This is
UDP sits on top of IP. best seen by examining the UDP header (figure 11.1(b)). The
Essentially, it adds a port header includes a source port and destination port. The length
addressing capability to
field contains the length of the entire UDP segment, including
IP.
header and data. The checksum applies to the entire UDP
segment plus a pseudoheader prefixed to the UDP header at the
time of calculation. If an error is detected, the segment is
discarded and no further action is taken. The checksum field in
UDP is optional. If it is not used, it is set to zero.
176
Transport Protocols
2.5. Exercise
a. Flow control is provided for the following ISO transport

protocol class:
i) Class 1.
ii) Class 2.
iii) Class 3.
a) How many classes of transport protocol are there defined

by ISO? Name them.
b) How many types of transport protocol data units (TPDUs)
are there in the ISO standard? Name them.
c) How many parts are there in ISO TPDU? Name them.
d) Name the different transport-level protocols of TCP/IP
protocol suite.
a) Discuss different classes of transport protocol defined by

ISO.
b) Discuss protocol mechanisms of ISO transport protocol.
c) Discuss TCP service.
d) Discuss TCP header format.
e) Discuss TCP mechanisms.
f) Discuss UDP.
177
Computer Networks
178
Session Services and Protocols
Unit 11 : Session Services and

Protocols
Introduction
At the application level, users should be able to write their own

applications that invoke the computer network functionality
through a transport, session, or presentation interface, as
appropriate. Whereas the OSI model calls for the inclusion of a
session layer, the TCP/IP architecture sets face against a “session
layer” as such, feeling that some of its presumed functions should
be performed by transport and that other functions are peculiar to
the process or applications that wish to communicate. This unit
discusses the session layer. Session characteristics and
requirements as well as standard developed by ISO are
discussed.
Lesson 1 : Session Characteristics,

Requirements And Standards
 understand session characteristics

 learn OSI session service definition
 learn OSI session protocol definition.
1.2. Session Characteristics
The transport protocol is The essential purpose of a session protocol is to provide a user-
responsible for creating oriented connection service. The transport protocol is responsible
and maintaining a logical for creating and maintaining a logical connection between
connection between endpoints. A session protocol provides a “user interface” by
endpoints.
“adding value” to the basic connection service. The value-added
functions can be grouped into the following categories:
 Session establishment and maintenance.

 Dialogue management.
 Recovery.
Session Establishment and Maintenance
The minimum service that a session protocol entity provides its

user is the establishment, maintenance, and termination of
Computer Networks
sessions. When two users wish to establish a connection, their

respective entities will create a session that is mapped onto a
transport connection and negotiate the parameters of the session
(e.g., data unit size).
The session entity accepts records from the session user and
encapsulates each into a session protocol data unit (SPDU).
SPDUs are, in turn, handed over the local transport entity to be
sent over a transport connection in a sequence of transport
protocol data units (TPDUs). The data are received on the other
side and delivered to the user in the proper order. The sending
transport entity may, at its discretion, segment SPDUs into
multiple TPDUs if the SPDU size is too large. Alternatively,
multiple records may be blocked into a single TPDU for efficiency
of transmission. In any case, the receiving entity recovers the
original records and passes these on to the receiving user.
Dialogue Management
The session entity may impose a structure on the interaction or

dialogue between users. There are three modes of dialogue:
 Two-way simultaneous mode.

 Two-way alternate mode.
 One-way mode.
The two-way simultaneous mode is a full-duplex type of operation.

Both sides can simultaneously send data. Once this mode is
agreed upon in the session negotiation phase, there is no specific
The two-way dialogue management task required. Similarly, the one-way mode
simultaneous mode is a requires no specific dialogue management mechanism once it is
full-duplex type of established. All user data flows in one direction only. The most
operation. complex of the three modes is two-way alternate. In this mode, the
two sides take turns sending data. The session entity enforces the
alternating interaction by informing each user when it is its turn.
Recovery
Another potential feature of a session protocol is a recovery

support service. This feature could be provided by defining a
session recovery unit, which corresponds to the interval between
checkpoints. Each user specifies the point at which a recovery unit
ends, and the recovery units are numbered sequentially. To
recover lost data, a user can issue a command to recover, using
the recovery unit number to identify the point to which the session
should be backed up.
180
1.3. OSI Session Service Definition
The definition of OSI session services developed and

standardized by ISO and CCITT is presented here.
Session Services
The services provided to a session-service user (SS-user) by the

session service consists of the following:
1. Establish a connection with another SS-user, exchange data

with that user in a synchronized manner, and release the
connection in an orderly manner.
2. Negotiate for the use of tokens to exchange data, synchronize
and release the connection, and to arrange for data exchange
to be half-duplex or full-duplex.
3. Establish synchronization points within the dialogue and, in the
event of errors, resume the dialogue from an agreed
synchronization point.
4. Interrupt a dialogue and resume it later at a prearranged point.
The use of Tokens
In the context of the OSI standard, a token is an attribute of a

A token is an attribute of a session connection that is dynamically assigned to one user at a
session connection that is time and that grants that user the exclusive right to invoke certain
dynamically assigned to services. There are certain services which can only be invoked by
one user at a time and the current token holder. A simple example is a token that grants
that grants that user the
the right to transmit data. This token enforces a half-duplex mode
exclusive right to invoke
certain services.
of operation. Only the holder of the token can send data. At any
time, the token holder can pass the token to the other user, at
which time the other user becomes the possessor of the right to
transmit.
Service Primitives and Parameters
There are 21 types and 56 session service primitives. A service

action on the part of one of the session users usually results in
action between the two session protocol entities at the two ends of
the session connection. This protocol action is invisible to the
session user and only manifests itself as a resultant service
primitive.
For the connection establishment phase, the S-CONNECT

primitives are used. The parameters that are provided are:
 Identifier: a unique identifier of this connection.
181
Computer Networks
 Calling and called SSAP: service access points that serve as

the address of the session users.
 Quality of service: a list of parameters that are negotiated as
part of the connection establishment process. For the most
part, these parameters are passed down to the transport
service. The session provider indicates the quality of service
that can be provided on the basis of the transport service.
 Requirements: a list of functional options that may be
requested.
 Serial number: when synchronization services are to be
employed, this is the proposed initial serial number.
 Token: a list of the initial side to which the available tokens are
assigned.
 Data: certain session user data.
1.4. OSI Session Protocol Definition
It is the job of the session protocol to bridge the gap between the
services provided by the transport layer and those required by the
session user. In essence, the transport layer provides three
services:
 Establishment, maintenance, and release of a transport

The transport layer service with certain quality-of-service characteristics.
provides three services.  Reliable transfer of data.
 Reliable transfer of expedited data.
The session service provides a variety of services relating to the

management and structuring of the exchange of data. Hence, it is
the job of the session protocol to provide these structuring
mechanisms on top of these transport services.
OSI session protocol includes 36 types of session protocol data

units (SPDUs). The session protocol basically provides a rather
straightforward mapping of session service primitives into session
protocol data units, and makes use of the comparatively simple,
reliable interface to the transport layer to exchange these
primitives.
Session Protocol Formats
The number of parameters that is sent with an SPDU varies

widely. Furthermore, the length of parameters is variable. The ISO
standard provides a flexible formatting scheme to accommodate
these variations. Figure 11.1 shows the general structure of an
SPDU. Each SPDU has up to four fields. The first field is the
SPDU identifier (SI), which specifies one of the 34 types of
182
SPDUs. The next field is the length indicator, which specifies the
length of the header. If the SPDU contains any parameters, then
the next field contains these parameters. Finally, there may be a
field for session user information.
SPDU sI LI PGI/PI-Field User information
PGI LI PC
PGI
or
unit
PGI LI P1-Field
PI
PI LI PV
unit
SI = SPDU identifier
LI = Length indicator
PGI/P1-Field = One or more PGI and/or PI units
PGI = Parameter group identifier
PV = Parameter value
PI-Field = One or more PI units
PI = Parameter identifier
Fig. 11.1: SPDU format.
The parameter field may take on one of several general forms,

depending on the way in which particular parameters are
expressed. In its simplest form, a parameter is expressed with
A parameter is expressed three subfields: a parameter identifier, a length indicator, and the
with three subfields: a
parameter value. This form is know as a PI unit, and the SPDU
parameter identifier, a
length indicator, and the may contain one or more such units. Alternatively, related
parameter value. parameters may be expressed in a PGI unit, which consists of a
parameter group identifier, a length indicator, and either a single
parameter value or one or more PI units.
Transport Connection
Session connection must be mapped into transport connections

by the session protocol entity. The ISO standard contains specific
guidance on the way this is to be done. Most important is the
requirement that a transport connection be dedicated to a single
session connection.
When a session is terminated, the session protocol entity that

initially set up the corresponding transport connection has the
option of terminating that connection or not. If the transport
connection is retained, then it may be used to support a new
183
Computer Networks
session connection request, provided that it meets the required

quality of service.
1.5. Exercise
a. A logical connection between endpoints is created by
i) a session protocol
ii) a transport protocol
iii) any one of the above two
b. When a session is terminated, the session protocol entity

that initially set up the corresponding transport connection
i) must terminate that connection.

ii) may terminate that connection.
iii) may not terminate that connection.
iv) may or may not terminate that connection.
a) Name the parameters that are provided to S-CONNECT

primitives during the connection establishment phase.
b) Mention the services provided by the transport layer to the
session layer.
a) Discuss session establishment and maintenance.

b) Discuss dialogue management of session service.
c) Discuss the services provided to a session-service user by
the session service.
d) Discuss the use of tokens in session service.
e) Discuss the SPDU format.
f) Discuss transport connection in relation to session
connection.
184
Presentation Facilities
Unit 12 : Presentation Facilities

Introduction
Presentation facilities deal with representation of information of

concern to applications. In general, we can consider two
categories of presentation facilities:
 Those concerned with data to be transferred between

application entities in different systems. Presentation facilities
may provide a representation to be used for the transfer of
information as well as mechanisms for translating between
local representations and the representation used for
information exchange. Examples of such facilities include
encryption and compression.
 Those concerned with data structures that applications refer to
in their communication. An example of such a facility are
concerned with the representation of management information
for network management.
In this unit, presentation concept and Abstract Syntax Notation

One (ASN.1), which has become an all-important universal
language for defining representations are discussed. Encryption,
an example of translation facility, and concept of virtual terminal
protocols are also discussed in this unit.
Lesson 1 : Presentation Concepts and

Abstract Syntax Notation one
(ASN.1)
Two major components  briefly introduce yourself to presentation concept

 briefly introduce yourself to ASN.1 standard.
1.2. Presentation Concepts
Figure 12.1 illustrates the underlying concepts of presentation. For

purposes of discussion, a communications architecture in an end
system can be considered to have two major components:
Computer Networks
USER USER
User presentation User presentation

mapping mapping
Local storage Local storage

(e.g. MIB) (e.g. MIB)
local Application Abstract Application local

mapping component Syntax component mapping
encoding encoding
rules rules
Data transfer Data transfer

component Transfer component
(e.g. TCP, OSI Syntax (e.g. TCP, OSI
session) session)
Fig. 12.1: The use of abstract and transfer syntaxes.

 The data transfer component is concerned with the
mechanisms for the transfer of data between end systems. In
the case of the TCP/IP protocol suite, this component would
consist of TCP or UDP on down. In the case of the OSI
architecture, this component would consist of the session layer
on down.
 The application component is the user of the data transfer
component and is concerned with the end user’s application.
In the case of the TCP/IP protocol suite, this component would
consist of an application, such as SNMP, FTP, SMTP, or
TELNET. In the case of OSI, this component actually consists
of the application layer.
As we cross the boundary from the application to the data transfer
component, there is a significant change in the way the data are
viewed. For the data transfer component, the data received from
an application are specified as the binary values of a sequence of
Application protocols octets. This binary value can be directly assembled into service
describe their PDUs in data units (SDUs) for passing between layers and into protocol
terms of an abstract data units (PDUs) for passing between protocol entities within a
syntax. layer. The application component, however, is concerned with a
user’s view of data. For the application component, information is
represented in a abstract syntax that deals with data types and
data values. The abstract syntax formally specifies data
independently from any specific representation. Application
protocols describe their PDUs in terms of an abstract syntax.
This abstract syntax is used for the exchange of information
between application components in different systems. The
exchange consists of application level PDUs within a system, the
information represented using an abstract syntax must be mapped
into some form for presentation to the human user. Similarly, this
abstract syntax must be mapped into some local format for
storage.
186
The application must also translate between the abstract syntax of

the application and a transfer syntax that describes the data
A transfer syntax that
values in a binary form, suitable for interaction with the data
describes the data values
in a binary form, suitable
transfer component. For example, an abstract syntax may include
for interaction with the a data type of character; the transfer syntax could specify ACSII or
data transfer component. EBCDIC encoding.
The transfer syntax thus defines the representation of the data to
be exchanged between data transfer components. The translation
from abstract syntax to the transfer syntax is accomplished by
means of encoding rules that specify the representation of each
data value of each data type.
This approach for the exchange of application data solves the two
problems that relate to data representation in a distributed,
heterogeneous environment:
 There is a common representation for the exchange of data

between differing systems.
 Internal to a system, an application uses some particular
representation of data. The abstract/transfer syntax scheme
automatically resolves differences in representation between
cooperating application entities.
1.3. Abstract Syntax Notation one (ASN.1)
ASN.1 is an abstract syntax standard and is widely used both in

the development of OSI-related standards and TCP/IP-related
standards. It is used to define the format of protocol data units
(PDUs), the representation of distributed information, and
operations performed on transmitted data.
The basic building block of an ASN.1 specification is the module.
ASN.1 is a language that ASN.1 is a language that can be used to define data structure. A
can be used to define structure definition is in the form of a named module. The name of
data structure.
the module can then be used to reference the structure. Modules
have the basic form
< modulereference > DEFINITIONS ::=
BEGIN
EXPORTS
IMPORTS
Assignment List
End
The module reference is a module name followed optionally by an
object identifier to identify the module. The EXPORTS construct
indicates which definitions in this module may be imported by
other modules. The IMPORTS construct indicates which type and
value definitions from other modules are to be imported into this
187
Computer Networks
module. The assignment list consists of type assignments, value

assignments, and macro definitions.
Type and value assignments have the form
< name > ::= < description >
ASN.1 structures, types, and values are expressed in a notation
similar to that of a programming language. ASN.1 is a notation for
abstract data types and their values. The number of values that a
type may take on may be infinite. For example, the type INTEGER
has an infinite number of values.
We can classify types into four categories:
 Simple: These are atomic types, with no components.
 Structured: A structured type has components.
 Tagged: These are types derived from other type.
 Other: This category includes the CHOICE and ANY types.
Every ASN.1 data type, with the exception of CHOICE and ANY,
The tag consists of class has an associated tag. The tag consists of class name and a
name and a nonnegative nonnegative integer tag number. There are four classes of data
integer tag number.
types, or four classes of tag:
 Universal: Generally useful, application-independent types
and construction mechanism; these are defined in the
standard.
 Application-Wide: Relevant to a particular application; these
are defined in other standards.
 Context-Specific: Also relevant to a particular application, but
applicable in a limited context.
 Private: Types defined by users and not covered by any
standard.
Name: Abdul Karim

Title: Professor
Employee Number: 100
Date of Joining: 01 March 1999
Name of Spouse: Momota Karim
Number of Children: 2
Child Information
Name: Matin Karim
Date of Birth: 11 February 1990
Child Information
Name: Matia Karim
Date of Birth: 15 January 1193
188
(a) Informal description of personnel record

Personnel Record ::=[APPLICATION 0] IMPLICIT SET {
Name,
title[0] VisibleString,
number EmployeeNumber,
dateOfJoining [1] Date,
nameOfSpouse [2] Name,
children [3] IMPLICIT SEQUENCE OF ChildInformation
DEFAULT {}}
ChildInformation ::= SET{
Name,
dateOfBirth [0] Date}
Name ::= [APPLICATION 1] IMPLICIT SEQUENCE {
givenName VisibleString,
initial VisibleString,
familyName VisibleString}
EmployeeNumber ::= [APPLICATION 2] IMPLICIT INTEGER
Date ::= [APPLICATION 3] IMPLICIT VisibleString - DDMMYYYY
(b) ASN.1 description of the record structure
{ {givenName “Abdul”, familyName “Karim”},
title “Professor”
number 100
dateOfJoining “01031999”
nameOfSpouse {givenName “Momota”, familyName
“Karim”},
children
{{ {givenName “Matin”, familyName “Karim”}
dateOfBirth “11021990”},
{ {givenName “Matia”, familyName “Karim”},
dateOfBirth “15011993”}}}
(c) ASN.1 description of a record value
Fig. 12.2: Example of use of ASN.1.
To give an idea, without going into details, an example that
The most common defines the structure of a personal record is given in figure 12.2.
encoding specification for Part (a) of the figure depicts the personal record informally by
translating from an giving an example of a specific record. Such a display might
abstract syntax to a bit correspond to the user presentation in figure 12.1. In part (b), we
pattern is known as Basic
see the formal description, or abstract syntax, of the data
Encoding Rules (BER).
structure. Part (c) is an example of a particular value for the
personal record, expressed in the abstract syntax.
ASN.1 macro notation allows the user to extend the syntax of

ASN.1 to define new types and their values. The subject of ASN.1
189
Computer Networks
macro is a complex one, and is not discussed here. ASN.1

specifies the syntax or format of information in an abstract
representation. To actually store or exchange information, it needs
to be encoded as a bit pattern. The most common encoding
specification for translating from an abstract syntax to a bit pattern
is known as Basic Encoding Rules (BER). BER describes a
method for encoding values of each ASN.1 type as a string of
octets. Details of BER is not discussed here.
1.4. Exercise
a. Application protocols describe their PDUs in terms of
i) abstract syntax.
ii) transfer syntax.
iii) absolute syntax.
iv) any one of the above.
b. The basic building block of a ASN.1 specification is
i) the type
ii) the module
iii) the macro
c. In ASN.1, the number of values that a type may take on
i) must be infinite
ii) must be finite
iii) may be infinite
a) What is the importance of abstract/transfer syntax scheme

in data representation in a distributed, heterogeneous
environment?
b) Name the different categories of types as used in ASN.1.
c) Name the different classes of tags as used in ASN.1
a) Briefly discuss the module definition as used in ASN.1.

b) Briefly discuss the type definition as used in ASN.1.
190
Lesson 2 : Network Security : Encryption

and Authentication
 grasp the concept of text encryption concealing the meaning of

the text for security purpose
 know different methods of message authentication for security
purpose.
2.2. Network Security
One of the most important automated tools for computer network

security is encryption. Encryption is a process that conceals
meaning by changing intelligible messages into unintelligible
messages. Encryption can be by means of either of the following
two systems:
 Code: A code system uses a predefined table or dictionary to

Message authentication. substitute a meaningless word or phrase for each message or
part of message.
 Cipher: A cipher uses a computable algorithm that can
translate any stream of message bits into an unintelligible
cryptogram.
Because cipher techniques lend themselves more readily to

automation, these are used in contemporary computer and
network security facilities. Encryption protects against passive
attack (eavesdropping). A different requirement is to protect
against active attack (falsification of data and transmission).
Protection against such attacks is known as message
authentication.
2.3. Conventional Encryption
Figure 12.3(a) illustrates the conventional encryption process. The

original intelligible message, referred to as plaintext, is converted
The encryption process into apparently random nonsense, referred to as ciphertext. The
consists of an algorithm encryption process consists of an algorithm and a key. The Key is
and a key.
a relatively short bit string that controls the algorithm. The
algorithm will produce a different output depending on the specific
key being used at the time. Changing the key radically changes
the output of the algorithm.
191
Computer Networks
Key
Encryption Decryption
User A Plain Text Cipher Text Plain Text User B
Algorithm Algorithm
(a) Conventional Encryption
B's Public Key

B's Private Key
Algorithm Algorithm
Fig. 12.3: Encryption.
Once the ciphertext is produced, it is transmitted. Upon reception,

the ciphertext can be transformed back to the original plaintext by
using a decryption algorithm and the same key that was used for
encryption.
The security of conventional encryption depends on the security of

Public-Key Encryption the key, not the security of the algorithm. We don’t need to keep
the algorithm secret; we only need to keep the key secret. With
the use of conventional encryption, the principal security problem
is maintaining the secrecy of the key.
2.4. Public-Key Encryption
One of the major difficulties with conventional encryption scheme

is the need to distribute the keys in a secure manner. A clever way
around this requirement is an encryption scheme that does not
require key distribution. This scheme, known as public-key
encryption, is illustrated in figure 12.3(b). For conventional
encryption schemes, the keys used for encryption and decryption
are the same. In public-key encryption, the algorithm uses one key
for encryption and a companion but different key for decryption.
The technique works as follows:
1. Each end system in a network generates a pair of keys to be

used for encryption and decryption of messages that it will
receive.
2. Each system publishes its encryption key by placing it in a
public register or file. This is the public key. The companion
key is kept private.
3. If A wishes to send a message to B, it encrypts the message
using B’s public key.
192
4. When B receives the message, it decrypts it using B’s private

key. No other recipient can decrypt the message since only B
knows B’s private key.
As long as a system controls its private key, its incoming

communication is secure. At any time, a system can change its
private key and publish the companion public key to place its old
public key.
2.5. Message Authentication
A message, file, document, or other collection of data is said to be

authentic when it is genuine and came from its alleged source.
Message authentication is a procedure that allows the
communicating parties to verify that received messages are
authentic. The important aspects that are to be verified are:
 The contents of the message have not been altered.

 The source is authentic.
 The message is timely, that is, it has not been artificially
delayed and replayed.
 The sequence relative to other messages flowing between two
parties is correct.
Authentication using Conventional Encryption
It is possible to perform authentication simply by the use of

conventional encryption. If we assume that only the sender and
Authentication using receiver share a key, then only the genuine sender would be able
conventional encryption to successfully encrypt a message for the other participant.
protects two parties Furthermore, if the message includes an error-detection code and
exchanging messages a sequence number, the receiver is assured that no alteration
from any third party. have been made and that sequencing is proper. If the message
also includes a time stamp, the receiver is assured that the
message has not been delayed beyond that normally expected for
network transit.
Digital Signature using Public-Key Encryption
Authentication using conventional encryption protects two parties

exchanging messages from any third party. However, it does not
protect the two parties against each other. In situations where
there is not complete trust between sender and receiver,
something more than authentication is needed. The most
attractive solution is the digital signature. It must have the
following properties:
193
Computer Networks
 It must be able to verify the author and the date and time of
the signature.
 It must be able to authenticate the contents at the time of the
signature.
 The signature must be verifiable by third parties, to resolve
disputes.
Thus the digital signature function includes the authentication

function.
User A's User A's

Private Key Public Key
Algorithm Algorithm
Fig. 12.4 : (a) Simple digital signature scheme proividing Authentication
User A's User B's User B's User A's

Private Key Public Key Private Key Public Key
Encryption Encryption Decryption Decryption

User A Plain Text Cipher Text Cipher Text Cipher Text Plain Text User B
Algorithm Algorithm Algorithm Algorithm
Fig. 12.4 : (b) Digital signature scheme providing authentication and secrecy
Figure 12.4(a) illustrates a simple digital signature scheme using

public-key encryption. This scheme exploits an important
characteristics of all public-key encryption algorithms: The two
keys can be used in either order. That is, one can encrypt with the
A simple digital signature public key and decrypt with the matching private key, or encrypt
scheme using public-key with the private key and decrypt with the matching public key.
encryption. Figure 12.4(a) illustrates the latter application. A prepares a
message to B and encrypts it using A’s private key before
transmitting it. B can decrypt the message using A’s public key.
Because the message was encrypted using A’s private key, only A
could have prepared the message. Therefore, the entire encrypted
message serves as the signature. In addition, it is impossible to
alter the message without access to A’s private key, so the
message is authenticated.
The encryption process just described does not provide secrecy.

That is, the message being sent is safe from alteration but not
safe from eavesdropping. It is, however, possible to provide both
the digital signature function, which includes authentication, and
secrecy by a double use of the public-key scheme. This is
194
illustrated in figure 12.4(b). In this case, we begin by encrypting a

message using the sender’s private key. This provide the digital
signature. Next, we encrypt again, using the receiver’s public key.
The final ciphertext can only be decrypted by the intended
receiver, who alone possesses the matching private key. Thus
secrecy is provided.
2.6. Message Authentication Without Message Encryption
There are situations in which message authentication without

secrecy is preferable. In message authentication without message
Message Authentication encryption, an authentication tag is generated and appended to
Without Message each message for transmission. The message itself is not
Encryption encrypted and can be read at the destination independent of the
authentication function at the destination.
Message Authentication Code
One authentication technique involves the use of a secret key to

generate a small block of data, known as a message
authentication code, that is appended to the message. This
technique assumes that two communicating parties, say A and B,
share a common secret key KAB. When A has a message to send
to B, it calculates the message authentication code as a function
of the message and the key: MACM = F(KAB, M).The message plus
code are transmitted to the intended recipient. The recipient
performs the same calculation on the received message, using the
same secret key, to generate a new message authentication code.
The received code is compared to the calculated code. If we
assume that only the receiver and the sender know the identity of
the secret key, and if the received code matches the calculated
code, then
1. The receiver is assured that the message has not been

altered.
2. The receiver is assured that the message is from the alleged
sender.
3. If the message includes a sequence number, then the receiver
can be assured of the proper sequence.
195
Computer Networks
2.7. Exercise
a. The security of conventional encryption depends on
i) the secrecy of the key

ii) the secrecy of the encryption/decryption algorithm
b. In public-key encryption, the algorithm uses
i) same key for both encryption and decryption.

ii) two different and independent keys for encryption and
decryption.
iii) one key for encryption and a companion but different key
for decryption.
a) What do you mean by encryption?

b) Define plaintext, ciphertext and key.
c) What do you mean by message authentication?
d) List the aspects that are required to verify in message
authentication.
e) What are the properties of digital signature?
a) Discuss conventional encryption method.

b) Discuss public-key encryption method.
c) Discuss message authentication using conventional
encryption.
d) Discuss digital signature using public-key encryption.
e) Discuss message authentication code.
196
Lesson 3 : Virtual Terminal Protocols:

Telnet and the ISO Standard
 grasp the need for virtual terminal protocol

 understand general principles of a virtual terminal protocol
 know two standards of virtual terminal protocol, namely
TELNET and the ISO virtual terminal protocol (VTP) standard.
3.2. Introduction to Virtual Terminal Protocol
Most of our discussion has implicitly assumed that communication

is between “peer” entities, that is, entities of roughly equal
capabilities that wish to do roughly similar kinds of things. There
are exceptions to this rule, and perhaps the most significant is the
case of terminal-to-application communication.
In the case of a terminal directly connected to a computer, the

computer will have an I/O driver that handles the terminal and a
mechanism for communication between that driver and the
application program. If the terminal and computer are connected
via a network, the network must transparently pass the data
between the terminal and a computer I/O port. This seems to be a
Introduction to Virtual requirement since a number of terminal devices do not have the
Terminal Protocol capability of implementing the various OSI layers. Consider a
network with N types of terminals and M types of host computers.
For complete connectivity, each host type must contain a package
for handling each terminal type. In the worst case MN I/O
packages must be developed. This is practically impossible. To
solve this problem, some sort of virtual terminal protocol (VTP) is
needed.
VTP includes the following functions:
 Establishing and maintaining a connection between two

application-level entities.
 Controlling a dialogue for negotiating the allowable actions to
be performed across the connection.
 Creating and maintaining a data structure that represents the
“state” of the terminal.
 Translating between actual terminal characteristics and a
standardized representation.
197
Computer Networks
The principal purpose of the VTP is to transform the

characteristics of a real terminal into a standardized form or virtual
terminal.
There are four classes of terminals:
 Scroll mode: These are terminals with no local intelligence,
including keyboard-printer and keyboard-display devices.
Characters are transmitted as they are entered, and incoming
characters are printed or displayed as they come in. On a
display, as the screen fills, the top line is scrolled off.
 Page mode: These are keyboard-display terminals with a
cursor-addressable character matrix display. Either user or
host can modify random-accessed portion of the display. I/O
can be a page at a time.
 Form/data entry mode: These are similar to page mode
There are basically four terminals, but allow definition of fixed and variable fields on the
phases of operations. display. This permits a number of features, such as
transmitting only the variable part, and defining field attributes
to be used as validity checks.
 Graphics mode: These allow the creation of arbitrary two-
dimensional patterns.
For any VTP, there are basically four phases of operations;
 Connection management: includes session-layer-related

functions, such as connection request and termination.
 Negotiation: used to determine a mutually agreeable set of
characteristics between the two correspondents.
 Control: exchange of control information and commands.
 Data: transfer of data between two correspondents.
Terminal
processes
Real terminal Virtual terminal Host
Network
Process output Process output Process output

in terminal in virtual terminal in terminal
language language lnguage
User input in User input in User input

terminal virtual terminal in host's
language language language
Fig. 12.5: Virtual Terminal mode.
198
Figure 12.5 illustrates the process involved. Upon user input, the
characteristics of a real terminal are transformed into the agreed
format, or “virtual terminal”. These formatted data are transmitted
over a network to a host system. In the host computer, the virtual
terminal structure is translated into the terminal format normally
used by the host. The reverse process is performed for host-to-
terminal traffic. Thus, a virtual terminal service must understand
the virtual terminal format and be able to employ a data-transfer
mechanism, such as that provided in the OSI architecture.
Applications
Virtual terminal
Virtual terminal service
service
Presentation Presentation
Session Session
Transport Transport
Terminal
handler
Network Network
Data link Data link
Physical Physical
Fig. 12.6: Architecture for virtual terminal service.
Figure 12.6 relates the virtual terminal service to the OSI

architecture. Terminal are connected locally to a device that may
be a terminal cluster controller, some other sort of
communications processor, or a general-purpose computer. Some
Some terminal-handler terminal-handler software module is needed to communicate with
software module is the terminals; this is usually part of the operating system. The
needed to communicate purpose of this module is to link the terminal user to some
with the terminals; this is application in the system. In this case, the user is linked to the
usually part of the virtual terminal service. This service is at the application layer of
operating system. the OSI architecture and makes use of the lower six layers of OSI
to establish a connection with a virtual terminal service module on
a remote computer. On the remote computer, the virtual terminal
service module provides an interface to various applications. To
the application, terminal traffic coming in through the virtual
terminal service appears to be coming from a local terminal
through the usual terminal-handler software. Thus, for both the
user and the application, it appears as though the user is locally
connected to the remote computer.
199
Computer Networks
3.3. TELNET
One of the first attempts to develop a true virtual terminal protocol

is TELNET, which was developed as part of the TCP/IP protocol
suite and is still widely used.
TELNET is built on three main principles:
 The concept of a network virtual terminal (NVT).

 A symmetric view of terminals and process.
 The principle of negotiated options.
The NVT is an imaginary device that provides an intermediate

representation of a canonical terminal. If the communicating entity
is a process, a module is needed (Server TELNET) to convert
between the NVT representation and the process representation.
If the communicating entity is a terminal, a module is needed
(User TELNET) to map the characteristics of the terminal into
those of NVT.
Communication can occur between two terminals, two processes,

or a process and a terminal. It is expected that the communication
will be over a TCP connection. TELNET enforces two-way
alternate mode of communication to accommodate half-duplex
Communication can occur terminals. TELNET assumes that the ASCII code will be used.
between two terminals, Each TELNET connection begins with a negotiated option phase.
two processes, or a Four commands are used in this phase: WILL, WONT, DO,
process and a terminal. DONT. WILL X is sent by either party to indicate that party’s
desire (offer) to begin performing option X; DO X and DONT X are
positive and negative acknowledgments, respectively. DO X is
sent to indicate a desire (request) that the other party begin
performing option X; WILL X and WONT X are the positive and
negative response.
In addition to the negotiation phase, there are other times when

control information needs to be exchanged. This is achieved by
the use of commands inserted into the data stream and preceded
by an escape character.
3.4. The ISO Virtual Terminal Standard
The ISO virtual terminal service is an application-layer service

defined within the framework of the OSI model. The standard
defines a module for a virtual terminal, which is an abstract
representation of a real terminal. The standard defines operations
that can be performed, such as reading text from the virtual
keyboard, writing text on the virtual screen, and moving a cursor
to a particular position on the virtual screen. The standard also
200
defines a virtual terminal protocol for the exchange of data and

control messages between a terminal and an application via the
virtual terminal service. The protocol standard specifies the
display data stream structure and the control messages by which
the two sides can agree on the details of the terminal capabilities
to be supported.
Rather than defining a single virtual terminal for all possible
applications, the standard provides its users with the tools to
define a virtual terminal suited to the application at hand and the
physical limitations of the terminal.
Real Application
terminal program
Virtual
Local terminal Local
mapping service mapping
A virtual terminal is Conceptual Conceptual

modeled as being made communications communications
up of several parts. area Virtual area
Virtual terminal terminal Virtual terminal
protocol machine protocol protocol machine
Presentation
service
Fig. 12.7: The structure of the virtual terminal environment.

The structure of the ISO standard is suggested by figure 12.7. A
virtual terminal is modeled as being made up of several parts, all
of which reside in the conceptual communication area, which is an
abstraction used to model the interaction between two systems. A
separate copy is maintained by each communicating entity, and it
forms the basis for the protocol between the4 two sides. The
Virtual Terminal Protocol is specified on terms of interactions
between protocol entities in the two systems that affect the objects
in the conceptual communications area. Each entity provides a
Virtual Terminal Service to its user. The service user can be
thought of as a local mapping from a real terminal or application to
the virtual terminal context.
Classes of services: The ISO standard provides the following

classes of service:
 Basic.
 Forms.
 Graphics.
201
Computer Networks
Modes of operations: The virtual terminal standard supports two

modes of operations:
 Two-way alternate (half-duplex).

 Two-way simultaneous (full-duplex).
Delivery control: Delivery control allows one side to control

delivery of data to the other side to co-ordinate multiple actions.
Normally, any data entered at a terminal are automatically
delivered to the application on the other side as soon as possible,
and any data transmitted by the application are delivered to the
terminal as soon as possible.
Echo control: Echo control is concerned with the control of how

characters typed on a keyboard will cause updates to display.
3.5. Exercise
a. The principal purpose of a virtual terminal protocol is
i) to transform characteristics of a real terminal into a virtual

terminal.
ii) to transform characteristics of a real terminal into another
real terminal.
iii) to transform characteristics of a virtual terminal into a real
terminal.
iv) to transform characteristics of a virtual terminal into
another virtual terminal.
3.5.2. Questions for short answer
a) Why is a virtual terminal protocol needed?

b) Briefly discuss the phases of operation of a virtual terminal
protocol.
c) What is a network virtual terminal?
d) Name the classes of ISO VTP standard.
e) Name the modes of operation of ISO VTP standard.
a) Discuss the functions of a virtual terminal protocol.

b) Discuss the different classes of terminals usually used.
c) Discuss the architecture for virtual terminal service.
d) Discuss TELNET protocol.
e) Discuss the ISO virtual terminal standard.
202
Distributed Applications
Unit 13 : Distributed Applications

Introduction
All of the protocols and functions are geared toward the support of
distributed applications that involve the interaction of multiple
independent systems. In the OSI model, such applications occupy
the application layer and are directly supported by the
presentation layer. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, such applications
typically rely on TCP or UDP for support. In this unit, tree
distributed applications supported by a network architecture are
discussed.
Lesson 1 : Network Management: SNMPv2

 understand the concept of network management systems

 introduce yourself to a widely used network management
standard.
1.2. Network Management Systems
A large network cannot be put together and managed by human

effort alone. The complexity of such a system dictates the use of
automated network management tools. A network management
system is a collection of tools for network monitoring and control.
A network management system consists of incremental hardware

and software additions implemented among existing network
components. The software used in accomplishing the network
A network management
system is a collection of
management tasks reside in the host computers and
tools for network communications processors. A network management system is
monitoring and control. designed to view the entire network as a unified architecture, with
addresses and labels assigned to each point and the specific
attributes of such element and link known to the system. The
active elements of the network provide regular feedback of status
information to the network control center.
A network management system consists of the following key

elements:
 Management station, or manager.

 Agent.
Computer Networks
 Management information base.

 Network management protocol.
The management station is typically a stand-alone device but

may be a capacity implemented on a shared system. In either
case, the management station serves as the interface for the
human network manager into network management system. The
management station will have:
 A set of management applications for data analysis, fault

recovery, and so on.
 An interface by which the network manager may monitor and
control the network.
 The capability of translating the network manager’s
requirements into the actual monitoring and control of remote
elements in the network.
 A database of network management information extracted
from the databases of all the managed entities in the network.
Agent is an active element in the network management system.
Hosts, bridges, routers, and hubs may be equipped with agent
Agent is an active element software so that they may be managed from a management
in the network station. The agents responds to requests for information from a
management system. management station, responds to requests for actions from the
management station, and may asynchronously provide the
management station with important but unsolicited information.
The means by which resources in the network may be managed is
to represent these resources as objects. Each object is a data
The collection of objects is variable that represents one aspect of the managed agent. The
referred to as collection of objects is referred to as management information
management information base (MIB). The MIB functions as a collection of access points at
base (MIB). the agent for the management station. A management station
performs the monitoring function by retrieving the value of MIB
objects.
The management station and agents are linked by a network
management protocol. The protocol used for the management of
TCP/IP networks is the simple network management protocol
(SNMP). An enhanced version of SNMP, known as SNMPv2, is
intended for both TCP/IP- and OSI-based networks. The protocol
includes the following key capabilities:
 Get: enables the management stations to retrieve the value of
objects at the agent.
 Set: enables the management station to set the value of
objects at the agent.
 Notify: enables an agent to notify the management station of
significant events.
204
1.3. Simple Network Management Protocol Version 2

(SNMPv2)
SNMP is a simple tool for network management. It defines a

limited, easily implemented management information base (MIB)
of scalar variables and two-dimensional tables, and it defines a
streamlined protocol to enable a manager to get and set MIB
variables and to enable an agent to issue unsolicited notifications,
called traps. SNMPv2 is an enhanced version of SNMP.
The Elements of SNMPv2
SNMPv2 does not provide network management at all. SNMPv2

SNMPv2 provides the instead provides a framework on which network management
infrastructure for network applications can be built. SNMPv2 provides the infrastructure for
management. network management. Figure 13.1 is an example of a
configuration that illustrates that infrastructure.
Manager server
Management Applications
SNMPv2 manager
MIB
Element manager
SNMPv2 manager/agent SNMPv2 manager/agent
MIB MIB
Agent
SNMPv2 agent SNMPv2 agent SNMPv2 agent
=SNMPv2 party
Fig. 13.1: SNMPv2-managed configuration.
205
Computer Networks
The essence of SNMPv2 is a protocol that is used to exchange

management information. Each “player” in the network
management system maintains a local database of information
relevant to network management, known as the management
information base (MIB). The SNMPv2 standard defines the
structure of this information and the allowable data types; this
definition is known as the structure of management information
(SMI). This is the language for defining management information.
The standard also supplies a number of MIBs that are generally
The structure of
useful for network management. In addition, new MIBs may be
management information
(SMI). defined by venders and users groups. At least one system in the
configuration must be responsible for network management.
There may be more than one of these management stations. Most
other systems act in the role of agent. An agent collects
information locally and stores it for later access by a manger.
SNMPv2 will support either highly centralized network

management strategy or a distributed one. In the case of
distributed network management, some systems operate both in
the role of manager and of agent. All of information exchanges
take place using the SNMPv2 protocol, which is a simple
request/response type of protocol.
The actual exchange of information takes place between two

parties. The use of parties allows systems to define access control
and security policies that differ depending on the combination of
manager, agent, and desired information. This gives the user
considerable flexibility in setting up a network management
system and assigning various levels of authorization to different
persons.
206
1.4. Exercise
a. The management station in a network management

system is implemented on
i) s stand-alone system.
ii) s shared system.
iii) any one of (i) and (ii).
iv) none of (i) and (ii).
b. SNMPv2 is intended for
i) TCP/IP-based networks.
ii) OSI-based networks.
iii) both TCP/IP- and OSI-based networks.
c. Which of the following is not correct
i) SNMPv2 provides all network management functions.

ii) SNMPv2 provides a framework on which network
management applications can be built.
iii) SNMPv2 provides the infrastructure for network
management.
iv) At least one system in the SNMPv2 configuration must be
responsible for network management.
a) What is a network management system?

b) What are the key elements of a network management
system?
c) What is a management station in a network management
system?
d) What is an agent in a network management system?
a) Briefly discuss the elements of SNMPv2.
207
Computer Networks
Lesson 2 : File Transfer: FTAM

 learn the general principle of file transfer protocols

 have a general appreciation of the ISO file transfer standard
FTAM.
2.2. Architecture
The purpose of a file transfer protocol (FTP) is to transfer a file or

a portion of a file from one system to another, under command of
an FTP user.
Logical
User FTP FTP
connection
6 6
5 5
OS OS
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 Data path 1
System A System B
Fig. 13.2: Architecture context of a file transfer protocol.
Figure 13.2 shows a view of FTP as a application-level protocol.

Here, FTP is viewed as the top layer of a seven-layer network
A view of FTP as a architecture that is supported by the station’s operating system.
application-level protocol. Typically, FTP is used interactively by an on-line user. The user’s
communications with FTP is mediated by the operating system,
which contains I/O drivers. If the user on system A wishes access
to a file on system B, then system A’s FTP establishes a logical
connection to system B’s FTP. The actual path for control and
user data is through the layers of the architecture.
208
Services required
File by FTP
management Virtual file facility
system
Lower-level
Protocol module
protocol entity
User interface
Services provided
User by FTP
Fig. 13.3: Generic FTP structure.
The user connects to the local FTP in order to transfer all or part
of a file. FTP must interact with three entities, as depicted in figure
13.3. First, there must be a user interface to accept request from
an interactive user or, possibly, a program. Of course, this
interaction only takes place at the requesting system. The remote
FTP in a file transfer event does not interact with a user. Second,
FTP must be able to communicate with other FTPs to achieve file
transfer. Typically, this is done by interfacing to a lower-level
protocol entity. Finally, to transfer a file, FTP must be able to get
at the file. For this, an interface is needed to the local file
management system.
To avoid the problem of heterogeneous file structure, a general

A transformation is purpose virtual file structure is defined. Only virtual files are
needed between the exchanged between FTPs. Locally, a transformation is needed
virtual file format and the
between the virtual file format and the local file format. A virtual file
local file format.
consists of the following:
 A filename, that allows it to be referred unambiguously.

 Other descriptive attributes which express common properties
of the file, such as size, accounting information, history, and so
on.
 Attributes describing the logical structure and dimensions of
the data stored in the file.
 Any data forming the contents of the file.
2.3. Characteristics
File transfer protocols can be characterized by the services they

provide and the protocol mechanisms the employ.
Service Features
The following are the service features for file transfer protocols:
209
Computer Networks
 Access control: There is some access control mechanism to

protect the file system. A user must have an ID and password
to gain access to the system at all. Then individual files may
maintain access control lists with specific permissions (read,
write) by user. The mechanism must be mediated by the FTP.
 Processing mode: The normal processing mode of a file
transfer is immediate. That is, when the transfer is requested,
FTP will endeavor to achieve the transfer right away and
report back. If, however, the transfer is not urgent, the user
could indicate that the transfer could take place in a
background mode.
 File naming: A file naming facility is needed to identify the
source and destination station and the source and destination
file. A virtual file name would be used, to be translated locally
by FTP.
 Alternative operations: The basic operation of FTP is to
duplicate a file and send it to another system, where it is
stored with a new local name. Alternative operations include:
transfer of a portion of a file, copy a file only if an empty
destination file already exists, and append a file to the
contents of a destination file.
 File management: An FTP can mediate user access to
certain file management facilities, either local or remote. The
following three are found in most file transfer protocols: File
allocation, file deletion, and listing file names in a directory.
 Error recovery: An error recovery facility would provide for
recovery from errors or failure in the file system or operating
system.
 Flow control: A simple stop-and-wait flow-control scheme is a
useful addition to an FTP.
 File structuring: For handling heterogeneous file system, file
structuring service is needed with an FTP.
 Status reporting: File transfer can be lengthy process,
particularly if performed in background mode. Status report
should be provided that indicate the start and completion of a
transfer. The user should be able to interrogate FTP to
determine the current status of any ongoing file transfer.
Protocol Features
The following are the features of a file transfer protocol:
 Transmission of commands: An FTP entity must

communicate with a peer counterpart to coordinate and control
the data transfer.
 File attributes: The source FTP must communicate file
attributes to the recipient system.
210
 Negotiation: A flexible file transfer protocol is bound to have a

number of options, for example, use of error recovery, flow
control, buffer size, and so on. A process of negotiation is
required for two FTP entities to agree on a common level of
service.
 Text formatting: In text files, there will be certain control
codes that affect the format of the text. A text formatting
mechanism indicates which control code are in the file and
how they are to be interpreted.
 Security: In addition to specific access control mechanisms
that control access to files by identified users, file may be
designated with a security label. FTP must cooperate with the
file system’s security mechanism to maintain security.
 Statistics: Statistics can be gathered by FTP to provide
information to a central control authority and to provide the
user with information to be used when allocating local
resources.
2.4. The ISO FTAM Standard
The ISO file transfer, access, and management (FTAM) standard

is quit complex and is organized into three parts:
 Virtual filestore definition.

 File service definition.
 File protocol specification.
Virtual Filestore Definition
The virtual filestore in FTAM is defined in terms of the structure of

files, the attributes that can be assigned to files; and the allowable
actions on files and file elements.
There are four aspects of the structure of a file:
 File access structure.

Four aspects of the  Presentation structure.
structure of a file.  Transfer structure.
 Identification structure.
Each file has associated with a number of properties, known as

attributes. Two classes of attributes are defined: file attributes and
activity attributes. File attributes represent properties of the file
File attributes represent itself, independent of any FTAM action occurring over an ISO
properties of the file itself. session connection. Three groups of file attributes are defined in
FTAM. The kernel group is the minimum that must be supported; it
provides the basic information needed for the act of file transfer.
211
Computer Networks
The storage group defines concept related to the physical storage

of files. It is concerned with the physical properties of the file, such
as size, as well as information about accessors. The security
group provides for file-related security information.
The other classes of attributes are activity attributes. These are

relevant only to the file service session in progress. As with file
attributes, activity attributes are divided into kernel, storage, and
security groups. Some allowable actions are defined on complete
file; these fall within the scope of file management. The other
allowable actions are related to the access of individual file access
data units within a file.
File Service Definition
The file service definition defines the services available to users

for accessing and manipulating the virtual files. The FTAM service
The services provided by
and its supporting protocol are concerned with creating, in a series
FTAM are defined as a
set of primitives and of stages, a working environment in which the user’s desired
parameters. activities can take place. The services provided by FTAM are
defined as a set of primitives and parameters. There are eight
groups and a total of 24 primitives defined in FTAM.
File Protocol Specification
The FTAM protocol provides a rather direct support of the FTAM

service. By and large, there is a one-to-one mapping from service
primitives to protocol data units. The FTAM protocol will set up a
session connection and insert checkpoints in the flow of data.
212
2.5. Exercise
a. Which of the following is correct
i) Only physical files are exchanged between FTPs.

ii) Only virtual files are exchanged between FTPs.
iii) Physical or virtual file may be exchanged between FTPs.
a) What is the purpose of a file transfer protocol?

b) Name the different components of a virtual file.
a) Discuss the service feature for file transfer protocols.

b) Discuss the features of a file transfer protocol.
c) Discuss the ISO FTAM standards.
213
Computer Networks
Lesson 3 : Electronic Mail: X.400

 understand concepts of electronic mail

 learn basic ideas of an electronic mail standard known as
CCITT X.4000 family of standard.
3.2. Single-System Electronic Mail
Electronic mail, also known as a computer-based message

system (CBMS), is a facility that allows users at terminals to
compose and exchange messages. Some electronic mail systems
serve only users on a single computer and known as single-
system electronic mail; others provide service across a network of
computers and known as network electronic mail.
The simplest form of electronic mail is the single-system facility.

This facility allows all the users of a shared computer system to
exchange messages. Each user is registered on the system and
has a unique identifier. Associated with each user is a mailbox.
The mailbox is actually an The electronic mail facility is an application program available to
entity maintained by the any user logged on to the system. A user may invoke the
file management system, electronic mail facility, prepare a message, and “send” it to any
and is in the nature of a other user on the system. The act of sending simply involves
file directory. putting the message in the recipient’s mailbox. The mailbox is
actually an entity maintained by the file management system, and
is in the nature of a file directory. On mailbox is associated with
each user. Any “incoming” mail is simply stored as a file under that
user’s mailbox directory. The user may later go and fetch that file
to read the message. The user reads messages by invoking the
mail facility and “reading”. In most systems, when the user logs
on, he or she is informed if there is any new mail in that user’s
mailbox.
A basic electronic mail system performs four functions;
 Creation: A user creates and edits a message.

 Sending: The user designates the recipient (or recipients) of
the message, and the facility stores the message in the
appropriate mailbox(es).
 Reception: The intended recipient may invoke the electronic
mail facility to access and read the delivered mail.
 Storage: Both sender and recipient may choose to save the
message in a file for more permanent storage.
214
3.3. Network Electronic Mail
With a single-system electronic mail facility, massages can only

be exchanged among users of that particular system. In a
distributed environment, we would like to be able to exchange
messages with users attached to other systems. Thus, electronic
mail is treated as an application-layer protocol that makes use of
lower-layer protocols to transmit message.
Terminals Terminal Comm

Electronic mail is treated handler I/O
Native Mail
as an application-layer mail transfer
protocol that makes use of
lower-layer protocols to
transmit message. File
I/O
Mailboxes
Fig. 13.4: Conceptual structure of electronic mail system.
Figure 13.4 suggests the internal system architecture required. Let

us refer to a single-system mail facility as a native mail facility.
For native mail, three major modules are needed. Users will
interact with native mail via terminals; hence, terminal-handling
software is needed. Mail is stored as files in the file system, so
file-handling software is needed. Finally, there must be a native
mail package that contains all the logic for providing mail-related
services to users.
To extend this system to network mail, two more modules are

needed. Since we are going to communicate across some sort of
network or transmission system, communication I/O logic is
needed; in the most general case, this would encompass layers 1
through 6 of the OSI model. Mail transfer logic is also needed, that
knows how to invoke the communications functions, to specify the
network address of the recipient, and to request whatever
communication services are needed. If the user designates a local
recipient, the message is stored in a local mailbox. If a remote
recipient is designated, the native mail module passes the
message to the mail transfer module for transmission across the
network. Incoming mail from the network is routed to the
appropriate mailbox.
215
Computer Networks
3.4. The CCITT X.400 Family of Standard
The CCITT standards for Message Handling Systems (MHS)

encompasses the requirements for network electronic mail. The
standards do not deal with the user interface or the services
available directly to the user. They specify services that are
available for use in sending messages across the network and
thus provide the base for building the user interface.
The X.400 family comprises of nine recommendations.
MHS Functional Model
Other telematic
User User
services
MHS
PDAU
MTA
User UA
MTA MTA MS UA User
User UA
MTA
PDAU
Other telematic
User User
services
MHS=Message handling system

MTS=Message transfer system
MTA=Message transfer agent
MS=Message store
UA=User agent
AU=Access unit
PDAU=Physical delivery access unit
Fig. 13.5: X.400 MHS functional model.
X.400 defines a functional model for the message handling

system, as shown in figure 13.5.
The actual work of message transfer is done in the message

transfer system (MTS), which consists of an interconnected set
of message transfer agents (MTAs). The MTA accepts
messages from a user agent (UA) for delivery to other UAs or to
216
a message store (MS). Some times the MTA that accepts

submission of a message delivers it directly to the destination UA
or MS. In other cases, it is necessary for the message to be
relayed through a services of MTAs to the destination. For
example, if only some MTAs have access to the proper long-
distance communication paths, a message addressed to a distant
UA might be relayed in several stages. Using relays also
eliminates the need to have all UAs and MTAs available on a 24-
hour basis.
The other elements of the message handling system are users of

the MTS. The user agent (UA) operates on behalf of a user. The
UA submits messages to an MTA for transmission across the
network.
The message store (MS) has the following functionalities:
 One MS acts on behalf of one user.

 When a UA subscribes to an MS, all messages destined for
the UA are delivered to the MS; when a message is delivered
to an MS the role of the MTS in the transfer process is
complete. Note that the MS does not store submitted
messages, only delivered messages.
 It is possible to request an alert when a certain message
arrives.
 Message submission from the UA to its MTA, via the MS, is
transparent.
 Users are provided with general message retrieval, delete, and
list.
Finally, various access units (AUs) allow MHS users to

communicate with other message-based systems. The rules for
coded information conversion are defined, making it possible to
standardize the conversion of message contents for transfer of
message between dissimilar systems.
Submission Relay Delivery
Message Message
User transfer User
transfer
agent agent agent
agent
Preparation Receipt
Add Add
Remove Remove
Envelope
Heading Heading Heading
Body Body Body Body Body
Fig. 13.6: X.400 message flow.
217
Computer Networks
Figure 13.6 suggests the way in which messages are constructed

and transmitted. The user prepares the body of a message
outside of the scope of X.400, using some sort of word processor
or editor. The user presents this body to the user agent software,
together with a description, which might include recipient, subject,
and priority. The user agent appends a header containing this
qualifying information to the message, forming a complete
message. This message is submitted to a message transfer
agent. The MTA appends an envelop to the message; the
envelop contains the source and destination address plus other
control information needed for relaying the message through the
network.
The X.400 Protocol Architecture
The message-handling protocols defined in the X.400 series are

located in the application layer of the OSI model. X.400 family has
the following protocols:
 Message transfer protocol (P1).

 Remote UA access protocol (P3).
 MS access protocol (P7).
The P1 protocol is used to transfer a message from the

originator’s MTA to the recipients MTA through zero or more
intermediate MTAs. The protocol is also used for transferring a
notification of delivery or nondelivery back to the originator’s MTA.
Three types of protocol data units are defined: user, delivery

report, and probe. The user PDU consists of the UA sublayer PDU
plus a header, known as the envelope. The envelope contains the
information needed for handling the message, including a network
name for the recipient that will allow routing, a unique identifier,
and information on how to process the PDU, such as the priority
and whether a delivery report is required.
The delivery report includes a header that consists of a unique

identifier, the name of the originator that submitted the message to
which this report refers, and trace information, which indicates the
route that the delivery report followed. The body of the delivery
report PDU includes the identifier of the original user PDU plus
information about the delivery.
The probe PDU is similar to the envelope portion of a user PDU.

Its purpose is to determine if a particular delivery is possible
without actually sending a user message. Delivery reports will be
returned on probe PDUs.
218
X.400 Series
X.400 series are divided into two groups:
 Message transfer services.

 Interpersonal messaging service.
For both sets of services, the services are divided into three
categories:
 Basic.
 Essential optional.
 Additional optional.
Basic services are inherent in the message handling system and

must be implemented. Essential optional user facilities must be
offered by the service provider, but it up to the user to select or not
select the option. Additional optional user facility may or may not
be offered by the provider.
Message Transfer Layer Services (X.401) include eight basic

services, nine essential services, and six additional services.
Interpersonal Messaging Services (X.401) include two basic
services, four essential optional services, and fourteen
essential/additional optional services.
3.5. Exercise
a. In single-system electronic mail, a mailbox
i) is associated with each user.

ii) is associated with all users.
iii) any one of (i) and (ii).
b. In X.400 MHS system, the MS stores
i) submitted messages.
ii) delivered messages.
iii) both of (i) and (ii).
219
Computer Networks
c. The following protocol is used in X.400 system to transfer a

message from the originator’s MTA to the recipient’s MTA:
i) P1
ii) P3
iii) P7
a) What is an electronic mail?

b) What are single-system and network electronic mail?
c) What is a mailbox?
d) Briefly state the functions performed by an electronic mail
system.
e) What are native mail and network mail in an electronic mail
system?
f) Name the different protocols of X.400 family.
g) How many protocol data units are defined in X.400
system? Name them.
a) Differentiate between single-system electronic mail and

network electronic mail.
b) Discuss the conceptual structure of electronic mail system.
c) Discuss the X.400 MHS functional mode.
d) Discuss how messages are constructed and transmitted in
X.400 system.
220
COMPUTER NETWORKS
DCA 3303
COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer network is
introduced in a self learning style
of distance education under Open university
system. The book covers detailed study of data
communications, different layers of computer
architecture, local area networks, widely used
standards in computer networks, and various
distributed applications. The book is suitable
for a self learner, for students, and
professionals.

DCA 3303 Full

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

DCA 3303 Full

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

DCA 3303 Full

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMPUTER NETWORKS

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY

Course Development Team

Prof. Dr. Md. Mozammel Huq Azad Khan

BANGLADESH OPEN UNIVERSITY

Professor Mofiz Uddin Ahmed

Dr. K. M. Rezanur Rahman

Mohammod Shamim Hossain

Over All Supervision

Professor Saidur Rahman

Published by : Publishing, Printing & Distribution

Computer Composed & Desktop Processing by : Md. Jakir

Unit 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

Unit 2 : Computer Networks Architecture

Unit 3 : Data Transmission Fundamentals

Unit 4 : Data Encoding

Unit 5 : Digital Data Communications Techniques

Unit 6 : Data Link Control

Unit 10 : Transport Protocols

Unit 11 : Session Services and Protocols

Unit 12 : Presentation Facilities

Unit 13 : Distributed Applications

Answer to the MCQs .................................................................................. 221

Computer workloads are continuously being decentralized. The

Lesson 1 : Computer Networks

On completion of this lesson you will be able to :

 grasp the elementary idea of computer networks

1.2. What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is an interconnected collection of

Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to

1.3. Computer Networks and Distributed Systems

There is a considerable confusion between a computer network

In a distributed system, the existence of multiple autonomous

1.4. Goals of Computer Networks

Computer networks have the following goals :

(i) Resource sharing : Programs, equipment, and data

1.5. Message Transmission over a Computer Network

A message in a computer network is a single unit of

To transmit a message over a computer network, it is usually

individual units and are reassembled into complete message at

1.6.1. Multiple choice questions

a. A computer network is an interconnected collection of

i) basically a computer network

1.6.2. Questions for short answers

a) What is a computer network?

1.6.3. Analytical questions

a) Discuss the difference between a computer network and a

Lesson 2 : Types Of Computer Networks

On completion of this lesson you will be able to :

 classify computer networks based on transmission technology

2.2. Types of Computer Networks Based on Transmission

2.3. Types of Computer Networks Based on Their Scale

(iii) Wide Area Networks : A wide are network, or WAN, spans a

Many computer networks exist in the world, often with different

The Internet is a specific world wide internet that is widely used

2.5.1. Multiple choice questions

a. A broadcast network has

i) a single communication channel shared by all computers