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~ FUNDATZI1ETALS OF DESIGN FOR SOLID-PRCPELLAlqr
LAM ~ ROCKET IMTSSILES

By

V. D. Kurov and Yu. Y.Dolzhanskiy

SFEB 11190
 FTD-TT- 62-14/1+

UNEDITED ROUGH DRAFT TRANSLATION

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN FOR SOLID-PROPELLANT

ROCKET MISSILES
BY: V. D. Kurov and Yu. M. Dolzhanskiy
English Pages: 394

THIS TRANSLATION ISA RENDITION OF THE ORII-

NAL PORIGN TEXT WITHOUT ANY ANALYTICAL OR
EDITORIAL COMMNT. STATEMENTS OR THEORIES PREPARED lYe
ADVOCATIDOiN PLIED ARE TN15 OP THI IOUECE
AND DO NOT NECESSARILY REFLECT THE PITION TRANSLATION SERVICES BRANCH
OR OPINION OF THE POREIGN TICHNOLOGY 01. P011111 TECHNOLOGY UVIUION
IaON. WPAPO OHIO,

FTD-TT- 62-1142/12 D"16 J. 1963

89
 V. L, Kurov and Yu, M,. Dolshanulciy

OSNOVY PROYEKTMOVANIYA POROKHOVYKH EAKETNYKE SNARYADOV

Gosudaretvemoys Nauohno-Tokhnicoekoye Isdatel 'utvio

Oboz'ongis
Moskva - 1961

pairs" 1-294

PTD-T'!D.62-1142/1 +2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Forward..... .. . . . . . .... . . ........................... 2

Chapter 1. Brief History of the Development of Rocket Weap-

ons Using Solid-Propellant Engines .......... 5
Chapter 2. Tentative Selection of Basic Design Parameters
for a Missile. .... 27
§1. Requirements Imposed on Solid-Propellant Rocket
Missiles . . ......... .. .. .27
§2. Selection
sile ..... and Justification of Str*uctural Mis- 34
§3. Tentative Selection'of Basic Calculation Para-
meters for the Missile Being Planned ......... 37
§4. The Planning Procedure for a Field-Artillery
Rocket Missile and its Individual Elements . . . 45
Chapter 3. Design of Missle Warhead...... . . . . . . 51
§1. Demolition Warhead . . . . . 51
Basic Design Characteristics of'a Dmolltion
Warhead. ......... . .-.-. . .. ..... - . 51
Selection of Shape of Warhead Frame (Body) . . 53
Calculation of the Wall Thickness of the Demo-
lition-Warhead Frame, on the basis of Strength
Conditions on Impact Against an Obstacle . . . 55
Selection of Critical Cross Section. . . . . . 56
Derivation of Tentative Formulas for Calcula-
tion of Stresses in the Critical Cross Section 59
Calculation of Maximum Overload Acting on Mis-
sile on Impact Against Obstacle. ... .. 63
Evaluation of Missile Effectiveness at the
Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Selection of Explosive. Calculation of Time of
Delayed Action Assuring Maximum Missile Effec-
tiveness ...
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
§2. Fragmentation Warhead .......------ 74
Basic Structural Characteristics of Fragmenta-
tion and Fragmentation-Demolition Warheads . . 74
Selection of Shape for Fragmentation Warhead.. 76
Designs for Fragmentation Warheads which will
Provide for Shell Fragmentation into a Given
Quantity of Fragments ............. 77
Calculation of the Parameters of the Fragmen-
tation Action of a Missile . . 79
Effectiveness of Fragmentation issile at'the
Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
§3. Hollow-Charge Warhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
FTD-TT-62-1142/I+2 -
 The Effect of a Hollow Charge and its Applica-
tion in the Case of Armor-Piercing Missiles. . 84
Tentative Determination of the Dimensions of
the Hollow Charge Which Will Ensure the Pene-
tration of an Obstacle of Given Thickness. . . 86

Chapter 4. Elements of the Interior Ballistics of a Solid-

Propellant Rocket Engine .. ............ 90
§1. Some Information on the Solid Propellants (pow-
ders) Used in Rocket Engines ........... ... 90
Composition of Rocket Powders ........... 90
Basic Rocket Solid Propellant Characteristics. 101
§2. Approximate Calculation of the Composition of
the Products of Combustion . ........... 107
§3. Basic Quantitative Relationships Governing Com-
bustion of Solid Rocket Propellants .... .... . 114
Mechanism of Combustion of Solid Rocket Pro-
pellants ........... .. ............ l14
Burning Rate Function .... ... l9
Burning Rate as a Function of the'Initial
Charge Temperature t o . . . . . .. .. ...... . 124
Relationship Between the Bruning Rate and the
Structural Features of the Engine (Combustion
Anomalies) . . . ................ . 128
§4. Theoretical Bases for the Calculation of Pres-
sure in a Solid-Propellant Rocket Engine .... 141
Curve of Pressure Change in Engine on Combus-
tion of Powder Charge.... ............. .. 141
The Concept of the Equation of Balance and its
Application to the Calculation of Maximum Pres-
sure .. ... .. 143
Magnitude of Pressure in Combustion Chamber as
a Function of Initial Charge Temperature . . 149
Sensitivity of Maximum Pressure to Changes in
Charge and Engine Parameters ......... 152
Stability of Steady-State Pressure in the Com-
bustion Chamber ......... ....... .... 155
Selection of Operating Pressure in Engine. . 160
§5. Basic Relationships for the Theory of Gas Out-
flow from an Engine... ...... 169
Elements of the Theory of an Ideal Supersonlc
Nozzle........ . .. 170
Gas-Glow Parameters in the Critical Cross Sec-
tion of the Nozzle ....... ..... .. 173
Calcualtion of Gas-Stream Parameters in any"
Nozzle Cross Section .. ........... 175
Concept of Rated and Nonrated Exhaust Regimes. 177
§6. Reaction Force and Specific Impulse of a Solid-
Propellant Rocket Engine .... .............. 180
Derivation of Reaction-Force Formulas. ... 180
Total Reaction-Force Impulse and Specific Im-
pulse of Engine ... . . .-
- .- . .. .185
Derivation of the K.E. Tsiolkovskiy Formula. 186
Thrust and Specific Impulse as Functions of
the Structural Features and Ballistic Charac-
teristics of the Engine ............... . 188

FTD-TT-62-1142/I+2 - -
 Chapter 5. The Design of an Engine for a Solid-Propellant
Missle ............ 196
§1. Selection of Structural Diagram'for'Combustion
Chamber and Material for Tube. . ........ 196
§2. Selection of Diagram for Connection of Rocket
Part of Missile to the Warhead and Nozzle Assem-
bly........ . 203
§3. Strength Calculations for the" Bsic"Components
of the Combustion Chamber ......... ...... 206
§4. Design of Missile Nozzle Assembly.. . . . . . . .228
Selection of Type of Nozzle Cover. ...... 228
Calculation of Flowthrough and Linear Nozzle
Dimensions ........ .............. .... 231
Selection of Grids.. ....... ..... 237
The Concept of Variable and Demountable
Nozzles with Controlled Gas Streams.... . .. 240
§5. Several Types of Rocket Powder Charges Used in
Solid-Propellant Rocket Engines.... .... ... 251
§6. The Problem of Injenting the Optimum Version of
a Single-Channel Cylindrical Grain Charge into
the Combustion Chamber ... 266
§7. Design of Ignition Unit for Basic Propellant
Charge ....... ......................... 276
Chapter 6. Elements of the Exterior Ballistics of an Un-
guided Solid-Propellant Rocket Missile . .. 280
§1. Flight Trajectory of Unguided Rocket Missile . 280
Definitions. Coordinate Systems .............. 280
Elements of the Trajectory in the Case of Un-
guided Flight. .. ........... 285
§2. Forces and Moments Actin*g on Missile Du!i1g
Flight ......... ... ............. 288
Diagram of Forces and Moments... . . ... . 288
The Force of Gravity. Calculation of Weight
and Position of Center of Missile Gravity... 295
Aerodynamic Forces and Moments. Calculation
of Aerodynamic Forces and Moments and the
Determination of the Position of the Center of
Pressure *- -.-.-.--.-.-.-..--... 305
Method of Calculating Aerodynamic Forces with
the Utilization of a Simplified Model of the
Flow of Air Past a Missile ............ . 309
Calculation of the Lift Coefficient ......... 310
Calculation of Frontal-Resistance (Drag) Coef-
ficient * 312
Method of Estimating the Aerodyalic Forces in
Terms of the Coefficient of Missile Shape . . 327
Calculation of Aerodynamic Moments Acting on
Missile in Flight . . . . . .. . . 331
§3. General System of Equations of Missile Motion in
Air in a Spatial System of Coordinates . . . . . 334
§4. The
tory Concept
... of Missile Stability on the Trajec-
3
§5. System of Euations'for'Missile'Motion Stabilized
Both Along the Trajectory and in the Firing Plane 339
§6. Simplified System of Equations for the Motion of
the Center of Missile Gravity in Airless Space . 341

j FTD-TT-62-1142/l+2 - -
 §7. Calculation of Missile Trajectory Elements . . 342
Estimate of Limit Trajectory Elements by In-
tegrating the Simplified System of Equations 342
Calculation of Trajectory Elements by the
Method of the Numerical Integration of the
Equations of Missile Motion in the Firing
Plane . . . . . . . . . . 348
§8. Stabilization of Missile on Trajectory .... 353
Selection of Tail Surfaces which will pro-
vide for Stabilization with the Given Sta-
bility Margin- -- - ...... .. 354
Calculation of an Angle for Nozzle Outlet to
provide for Stability in the Case of Turbo-
jet Missle . ........... .. . . . 359
§9. Scattering of Unguided Missiles Over Target
Area. Concept of Firing Accuracy . . . . . . . 365

Chapter 7. Tests of Experimental Models of Rocket Missiles 372

§1. Static Tests of a Rocket Engine ..... ... 372
§2. Firing-Range Tests of Rocket Missiles . . . 382
Firing-Accuracy Tests of Rocket Missiles . 382
Determination of Demolition Effect of Rocket
Missiles by Means of Underground Explosions
and Firing at Target Area . . . . . . . . 384
Determination of Fragmentation Effect of
Rocket Missiles . . . . . 386
Other Tests of Rocket Missiles ........ 390

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............ 391

-iv-
 This book contains basic data on the construction of contem-

porary solid-propellant rocket-powered missiles, as well as informa-

tion on their most important component parts and units. The book

also outlines the methods employed to select optimum missile param-

eters as well as the parameters required for the design and planning

stages of missile warhead and rocket sections; in addition, methods

are presented for the determination of the laws governing the com-

bustion of solid propellants and the discharge of the gases pro-

duced on the combustion of the solid propellants; further, methods

are presented on the calculation of maximum pressure of solid-

propellant combustion gases, and methods for the calculation of spe-

cific impulse and reaction thrust. A complete system of equations

of missile motion is presented, as well as a method for the cal-

culation of missile trajectory; the various possibilities of sta-

bilizing a missile in flight are also examined. The test-stand

investigations of a solid-propellant engine and missile firing

tests are described.

The book is intended as a text for secondary educational in-

stitutions; at the same time, it may be useful for students of

higher educational institutions as well as for engineers who are

specializing in the field of rocket-system design.

FTD-TT-62-1142/I+2
 FOREWORD

Reaction-thrust systems employing power plants operating on

solid propellants are in wide use in various areas of rocket en-

gineering.

Solid-propellant engines are comparatively simple in design,

they are mobile, convenient in operation, and yet sufficiently reli-

able and effective. In the opinion of foreign specialists, achieve-

ments in the chemistry of solid propellants and the solution of

problems in the design of large-scale engines make it possible to

regard this class of power plants as extremely promising. It is for

this reason that in recent years particular attention has been de-

voted abroad to problems of designing rockets using solid-propellant

engines.

The present book contains basic information required for the

design of the simplest reaction-thrust systems involving the use

of solid-propellant engines - field-artillery rocket shells employ-

ing a powder charge. Individual design problems are discussed within

the scope of the program of the course taught in secondary educa-

tional institutions.

The book consists of seven chapters. Chapter 1 presents a brief

examination of the basic stages in the historical development of

rocket artillery and the characteristics of certain contemporary

isented.
rocket missile specimens using solid-propellant engines are pre-

Chapter 2 is a direct introduction to problems encountered

-2-
FTD- T-62-1142/1+2
in the design of solid-propellant rocket missiles. This chapter

undertakes a consideration and analysis of the tactical-engineer-

ing problem of designing new missiles, and diagrams are examined

in detail with respect to the design of the most important struc-

tural elements of a missile; in addition, a method is presented for

the tentative selection of the basic parameters of the missile being

designed. Chapters 3 and 5 are devoted to problems of working out

the design of the missile warhead and its power plant. The funda-

mentals of the theory of interior ballistics for solid-propellant

rocket engines and the elements of exterior rocket-missile ballis-

tics are covered in Chapters 4 and 6. Finally, Chapter 7 contains

the basic data on the testing of experimental missiles and their

engines.

Chapters 4 and 6 cover a somewhat greater scope than the school

course in order to make the material contained in these chapters

more interesting and useful for a wider circle of readers. All of

the data and specific figures in the book have been taken primarily

from foreign literature.

Chapters 1 and 7 of the book were written by V.D. Kurov,

Chapter 4 was written by Yu.M. Dolzhanskiy, and Chapters 2, 3, 5,

and 6 were written Jointly by Dolzhanskiy and Kurov.

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor V.I.

Feodos'yev, who undertook the task of examining the initial manu-

script, and the authors also wish to express their sincere grati-

tude to all of the individuals who assisted them in selecting the

contents and format of this book; the authors wish especially to

acknowledge the assistance and valuable advice given by Candidate

of Technical Sciences M.F. Dyunze who reviewed the manuscript.

The authors will be glad to consider any complaints and criti-

-3-

FTD-TT-62-1142/1+2
 cal comments with regard to the book and request that all inquiries

be addressed to the publishers: Moscow, 1-51, Petrovka 24, Oboron-

giz.

f-.
 Chapter 1

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ROCKET WEAPONS

USING SOLID-PROPELLANT ENGINES

There are references in the chronicles of ancient India, China,

and other eastern countries to "firebolts" (incendiary arrows) -

the forerunners of powder-propelled rockets. Structurally, these

were made in the form of a conventional arrow that terminated in

a bamboo tube which was filled with black powder (Fig. 1.1). As the

black powder was ignited, the arrow flew forward under the action

of a reactive force which was produced by the gases flowing out of

the tube.

Fig. 1.1. "Firebolt."

These "incendiary arrows" were developed on a large scale in

India. The Indians used these arrows both for hunting as well as

for such military purposes as the repulsion of their enemies. During

the colonization of India, the British ran up against the "rocket

arrows" for the first time. The British military engineer, William

Congreve, undertook the study of these rockets. By that time, the

Indian rocket was being made of iron, and it was fitted with a

pointed tip, thus giving it the appearance of sharp spears. A reed

tube was fastened to the body of the arrow in order to provide

for stability in flight. The British were able to increase the

-5
dimensions of the rocket casing and attached a wooden stick in the

place of the reed at the end, and in front they installed a cap

with an incendiary charge. These rocket-arrows were now so heavy

that it became necessary to build special launching racks to fire

them.

The appearance of rockets in England compelled other European

nations to undertake their use. In 1867, on the day that war was

declared between Denmark and England, British naval vessels attacked

the city of Copenhagen and fired some 40,000 rockets at the city.

As a result, the entire city was engulfed in flames, and Denmark

was forced to capitulate. After this one-day war, the Dane, Shumakher

[sic], designed his own rocket on the basis of the one used by the

British, and this Danish rocket was essentially the same as the

one used by the British, with the exception that it had a removable

warhead that was fastened to the combustion chamber by means of

tape which burned up during the flight, and in addition, the powder

cavity of this rocket was somewhat larger.

The Austrian, Avgustin [sic], having studied the British and

Danish rockets, constructed a rocket missile or, the basis of these

forerunners, which was structurally a riveted iron casing filled

with a powder charge throughout its entire length. The forward part

of the casing was filled either with an incendiary charge or a shot

grenade. The flight of this missile was stabilized by means of a

stick attached to the side of the castng.

A description of the first Russian rocket appears in the "Re-

gulations"of Onisim Mikhalyov, written by him in 1607-1621. Struc-

turally, these rockets were made in the form of a shell (along the

lines of an artillery shell), and they were filled with a special

powder charge shaped so as to have a channel ("a rocket void") on

-6-
the inside. At that time, there was no theoretical justification

for the need of this channel. The channel was made, because it had

been established in practice that it served to increase reaction

thrust.

During the reign of Peter I

rockets came into ever-increasing

use. During this period, the numer-

a)a ous holidays on the occasion of

Russian military victories were

generally celebrated by tremendous

6)b exhibitions of fireworks which em-

Fig. 1.2. Rocket missile de- ployed the principle of rockets.

signed by A.D. Zasyad'ko.
a) Incendiary rocket; b) demo- At the same time, rockets came into
lition rocket.
widespread use in the army. An ex-

tremely successful rocket was designed in 1707, and this signal

rocket remained in the arsenal of weapons for almost 150 years.

The first Russian military rockets were designed by Aleksandr

Dmitriyevich Zasyad'ko (1779-1838). He designed demolition and in-

cendiary rockets of three calibers: 2, 2.5, and 4 inches. Struc-

turally, Zasyad'ko's rockets were made with cylindrical iron casings

filled with powder, and a conical channel was drilled into the

charge, said channel extending 3/4 of the length into the charge.

A perforated cap filled with an incendiary mass [paste] was mounted

at the front end of the rocket casing. Flames shot out of the open-

ings of the perforated cap (in the zone of rocket impact), igniting

all objects in the vicinity. A wooden stick was mounted at the rear

end of the rocket in order to achieve flight stability.

Thus was built the first Russian incendiary rocket. The con-

struction of a demolition rocket is in no way different from that

-7-
of an incendiary rocket; the only exception here is the fact that

instead of a cap with an incendiary paste, a round shell con-

taining explosives (Fig. 1.2) is attached to the casing.

A.D. Zasyad'ko designed a launching installation for the fir-

ing of his rockets; this installation consisted of tubes mounted

on a tripod so that it could rotate freely in both the horizontal

and vertical planes. Such a launching device was easily portable

and could be set up in any small area, thus attaining greater

maneuverability.

Because of its small weight and simplicity of design, a great

number of these launching installations could quickly be concen-

trated in a given sector, thus making it possible to mount massive

fire power against an enemy. Later on, Zasyad'ko designed launching

installations which made it possible to fire simultaneous salvos

of six rockets. These installations were also unique in the simplicity

of their design and limited weight.

During the period being described, the successful waging of

military campaigns depended in great measure on the ability to

defend and take fortresses. Special means were developed for the

capture and defense of fortresses. The Russian general A.A. Shil'der

developed a new system of fortress defense involving the use of

rocket missiles. He also developed an underwater craft to operate

in minor bodies of water; this craft was armed primarily with

rocket missiles which could be launched electrically both beneath

the surface as well as from the surface. This application of rocket

missiles was yet another important achievement in the area of Rus-

sian rocket engineering.

The eminent Russian designer-rocketeer Konstantin Ivanovich

Konstantinov (1819-1871) began his activities in this same period

-8-
of widespread development of Russian rocket engineering. One of

Konstantinov's first inventions was the electroballistic installa-

tion for the measurement of missile velocity during flight (on its

trajectory).

In 1847-1850, K.I. Konstantinov, using his electroballistic

installation as the basis, designed a remarkable device - a rocket

electroballistic pendulum. This device makes it possible to con-

struct the curve of change in missile reaction force during missile

flight. The existence of this device made it possible to undertake

a solution of the problems associated with range and accuracy of

missile flight over a given trajectory on a scientific basis.

Both of the devices produced by K.I. Konstantinov made it

possible to lay the foundations of the theory of interior and ex-

terior ballistics for rocket missiles. On the basis of his research,

Konstantinov sought to design new rockets which could achieve the

firing accuracy of artillery weapons.

Prior to this, rockets of identical caliber and designation,

and even rockets produced in a single production batch, exhibited

substantial production deviations, thus sharply reducing the accu-

racy of their firing. After a number of investigations, K.I. Kon-

stantinov established that it was impossible to obtain stable

rocket characteristics under the existing methods of production.

It is for this reason that he implemented a series of measures in-

tended to obtain technological uniformity for the production of

rockets. New machines and mechanisms were installed in the rocket

institution for the production of casings, the drilling of chan-

nels into the powder, the preparation of uniform rocket mixtures,

etc.

In addition to improving production, Konstantinov did much in

-9-
 the field of improving the design of the rocket systems themselves.

For example, he proposed a dry method of filling the rocket casings

with powder in order to increase the accuracy of firing with rocket

missiles and to increase the length of time for which these mis-

siles could be stored; in addition, he selected the optimum shape,

weight, and dimensions of rocket missiles in order to attain the

greatest flight range. He also improved the design of the launching

installations - they became more stable, and the rockets could be

housed in these installations with smaller clearances, thus making

it possible to obtain more stable missile characteristics on

departure from the guide rails, and consequently, it was possible

to obtain greater firing accuracy in flight.

Fig. 1.3. Rocket missile from the 1860's.

All of the above-enumerated measures made it possible to pro-

duce domestic rocket missiles exhibiting the best characteristics

both with respect to firing accuracy, as well as with respect to

range in comparison with rocket missiles produced by other govern-

ments (Great Britain, France, Austria, etc.).

Three basic rocket-missile calibers were selected in Russia:

2, 2.5, and 4 inches (102, 64, and 51 mm [sic]).

In terms of designation, the rockets were subdivided into

field rockets armed with explosive shells and shot, and fortress

rockets which, in addition to the demolition charges, were also

armed with incendiary and illumination charges.

Rockets attained a range of 4000-4500 m, with a lateral devia-

tion of 30 m. An example of this type of missile design is presented

- 10 -
 1)rlnyxoa cvcnaa
Fig. 1.4. For the selection of Fig. 1.5. Rocket missile de-
the optimum thickness e Df the signed in accordance with
"blind" propellant graTn (e is Konstantinov's system, 1862.
the optimum thickness).
1) "Blind" grain.

in Fig. 1.3.

By the middle of the 19th century, the European armies were

already using rifled bores, whereas in Russia smooth-bore weapons

were still in use. This backwardness in the armament of the Russian

army had to be overcome. In this connection, military specialists

in the Russian press started expounding the idea that rocket systems

were obsolete and that it would be necessary to replace these with

systems involving rifled artillery; the positive aspects of rocket

weaponry were deliberately covered up, and only the shortcomings of

rockets were stressed. However, Konstantinov and his followers

wrote articles against this underestimation of rocket weapons and

continued towork on the theory and design of rocket missiles.

In particular, Konstantinov established that the entire powder

(propellant) charge does not participate in the development of

reaction force, but only that portion in which there is an inter-

nal channel, and a portion of the blind (without channel) charge,

the length of which must be equal to the thickness of the propellant

spacer (Fig. 1.4). Later on, he established that if the length of

the blind charge is greater than the thickness of the propellant

spacer, the center of missile gravity shifts more significantly

during the combustion of the powder, causing the trajectory of mis-

~-11i-
 sile flight to change during the active phase, and as a result we

have great scattering of the rockets.

A reduction in the length of the blind charge to the thickness

of the propellant spacer immediately eliminated this shortcoming

from the rockets, and this, of course, had an immediate positive ef-

fect on the accuracy of firing. In addition, this step served to

eliminate yet another shortcoming that was inherent not only in

rockets, but in the artillery missiles of the time; this shortcoming

is related to the spherical shape of the missile head. Konstantinov

not only proposed to replace the spherical heads with heads that

were somewhat elongated, but he lengthened the guide rails of the

launching installation as well. The guide rails were somewhat too

short and as a result the missiles left the guide rails at a time

when the charge had not yet entered the stage of complete combus-

tion, i.e., under the action of incomplete reaction force. As a

rest-t, the initial segment of the trajectory was observed to sag,

the missile would deviate from its assigned heading, etc., and this

sharply reduced the firing characteristics of the rockets. Konstan-

tinov also proposed a new design for the empennage of the rocket,

reducing its length by one half.

All of these innovations sharply increased range and the firing

characteristics of the rocket missiles. An example of a rocket-

missile designed by Konstantinov in 1862 is presented in Fig. 1.5.

Despite the number of achievements, in 1887 rocket weapons in

Russia were officially removed from the arsenal of armaments, but

the production of rockets continued until 1908, since they still

found application during the military expeditions carried out by

the Russian army as, for example, in Central Asia. Certain types of

rockets - signal rockets, rescue rockets, and illumination rockets -

i -12 -
remained in the armament of the army even after the closing, in

1910, of the Nikolayevskiy Rocket Institution, the chief supplier

of rockets. However, despite the official rejection of rockets,

work on their improvement continued. Along these lines, we should

mention the work of Pomortsev in the area of improving rocket-

missile design. Pomortsev proposed, in particular, that rockets be

stabilized not by means of long tail sections, as was the case be-

fore, but by means of annular stabilizers whose dimensions virtually

did not exceed those of the rocket. He also proposed rockets that

would function on compressed air.

22

Fig. 1.6. The M8 rocket missile (USSR), caliber

82 mm, launching weight 8 kg, maximum velocity
315 m/sec. 1) Warhead; 2) combustion chamber
(with fixed forward plate); 3) nozzle; 4) cowl-
ing; 5) stabilizer.

Fig. 1.7. The 113 rocket missile (USSR), caliber 132 mm,
launching weight 42.5 kg maximum velocity 355 m/sec.
1) Warhead; 2) spacer; 3J combustion chamber; 4) nozzle;
5) cowling; 6) stabilizer.

In addition to the development of new designs, Russian scien-

tists worked on a series of significant theoretical problems in rocket

-13 -
engineering.

It is well known that the mass of the rocket in the active seg-

ment of the trajectory continuously undergoes change as a result of

the combustion of the propellant and the exhaust of the propellant

gases. This made the calculation of the exterior rocket ballistics

extremely difficult. The solution to the problem of the motion of

a body with a variable mass in air was sought by many investigators

abroad, but only our scientists were able to solve this problem,

thus laying the foundations for subsequent work, resulting in the

final analysis in the development of contemporary rockets.

The problem of the motion of rockets, as a special case of the

motion of a body with a variable mass, was solved by Professor I.V.

Meshcherskiy in 1895. He proposed a mathematical expression for the

determination of rocket velocity and the distance covered, which

was a function of air resistance, gravitational forces, propellant

weight, gas pressure, and exhaust velocity.

In 1897, Meshcherskiy published yet another work, in which he

presented the equations of the mechanics for the motion of bodies

of variable mass, and in 1904 he provided the solution to yet an-

other important problem on the motion of a body with the simul-

taneous addition and removal of mass from the body, thus laying the

groundwork for the theory of air-reaction engines.

The work of another Russian scientist - K.E. Tsiolkovskiy -

also became well known throughout the world. In 1903, he published

the work "Investigation of Space by Means of Reaction-Thrust De-

vices," in which Tsiolkovskiy, for the first time anywhere, de-

veloped the theory of rocket flight into outer space. In particular,

he proposed a liquid-fuel rocket engine (ZhR) with all of its basic

units - a pump for the supply of propellant to the combustion chamber,

- 14 -
 a device for the cooling of the combustion chamber by means of one

of the propellant components, an expanding jet nozzle, etc.

K.E. Tsiolkovskiy also proposed the idea of artificial satel-

lites of the earth and planets, setting down the principal struc-

tural diagrams. The derivation of the formulas for the determina-

tion of rocket-flight velocities at any point of the active phase

of the trajectory is also credited to him.

These works and a number of others, produced both in Russia

as well as abroad, permitted many scientists subsequently to return

to the idea of developing rocket weapons, but now they were in a

position to work on a higher theoretical level.

After the October Revolution in our country, scientists and

designers achieved the necessary conditions for the continuation

of work in the area of improving rockets. As a result of these

works, reaction-thrust missiles of the following calibers were de-

signed: 82, 132, and 300 mm (Figs. 1.6, 1.7, and 1.8), which were

used successfully at the front during the Great Fatherland War.

Fig. 1.8. The M31 rocket missile (USSR), caliber 300 mm,
launching weight 94.6 kg maximum velocity 255 m/sec.
1) Warhead (assembly); 2) combustion chamber (made in a
single unit, together with the nozzle); 3) cowling;
4) stabilizer; 5) stabilizer guide ring.

It was during the 1930's that all countries undertook the most

serious development of rockets. In Germany these projects were being

worked on particularly intensively. In 1931, the Germans developed

- 15 -
A
a solid-propellant rocket missile, but this was not completed until

1935.
In 1936, Germany set up special organizations that were re-

sponsible for the design and production of rocket weapons exclusively.

Later on, an ever-increasing number of scientists Joined these or-

ganizations, as well as scientists and commercial firms from coun-

tries occupied by Germany.

In 1941, the Germans began using a multiperforated grain and

they also began work on the design of the "D" mortar-firing system,

which fired a 15 8 -mm rocket missile. Subsequently, on the basis of

this missile, they developed a 300-mm fragmentation-demolition

shell, as well as a 28 0-mm demolition and 210- and 320-mm incendiary

shells. During the course of the war, the Germans developed 80-

and 150-mm rocket missiles.

It should be pointed out that the German reaction-thrust mis-

siles were turbojet missiles for the most part and therefore ex-

hibited rather high firing accuracy. The German launching installa-

tions made it possible to fire a salvo of only 5-10 rocket missiles,

and this did not provide sufficient fire power.

The Germans were the first to develop and use long-range

liquid-fuel rockets (V-2) and pilotless airplane-missiles with air-

reaction engines (V-l) for military purposes. In Fig. 1.9 we pre-

sent diagrams of several types of German rocket missiles.

In addition to Germany, the British, although admittedly not

as intensively, were working on the design of rocket missiles. Here

the work was directed primarily toward means of defense against

the rapidly developing bomber-aircraft forces. It was for this.

purpose that the British, in 1938, developed the 76-mm antiaircraft

solid-propellant rocket whose weight came to 22.4 kg, which carried

- 16 -
 a)

Fig. 1.9.. German rocket missiles from the Second

World War. a) 210-mm fragmentation-demolition
missile; b) the antiaircraft missile "Luftfaust";
c the antiaircraft missile-mothership "Rheinkind";
d a version of the R-ShR antiaircraft guided
rocket "Rhelntochter". =

an explosive charge weighing 1.6 kg. This rocket played an impor-

tant role in the defense of England against the raids of German

aircraft. Mention should also be made of the successful work done

in England on the development of aviation rocket missiles, this

work begun in 1941; certain of these designs were also taken over

by the USAF.

The United States did almost no work in rocket engineering

prior to the war; it was only in 1940 that intensive planning for

military rockets was begun. First a rocket booster for aviation

bombs was developed, and this booster increased the penetration

capacity of the bomb. In addition, the improvement of the antitank

"bazooka" weapon continued until the end of the war; work on this

weapon was begun in 1941. This weapon was capable of destroying a

17 -
I -
tank at a distance of 100-200 m. By the end of the war, a new type

of antitank rocket had been developed; this was the "Super-Bazooka"

which had increased penetrating power.

Much work was done in the USA during this period on equipping

the Air Force and Navy with rockets. In December of 1944, a booster

engine was developed for purposes of accelerating the takeoff run

of an aircraft by a factor of 4. Somewhat earlier, in 1942, naval

rocket bombs weighing 21-29 kg were developed for antisubmarine

action. Launching racks for rocket weapons were demountable and were

installed on decks of vessels.

The Americans also did much work on equipping naval and air-

borne landing units with rocket weapons. However, rocket engineering

in the USA underwent particularly great development only in the

postwar period.

We will present below data on certain military rockets of the

USA and other capitalistic countries.

THE "GROUND-TO-GROUND" CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS FOR

FIRING FROM THE GROUND AGAINST GROUND TARGETS

SHORT RANGE ANTITANK MISSILES

The "Dart" (USA)
(Fig. 1.10)
Basic Missile Characteristics

Length ...................................... 1.52 m

Wingspan ................................... 1.27 m
Span of tail unit .......................... 0.914 m

rocket (PRD)

Fig. 1.10. The antitank ml "Dart" (USA)

on its launching installation.

-18-
 The "891 Vickers-Armstrong" (Great Britain)

Basic Missile Characteristics

Length ..................................... 0.819 m

Tail unit span ............................. 0.279 m
Caliber .................................... 114 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD
Weight of missile with launching
container .............................. 18 kg

Fig. 1.11. The antitank missile 891

"Vickers-Armstrong" (Great Britain).

Figure 1.11 shows this missile at instant of firing, and it

also shows the portable container which serves, at the same time,

as the launching installation.

ARMY FIELD ROCKETS

The "Lacrosse" (USA)

(Fig. 1.12)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 6.1 m

Wingspan ................................... 2.75 m
Tail-unit span .............................. 1.5 m
Caliber .................................... 500 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD
Range ...................................... 35 km
Weight of rocket ........................... 1150 kg

MEDIUM-RANGE BALLISTIC ROCKETS

The "Polaris" (USA)

Basic Characteristics

Over-all length ............................ 8.07 m

-19 -
 Caliber .................................... 1370 mm
Engine ..................................... Two-stage PRD

Weight of rocket ........................... 13,600 kg

Relative weight of propellant .............. 0.9
Weight of Warhead .......................... 450 kg

Fig. 1.12. The "Lacrosse" rocket (USA)

in firing position.

The proposed propellant for the two stages is a solid propellant

with a mixture based on polyurethane, exhibiting a specific impulse

of Jl = 240 kg'sec/kg.
"GROUND-TO-AIR" CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS FOR
FIRING FROM THE GROUND AGAINST AIR TARGETS

The "Nike-Hercules" (USA)

(Fig. 1.13)
Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 12.65 m

Wingspan ................................... 1.88 m
Caliber ................................... 635 mm
Engine (Fig. 1.14) ......................... Two-state PRD

Fig. 1.13. The antiaircraft rocket "Nike-

Hercules" (USA) on launching installation.

- 20 -
 Fig. 1.14. The engine of' the second stage
of' the antiaircraft "Nike-Hercules" rocket.

The "Hawk" (USA)

(Fig. 1.15)
Basic Characteristics
Length ..................................... 4 .98 m
Wingspan ................................... 1.19 in
Caliber .................................... 355 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD, with two
==thrust stages
Weight of' rocket...........................450 kg

Fig. 1.15. Launching installa-

tion with three "Hawk" rockets
(USA).
The "Thunderbird" (Great Britain)
(Fig. 1.16)
Basic Characteristics
Length ..................................... 6 mn
W'ingspan ................................... 1.69 mn
Tail-unit span ............................. 1.6 m
Caliber .................................... 400 mm
Engine ..................................... Two-stage PRD

j -21-
S

Fig. 1.16. The antiaircraft "Thunderbird"

rocket (Great Britain) at the annual air-
show of Farnborough.
"AIR-TO-AIR" CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS FOR FIRING
FROM AIRCRAFT AGAINST AIR TARGETS
The "Falcon" (USA)

(Fig. 1.17)
Basic Characteristics
Length ..................................... 1.95 m
Tail-unit span ............................. 0.5 m
Caliber .................................... 160 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD
Operating range ............................ 2-8 km
Velocity ................................... 2 M(ach)
Weight of missile .......................... 50 kg

Fig. 1.17. Two of the last Fig. 1.18. The "Sidewinder"

C models of the "Falcon" missile rocket (USA) on the ground.
(USA).

-22-
 The "Sidewinder" (USA)

(Figs. 1.18 and 1.19)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 2.8 m

Tail-unit span ............................. o.48 m
Caliber .................................... 110 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD, with an operat-
eee ing time of 2 sec
Weight of missile .......................... 70 kg

Fig. 1.19. A USAF interceptor (USA)

equipped witn four "Sidewinder' rockets,
mounted beneath the winds of the air-
craft.

The "Fireflash" (Great Britain)

(Fig. 1.20)
Basic Characteristics
Length ..................................... 3.7 m
Wingspan .................................. 0.714 m
Tail-unit span ...................... 0.656 m
Altitude, with boosters....................0.602 m
Length of missile airframe ................. 2.26 m
Caliber ................................... 150 mm
Engine .... ................................ Two PRD, Jettisoned
after burnout of
propellant
Weight of missile .......................... 140 kg

We can see clearly in Fig. 1.20 the unique assembly of a mis-

sile with two engines fastened at the sides of the missile air-

frame and Jettisoned after the complete burnout of the propellant.

- 23 -
 Fig. 1.20. The "Fireflash" missile,
mounted beneath the wind of an English
interceptor.

The "Firestrike" (Great Britain)

(Fig. 1.21)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 3.18 m

Wingspan ................................... 0.74 m
Tail-unit span ............................. 0.46 m
Caliber .................................... 220 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD

Fig. 1.21. The "Firestrike"i

missile mounted beneath an
aircraft wing.

The "Matra 2-510" (France)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 3.2 m

Wingspan ................................... 1.0 m
Caliber .................................... 200 mn
Engine ..................................... PRD, with booster

-24-
 "AIR-TO-GROUND" CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKETS FOR
FIRING FROM AN AIRCRAFT AGAINST GROUND TARGETS
The "Bull Pup" (USA)

(Fig. 1.22)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 3.35 m

Wingspan ................................... 0.9 M
Caliber .................................... 300 mm
Engine ..................................... PRD
Total weight of missile .................... 270 kg

Fig. 1.22. Mounting of the "Bull

Pup" missiles (USA) beneath the
wing of an aircraft of the tacti-
cal branch of the USAF.

Fig. 1.24. Installation of the

container with scientific equip-
Fig. 1.23. The "Vanguard" ment on the "Jupiter-C" rocket.
rocket with its last-stage The last stage of this rocket
engine operating on solid operates on solid propellants.
propellant.
-25-
 The "BB-10" (France)

Basic Characteristics

Length ..................................... 3.4 m

Tail-unit span ............................. 0.8 m
Engine ..................................... PRD
Weight of rocket ........................... 400 kg

The extensive use of solid-propellant rocket engines was not

restricted to military purposes. Solid-propellant rocket engines
have proved themselves reliable and effective power plants for power-

ful rockets used for such civilian purposes as the investigation of

outer layers of the terrestrial atmosphere, the launching of arti-

ficial satellites and the mastery of outer space. As an example,

we can cite the well-known "Vanguard" system with a last-stage en-
gine that operates on solid propellants.(Fig. 1.23), or the "Jupiter-

C" (Fig. 1.24). By means of these rockets the Americans were able
to launch several artificial satellites and to carry out a series

of other investigations in conjunction with the International Geo-

physical Year.

-26-
 Chapter 2
TENTATIVE SELECTION OF BASIC DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR A MISSILE

§ 1. REQUIREMENTS IMPOSED ON SOLID-PROPELLANT ROCKET MISSILES*

Of the basic requirements imposed on the design and parameters

of a missile, we can mention the following:

1) tactical-technical requirements;

2) production-economic requirements.

Tactical-technical requirements include the requirements which

pertain to the missile, its launching installation, and the method

of missile utilization (the firing method).

Here, the requirements imposed on the missile are the most

essential; however, an underestimation of the requirements imposed

on the launching installation or the method of missile utilization

may result in having the entire complex of weapons prove to be in-

adequately perfected or simply not fit for combat, even if the

basic element of the complex - the rocket missile - has been de-

signed properly. The requirements imposed on the missile include

the parameters and the characteristics of the rocket engine and

the missile warhead, as well as information on the required combat

effectiveness of the weapons system being developed. Of these, the

following are the most important.

The combat designation of the missile (the type of warhead).

The combat designation of a missile is determined by the required

effect that the missile is to have at the target. In the classifica-

- 27 -
 tion ofmissiles according to combat designation, the following types

of missiles have been adopted:

- missiles of basic designation: demolition, fragmentation,

fragmentation-demolition, armor-piercing, incendiary, etc.;

- missiles of special designation: illumination, smoke, propa-

ganda, etc.

Missiles of basic designation are used for the direct destruc-

tion of targets. The area in which such missiles can be used is

determined by the military assignments of the field artillery.

If the combat designation (type of warhead) of the missile is

given in the tactical-technical requirements, the designer is better

able to select the structural procedure of missile assembly during

the planning and design stage, he is in a position to decide on the

shape of the warhead, etc., and he can also make a decision as to

the type of fuse to be employed in the missile warhead being de-

veloped.

Requirements with respect to missile effectiveness at the target.

For missiles of basic designation, the requirement for effectiveness

at the target is a single-valued function of the payload weight of

the system. Let us examine this in greater detail.

Demolition missiles are intended primarily for nonconcrete

field-type defense installations such as trenches, shelters, fire

points, observation points, etc. Demolition missiles of large cali-

ber can be used in coordinated raids against concrete and reinforced-

concrete structures.

Demolition bombs destroy the target with the destructive force

produced by the shock wave that is generated on the detonation of

CW the explosives and, in part, by the force of impact against the

obstacle. In accordance with this, the force of demolition-missile

- 28 -
effect at the target is determined primarily by the characteristics

and quantity of the explosive material used, said material enclosed

within the body of the missile warhead; given a certain explosive,

the force is uniquely defined by the weight of the explosive charge

in the warhead.

Fragmentation missiles are intended for air or ground targets

(primarily against objects), for the destruction of light field

shelters, etc.

In accordance with the designation of the fragmentation missile,

the basic requirement imposed on the force of such a missile can be

reduced to the necessity of obtaining the maximum number of effec-

tive fragments over the greatest possible effective range.

As a rule, a fragmentation warhead must have a rather thick

shell and needs a quantity of explosives adequate only to fragment

the shell into pieces of shrapnel and to impart the required initial

velocity to the shrapnel. The effective force of a fragmentation

missile at the target, as a rule, is determined by the maximum

weight of the metal used in the warhead of the missile, and this

factor will make it possible to estimate the minimum weight of ex-

plosive charge required to achieve the fragmentation.

Fragmentation-demolition missiles are an example of the uni-

fication of various types of missiles and these are employed to pro-

duce an effect of shell fragmentation as well as the destructive

demolition force of the explosion at the target. The requirement im-

posed on the effective force of the warhead of this type of missile

involves the selection of the correct weight of the explosive charge

and the desired quantity of fragments.

For certain types of rocket ammunition such as, for example,

hollow-charge antitank mines, the force is completely determined

- 29 -

*
 by the geometry of the warhead. In fact, the effective force of a

hollow-charge mine at the target is characterized by the thickness

of the armor plating that is penetrated by the stream of products

of the explosion of the hollow-charge warhead of the mine. On the

other hand, it has been established that the armor-piercing capa-

bility of a hollow charge depends on the geometry of the warhead

charge and primarily on the diameter Dv of the hollow funnel; here,

as a rough estimation, we may hold that

no

where bmax is the maximum thickness of the armor plate being pene-

trated; nf is some coefficient that is a function of the shape of

the funnel.

Thus with a given magnitude of b we can immediately determine

the basic dimension Dv of the hollow charge, and this dimension is

then employed to select the dimensions of the remaining elements in

the geometry of the hollow charge and the warhead.

In addition to the basic stipulation of effective force for the

missile being designed, the tactical-technical requirements may in-

clude certain additional requirements with respect to the nature

of missile effectiveness at the target; as a rule, these additional

requirements are imposed on antiaircraft missiles, incendiary mis-

siles, and certain others.

Firing range (or range of direct fire). Rocket missiles of the

field artillery are a means employed to destroy various enemy targets

and objects, even if they are situated at considerable distances

from the firing position. In this connection, the maximum firing

range is one of the most important missile characteristics and must

4 be included in the tactical-technical requirements.

The range requirement uniquely defines the magnitude of required

- 30 -
 missile-flight velocity at the end of the active phase of the tra-

jectory, since, as has been demonstrated by the solution of the

4 basic problem of exterior ballistics, the initial velocity of a

body in flight, launched at a certain angle to the horizon, in turn

uniquely defines the flight range of this body. The magnitude of

the required velocity vmax is extremely important, since it is one

of the input parameters in the planning stage for the calculation

of the interior ballistic characteristics of the rocket engine of

the missile.

For missiles of the "air-to-air" class and for antitank hollow-

charge mines, we impose the requirement of passing the so-called

combat control distance within a definite period of time rather than

the maximum firing range.

For example, "a missile is designated for ... and must pass a

distance of 1000 m in no less than 2 sec." A similar requirement is

imposed by the features of aerial combat and the nature of aircraft

maneuvering on approach. The control distance is that distance at

which the enemy aircraft cannot escape the attacking fire nor re-

turn the fire.

Firing accuracy. The probability of an unguided rocket missile

hitting a target is generally characterized by missile firing accuracy.

Missile firing accuracy is that dimensionless quantity which

characterizes the possible maximum deviation of the missile from

the calculated (theoretical) point of impact. If the greatest devia-

tion of the missile from the target is equal to Bmax[m], the firing

accuracy will be characterized by the following quantity:

B-az

C. where X is the firing range (the distance from the point of missile

launch to the target).

31
 In firing, the scattering of missile impact points around a

central sighting point is generally estimated by means of the quan-

tities which characterize the mean probable deviation (Bd) of the

missile with respect to range [distance] and in the lateral direc-

tion (Bb). In accordance with this, the firing accuracy with respect

to range is generally regarded as

and in the lateral direction

%=86

As an excample of the formulation of tactical-technical require-

ments with respect to firing accuracy we can cite, for example:

"...over the entire range of possible missile flight velocities and

...the stabilization elements of the missile must provide for a

firing accuracy with respect to range that must not exceed

=<N 40.03
11a~

and in the lateral direction not to exceed

This means that the mean probable deviation of impact points

with respect to range must not exceed 3%, and in the lateral direc-

tion it must not exceed 1% of the firing distance.

The establishment of firing-accuracy requirements enables the

designer to select the type of missile stabilization, the general

scheme of missile assembly, and it also enables him to solve certain

other problems in the planning stage.

Total missile weight. For the majority of missiles used in the

field rocket artillery, the total weight is stipulated tentatively

in the tactical-technical requirements, within a rather wide range.

Short-range antitank missiles, as well as "ground-to-air" and "air-

to-air" missiles are narrowly restricted in terms of weight.

- 32 -
 The temperature interval for missile utilization. As a rule,

the tactical-technical requirements stipulate the maximum tempera-

ture interval within which a rocket missile must assure faultless

combat capability.

The necessity of taking into consideration a certain interval

of operating temperatures can be explained by the fact that the

basic parameters of a solid-propellant rocket engine depend strongly

on the initial temperature of the charge and, at various tempera-

tures, may undergo substantial change. This brings forth a series of

specific problems which must be borne in mind at the very beginning

of the missile planning stage.

The reliability of the entire weapons system (faultless mis-

sile operation).

The possibility and convenience of transporting a missile in

crates or directly on combat vehicles, and here it is assumed, as a

rule, that the missile should not surrender any of its combat readi-

ness as a result of the transportation process.

Permissible prelaunch checks and similar regulation operations

and their duration.

The possibility of long missile storage.

The above-mentioned requirements and periods make it possible

for the designer to approach intelligently and with Justification

the solution of, for example, the problem of the selection of the

material for certain missile units, the selection of anticorrosion

coatings, etc., and to select the method of protecting the missile

during storage in warehouses and arsenals.

In the production-economic requirements we present the techno-

logical and economic indicators that are required for the missile

design being planned. This group of requirements is difficult to

-33-
break down unless they are referred specifically to a certain end

product; however, some of the following may be classified as general

requirements:

- restriction of material expenditures during the planning

phase, and in the production and testing of the missile and all of

its systems;

- the adaptability of individual units and missile component

parts to production processes;

- the utilization of inexpensive construction materials, as well

as those that are not in short supply, etc.

The contents of the tactical-technical requirements for the

design of a missile, as well as an analysis of the corresponding

conclusions, must always precede the direct development of a design

and the calculations. Only in this case can the new design fully

meet all of the requirements imposed, and it is only in this way

that the missile being planned will be in a position to cope with

all of the problems before it.

§ 2. SELECTION AND JUSTIFICATION OF STRUCTURAL MISSILE DIAGRAMS

The structural diagram of a rocket missile refers to that inter-

related positioning of the basic missile parts - warhead and rocket -

into an over-all assembly.

There are several possible ways of assembling a solid-propellant

rocket missile. Examples of such structural diagrams are presented

in Fig. 2.1.

The structural diagram for the missile should be selected after

the careful analysis of the tactical-technical requirements for the

missile.

Most frequently, in the planning stage, a normal diagram (Fig.

2.1a) is selected. However, this diagram in no way can be regarded

- 34 -
 e)
Fig. 2.1. Possible structural diagrams for the
assembly or a solid-propellant rocket missile.
p = r.ch. = rocket part
. = b.ch. =warhead.

as optimum for missiles of various designations. Apparently, it is

only for armor- and concrete-piercing missiles that this normal

diagram is the only one possible. As a matter of fact, Ifragmenta-

tion missiles with a contact fuse will exhibit greater effectiveness

if they are executed in accordance with a completely
PLIL opposite dia-
gram (Fig. 2.1b). Indeed, it is precisely in this case that the maxi-

mum number of warhead fragments will be scattered against the ob-

stacle at the instant that the explosive charge is set off as the

missile strikes the obstacle, whereas in the case of the normal dia-
gram a substantial number of the fragments would move into the ground

directly at the point of missile impact. When noncontact fuses are

employed, the structural diagram which assumes an internal position

~of the warhead (Fig. 2.1c) is extremely effective in the case of a

- 35 -
fragmentation missile. In this case, the total number of fragments

increases substantially because both the warhead and the combustion

chamber are blown apart on detonation.

a)

Fig. 2.2. Examples of the utilization of various

structural diagrams in the design of actual
missiles shapes.a) inverse diagram (158.5-mm
German turbojet missile); b) normal diagram
(82-mm German finned missile); c) diagram of
intermediate warhead position (German guided
antiaircraft rocket "Rheintochter").

The structural diagram of an internal rocket portion (Fig. 2.1d)

as well as the diagram of an intermediate rocket-portion position

(Fig. 2.1f), may be recommended for powerful demolition missiles.

Moreover, the structural diagram of the internal positioning of the

rocket missile is efficient even when it is necessary to decrease the

over-all length of the missile from the standpoint, for example, of

missile flight stability or for any other reasons. The structural dia-

gram of intermediate warhead positioning (Fig. 2.1e) is particularly

promising for the design of high-speed and superlong-range missiles;

in this case, it is sometimes sensible to provide for separation

- 36 -
(jettisoning) as the afterburner (rear combustion chamber) is put

into operation.

Effective demolition-fragmentation missiles can be designed

on the basis of a structural diagram involving the intermediate

positioning of the rocket portion, if the forward warhead of such

a missile is of the demolition or fragmentation-demolition type, and

the rear warhead is of the fragmentation type.

Examples of specific designs, developed with the use of various

diagrams for the interrelated positioning of warhead and rocket

parts are presented in Fig. 2.2.

It is important to underscore once again that the selection of

the structural diagram is an extremely important and responsible

stage of missile planning, a stage that frequently offers tremendous

hidden possibilities of increasing the effectiveness of the weapon

being developed as well as improving other parameters of the shape of

missiles in question. Sometimes, the possibility of satisfying the

tactical-technical requirements depends on the very selection of

the structural diagram for the upcoming missile.

As justification for the selected diagram, it becomes neces-

sary to evaluate the advantages and shortcomings of this structural

diagram from the standpoint of satisfying the tactical-technical

requirements.

All other conditions being equal, a good guide to follow is the

selection of the simplest possible structural diagram and to select

a more complicated diagram only if convincing proof is at hand to

justify the need for such a selection.

- 3. TENTATIVE SELECTION OF BASIC CALCULATION PARAMETERS FOR THE

MISSILE BEING PLANNED

The initial parameters for all theoretical calculations carried

- 37 -
out during the design stage for a solid-propellant rocket missile

are the following:

a) the weight parameters of the missile:

P. is the weight of the explosive charge;

P0 is the total weight of the fully armed missile;

w is the weight of the solid-propellant charge;

qk is the weight of the engine;

q is the oassive weight of the missile (the missile weight

when all of the solid propellant has been consumed);

b) geometric characteristics of the missile:

d is the caliber;

1 is the total length;

2Lop is the tail-unit span;

c) basic trajectory parameters of missile flight:

Xmax is the maximum firing range;

Hmax is maximum altitude of missile ascent during flight (on

the trajectory);

Vmax is the velocity of the missile at the end of the active

phase of the trajectory;

Bd(b)/Xmax is the characteristic of missile firing accuracy;

d) working characteristics and basic parameters of the inter-

ior ballistics of the rocket engine:

p = p(t) is the change in pressure within the combustion cham-

ber as a function of time (the pressure curve);

± to is the temperature interval of engine operation;

T is the time of engine operation;

Pmax is the maximum pressure within the combustion chamber.

Some of the enumerated characteristics are presented in tactical-

technical requirements (X, PO, P*, p =

p(t), T, etc.); of these,

- 38 -
 those that are not defined in the requirements, must be tentatively

selected at the beginning of the planning stage.

The calculated (theoretical) parameters for the preliminary

tentative assembly of the future end product are selected on the

basis of experience gained in design and theoretical projects as

well as on the basis of the existing requirements.

Calculation of weight characteristics for the missile. As a

rule, the tactical-technical requirements with respect to the com-

bat effectiveness at the target on the part of the missile being

planned either give or make it possible to define uniquely the weight

of the missile warhead explosive charge (the weight of the missile

payload). Therefore the quantity P. can always be regarded as known.

Having P. and knowing the combat designation of the missile

(the type of warhead), we can tentatively estimate the total weight

of the missile warhead. Here we use statistical data on the so-

called fill factor q by which we mean the ratio between the weight

of the warhead payload and the total warhead weight:

1 (2.1)

where b.ch is the weight of the armed warhead.

P0 .
The characteristic values of the fill factor n for missiles

of various designations are as follows:

55%, for demolition missiles (M31, USSR);

15%, for fragmentation missiles ("Luftfaust," Germany);

25%, for fragmentation-demolition missiles (M13, USSR).

The tentative value of the total weight of the missile war-

head is determined by n in the following form:

( 100. (2.2)

If the caliber d of the missile being designed is indicated in

- 39 -
tactical-technical requirements, we can use the statistical coef-

ficient k s of relative missile weight and the coefficient k. of

relative payload weight for a tentative determination of the weight
characteristics of the warhead in the missile being designed.
The above-mentioned coefficients are determined by the follow-
ing relationships:

A =jkg/d m '
, (2.3)
S /di3. (2.4)

The values of the coefficients k s for missiles with various

combat designations are approximately the following:

2, for demolition missiles (300-mm missile, Germany);

6, for fragmentation missiles (M8, USSR);

8, for fragmentation-demolition missiles (M13, USSR).
Accordingly, the values of k. are equal to:
3, for demolition missiles (300-mm missile, Germany);

1, for fragmentation missiles (M8, USSR);

2, for fragmentation-demolition missiles (M13, USSR).

The total weight of the rocket missile is comprised of the

weight b.ch of the warhead, the weight qk of the rocket engine,
p0
and the weight c of the solid-propellant charge. If the magnitude

of the total weight P0 is given in the tactical-technical require-

ments, the remaining combat characteristics can be determined com-

paratively simply.
In fact, expanding the right-hand part of Tsiolkovskiy's for-

mula in series, we will have for the maximum velocity of the rocket

and keeping only the first-degree terms in the expansion, it is

easy to obtain the following approximate relationship:

- 4o -
 2(2.5)

From (2.5) the quantity w is defined as

2(2.6)
2U. -n..(2

or, taking into consideration that qp = 0

.p. =. (2.6')
2U# + ,maz(2

The quantity c, found from Relationship (2.6) or (2.6'),

represents the weight of the solid-propellant charge required to
impart a velocity Vmax to a rocket having a launching weight of
P 0 and a passive weight qp (under the condition that the exhaust

velocity for the products of combustion amounts to U.).

The quantity vmax which must be known in order to use Rela-

tionship (2.6) or (2.6') in specific calculations, is estimated

approximately on the basis of the given firing range. In this case,

it is possible to use either ballistic tables or the tentative for-

mulas derived in Chapter 6. With respect to Ue it has been demon-

strated that
U,-1, g m/sec,

where Jl is the specific impulse of the engine; g is the accelera-

tion of gravity, and since for the majority of solid-propellant

rocket engines the quantity Jl is sufficiently stable and amounts,
on the average, to Jl = 200 kg.sec/kg,* we can ssume in approximate

terms that
U..1O-00l/sec.

Thus it becomes possible to determine with sufficient accuracy

one of the most important weight characteristics of a rocket missile

- the weight of the solid-propellant charge c.f the engine. After

this, the passive weight of the missile will be
q,-PS-6 (2.7)
41
and since the passive weight is composed of the weight of the armed

warhead and the structural weight of the engine, the quantity qk

is determined by the difference

q(2.8)
It is more complicated to estimate the weight characteristics

of the missile, if the quantity P0 is not indicated in the tactical-

technical requirements. In this case, the following calculation

method may be employed.

It has been established that for almost all types of rocket

missiles used in the field artillery, the weight of the metal which

goes into the combustion chamber can be determined in terms of the

weight of the metal used in the warhead by means of a certain pro-

portionality function D which represents the product of special

coefficients:

(b=k,hkdh...

where kt. s is the coefficient of the type of missile warhead; k d

is the coefficient of missile caliber; kp is the coefficient by

which we take into consideration the effect on qk of the magnitude

of pressure in the combustion chamber (at d = const); ............

Thus, in this case,

P(2.9)

where for demolition missiles of medium caliber with pressure in

the combustion chamber not exceeding p = 100 kg/cm 2 (of the 300-mm

type demolition missile, Germany) we can assume

(2,0 -.O-2.1) (. "-P*),

while for fragmentation missiles (of the M8 type, USSR)

- 42 -

iN
 After the determination of qk' the remaining unknown weight

characteristics can be found without difficulty. In fact, accord-

ing to (2.8)
q.= q.+ J19 9
after which, in accordance with (2.6), it is easy to calculate w

and to find the total weight of the missile:

Po-qw-Ht.

The tentative relationships that have been presented here make

it possible to estimate the theoretical weight characteristics of

the missile with sufficient accuracy; these characteristics must

be known in order to design each specific end product.

The selection of the basic weight characteristics is of great

significance not only for the direct planning of the rocket missile,

but for the issuance of preliminary requirements with respect to

the design of the launching installation and other auxiliary ground

equipment.

The determination of geometric missile characteristics. Of the

geometric characteristics, as a rule, the caliber of the missile

is indicated in the tactical-technical requirements, at least for

missiles of the "air-to-air" classification, as well as for anti-

tank and certain other missiles. If the caliber is not given in

the tactical-technical requirements, a tentative magnitude of cali-

ber can be estimated on the basis of the statistical coefficients

k s or k,. The following may be regarded as a calculation formula

for the determination of the magnitude of d:

d-= P-~~i
dmn. (2.10)
The second basic geometric characteristic of a rocket missile

Cis the total length of the rocket missile and this can be deter-

mined conclusively only by consideration of the conditions of mis-

- 43
 sile stability during flight, i.e., in fact only after the model

has passed its windtunnel tests and after the test firing of con-

trol prototypes. However, we can bear in mind, even during the

preliminary calculations, that for missiles stabilized by fins,
the optimum length is approximately

1 = (8-10) d (to 15d) (2.11)

(M8, M13, MI3DD, USSR),

whereas for turbojet missiles
1 = (4-6) d (to 10 d) (2.11')
(300- and 210-mm missiles, Germany).

The span 2Lop of the stabilization fins of a rocket missile are

determined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the object, as
well as by the in-plan view of the shape and the number of fins in
the stabilizer. There is, apparently, no point in enumerating all
of the special cases which might occur in the determination of the

dimension 2Lop, and we need only point out that for the most fre-

quently employed four-finned tail unit (in the shape of a blade

in the in-plan view) that is almost rectangular, the dimension 2Lop

generally does not exceed

The parameters of flight trajectory. The most important flight-

trajectory parameters may be regarded as maximum firing range and
missile firing accuracy. Both of these characteristics are given in
the tactical-technical requirements for the design of the object.

The remaining parameters can be estimated with comparative ease on

the basis of the simplified theory of missile flight along a tra-

jectory (see Chapter 6).

f The working characteristics and the basic parameters of interior

ballistics of rocket engines. The sequence of selecting the basic

- 44 -

'4
rocket-engine parameters and the working characteristics of a rocket

engine are examined in detail in Chapter 4.

After the selection of the basic parameters of the missile

being designed, we undertake the working out of the various mis-

sile design versions and the detailed calculation of the interior

ballistics of the engine as well as the flight characteristics of

the missile. During the process of this work, the parameters that

were initially assumed are refined and corrected.

§ 4. THE PLANNING PROCEDURE FOR A FIELD-ARTILLERY ROCKET MISSILE

AND ITS INDIVIDUAL ELEMENTS

The initial design of a field-artillery rocket missile is pre-

sented in Fig. 2.3.

In accordance with the construction of a solid-propellant

rocket missile, the planning stage includes:

1) the designing of the missile elements:

- the warhead;

- the combustion chamber;

- the nozzle unit;

- the stabilization systems, the spacers, and other auxiliary

elements of the structure;

2) the design of the solid-propellant charge of the engine:

- the selection of the type of working charge and its insertion

into the combustion chamber;

- the design of the igniter..

The design of each of the missile elements can be reduced to

a series of successive calculations and the seeking of the most

promising design solutions. In this case, the approximate sequence

of the planning of individual missile elements can be carried out

in accordance with the following procedures.

- 45 -
 a) b)
Fig. 2.3. Basic design of a contemporary solid-
propellant field-artillery rocket missile, a) War-
hear; b) rocket; 1) fuse; 2) auxiliary detonator;
3) warhead frame; 4) bursting charge; 5) spacer;
6) igniter, with electroigniter system; 7) for-
ward grid (trap) for retention of igniter and
grain (charge); 8) body of combustion chamber;
9) solid-propellant working charge of engine;
10) diaphragm; 11) nozzle assembly.

The procedure for the planning and design of the warhead:

1) selection of the warhead type in accordance with missile
designation;
2) selection of warhead shape, and Justification for this
selection;
3) calculation of thickness of head wall, based on the stand-
point of providing strength on impact against obstacle (demolition
warheads) or on other considerations (for example, for fragmentation
missiles, the obtaining of a definite number of fragments of given
weight, etc.);
4) the development of a production process for the fabrication
of the warhead frame, geared to mass production;
5) the selection of the type of fuse and the working out of the
tactical-technical requirements for the design of this item.
The procedure for the planning and design of the combustion
chamber:
1) the selection of the combustion-chamber design;
2) the calculation of the wall thickness which will guarantee

-46-

Ii
engine durability at the working pressure and gas temperature within

the combustion chamber;

3) an analysis of the possibilities of reducing the thickness

of the combustion-chamber wall by employing thermal insulation or

other special measures;

4) the selection of the system to be employed to connect the

warhead and rocket parts of the missile, and the type of connection

device to be employed;

5) strength calculations for the connection unit;

6) the development of a production process for the fabrication

of the engine frame, with an eye to conditions required from the

standpoint of mass production.

The procedure for the planning and design of the nozzle assembly:

1) calculation of basic nozzle dimensions in order to ensure

the required ballistic characteristics of the engine;

2) the selection of the type of nozzle assembly (a single nozzle

or a nozzle cover with several nozzles) and the justification for

this selection;

3) geometrical planning of the nozzle cover for the missile

and the selection of the type of connection to be used to link this

cover with the combustion chamber;

4) strength calculations for the connection unit;

5) selection of the grid (trap) and the matching of its con-

figuration with the selected grain (charge) and the nozzle cover;

6) thermal calculations for the elements of the nozzle assembly;

7) the working out of production techniques for the nozzle

cover, geared to conditions of mass production.

The procedure for the planning and design of a missile stabiliza-

tion system:

- 47 -
 1) the selection of the type of stabilization system (finning,

rotation, combined stabilization). An analysis and justification

for the selection made;

2) calculation of stabilizer dimensions for the case of stabi-

lization by means of finning;

3) calculation of the flare angle of the nozzle for turbojet

missiles;

4) correction of stabilization elements on the basis of results

obtained in windtunnel tests and test firings;

5) working out of production problems with respect to the

stabilization elements of the missile;

6) estimate of anticipated firing-accuracy parameters for the

missile being designed.

The procedure for the planning and design of the spacers and
other auxiliary elements in the design:
I
1) the selection and justification for the type of connection
unit (demountable, nondemountable, threaded, welded):
2) the selection of the structural diagram for the connection

and shape of the component parts;

3) strength calculations for the component parts and the entire

unit from the standpoint of hermetic sealing, rigidity, permenance

of joints;
4) working out of production problems with respect to individual
components and the assembly of the entire unit.

In the design of the solid-propellant grain (charge) of the en-

gine, the selection and calculation of the igniter for the class of

engines under consideration presents no particular difficulties and

fcan be reduced to the selection of weighted portions of black powder

which is used to bring the basic charge to a regime of stable com-

- 48 -
bustion. With respect to the design of the basic charge, however,

it should be pointed out that this problem is extremely complex

and is, in essence, basic to the design of the engine. The sequence

of work to be carried out in the design of the working propellant

charge can be as follows.

The procedure for the planning and design of the solid-pro-

pellant working charge is as follows:

1) the selection of the brand of powder (or other solid pro-

pellant), taking into consideration the basic tactical-technical

requirement imposed on the parameters of interior ballistics and

the operating conditions for the missile.

An analysis of the raw materials available for the selected

composition of the solid propellant from the standpoint of fabri-

cating it in great quantities under unfavorable conditions;

2) the selection of the working pressure in the combustion

chamber, from the standpoint of providing the required thrust param-

etevs arid for aable solid-propellant combustion within a given

interval of initial temperatures;

3) calculations of the parameters of interior engine ballistics

(calculation of grain combustion);

4) the geometric design of the charge and the Justification of

the adopted grain shape;

5) the insertion of the grain into the combustion chamber;

6) correction of engine and charge in accordance with results

of combustion and ignition tests on test engines.

In the designing of specific grain specimens, the sequence of

solving individual design problems and the scope of the work being

done can differ in individual cases (particularly, in the case of

designing special grain shapes) from those cited in the procedures

- 49 -
 above. Therefore, a creative approach is required for the above-

mentioned procedures, and each should be adapted to agree with a

specific missile design and the contents of the tactical-technical

requirements for this missile.

[Footnotes]

Manu-
script
Page
No.

27 A.S. Lokk, Upravleniye snaryadami [Missile Control], IL

[Foreign Literature Press], 1958. G. Merill, G. Gol'dberg,
R. Gel'mgol'ts [sic]. Issledovaniye operatsiy. Boyevyye
chasti. Pusksnaryadov [Investigation of Operations. Combat
Units. Missile Launchings], IL, 1959. E.A. Bonni, M.Dzh.
Zakrou, K.U. Besserer. Aerodinamika. Reaktivnyye dvigateli.
Praktika konstruirovaniya i rascheta, Fizmatgiz [Aerodynamics.
4Jet Engines; Construction Design Practice. Physics and
Mathematics Press], 1960.
41 V.I. Feodos'yev and G.B. Sinyarev. Vvedeniye v raketenuyu
tekhniku. Oborongiz [Introduction into Rocket Engineering.
State Defense Industry Press], 1956.

[List of Transliterated Symbols]

30 D D v = Dvoronka = Dfunnel
30 n = nf - nform a (voronki) - nshape (of funnel)
32 Wd = T1 dal'nost' = range
= =
32 6 'b %okovoye (napravleniye) nlateral (direction)
38 q qk
- - qkonstruktsiya (dvigatelya) = qengine
38 qn - = passivnyy 0 qpassive
38 L on=L L
OP = Lopereniye = Ltailiunit
39 p q =
-. pb.ch - pboyevaya chast' - p warhead
4~0 k -k 8 -k
c snaxyad = missile
42 k T.C = kt.8 = ktip snaryada = ktype of missile

-50-
 Chapter 3

DESIGN OF MISSILE WARHEAD

§ 1. DEOLITION WARHEAD

Basic Design Characteristics of a Demolition Warhead

Demolition missiles belong to the class of basic-designation

missiles and are intended for the destruction of various defensive

structures.

The parameters of the combat effectiveness of a demolition

missile are totally determined by the characteristics of the explo-

sive employed, the weight of the explosive charge, and by certain

structural elements of the warhead body.

It is the general practice to regard the basic missile force

requirement as the disposition of the maximum quantity of effective

explosive within the body of the warhead, so that it is possible

to raise the force of the demolition warhead by using a more power-

ful explosive or by increasing the capacity of the explosive cham-

ber.

The first method is, for all intents and purposes, a rather

limited means of increasing effectiveness, since, first of all, the

power of the explosive, i.e., the reserve of internal explosive

energy liberated on detonation has a certain maximum and, secondly,

with increased power the sensitivity of the explosive to external

disturbances also increases, i.e., missile safety is affected (re-

duced), in operational handling.

- 51 -
 The capacity of the warhead charge chamber can be increased -

given a constant missile caliber - by reducing the thickness of

the walls or increasing the length of the warhead. In this case,

the minimum wall thickness must be such that the missile preserves

structural strength on impact against an obstacle, and the maximum

length is limited by the requirement of a compact demolition explosion

and the considerations that are associated with the conditions of

missile stability in flight (on the trajectory).

The basic structural characteristic of a demolition warhead,

indicating the relative magnitude of the explosive weight content,

is the missile warhead fill factor

P.
-1=6 "100 %,

which amounts to 50-60% for the most effective grains.

Other important structural characteristics of a demolition

warhead are the following:

1) the relative wall thickness of the warhead frame (body)

'5t=(8/3oo) d (M31, USSR);

2) the relative warhead length
Ib.ch 1.5 d (M31, USSR);

3) the coefficients k s and k. of relative weight, whose numeri-

cal values are presented in Chapter 2, are the following:

= p.ch/d3 kg/dm 3 ,
3
k.= P/d kg/dm 3 .

The above enumerated structural characteristics of the warhead

are extremely important, since the average statistical values of

these characteristics can be used successfully for tentative rough

calculations in the pre-sketch design stage.

£ Of course, it should be borne in mind that the warhead param-

eters selected by means of these structural characteristics must

- 52 -
 necessarily be refined during the subsequent stages of work on the

missile.

Selection of Shape of Warhead Frame (Body)

The shape of the frame of a demolition warhead is selected on

the basis of making provision for the optimum conditions of explo-

sion development on the detonation of the grain against a given

obstacle, as stipulated in the tactical-technical requirements.

Moreover, in the selection of shape we must take into consideration

the production-engineering requirements, and for standard missiles

we must also consider the requirement of minimum aerodynamic war-

head drag during flight.

The action of the demolition missile at the target is composed

of two moments: the penetration of the grain (charge) into the

obstacle and the detonation of the grain within the obstacle at a

certain set depth. Consequently, the selected shape must provide

primarily for ease of warhead penetration into the obstacle, on

the one .hand, and for maximum explosion shock-wave parameters, on

the other hand.

Design practice and the utilization of demolition missiles

has demonstrated that from the standpoint of facilitating missile

penetration into a free-flowing obstacle such as conventional soils,

the most suitable shape is a cone having an angle at the apex of

the order of

23b.ch = 18-200 (It may be -30°).

A warhead with an ogive curve generatrix is somewhat worse in

this respect.

From the standpoint of the maximum effect of the demolition

CL explosion shock wave at the target, the most desirable warhead

shape is that of a sphere, a short cylinder, or the like. These

- 53 -
 shapes produce a high fill factor

and allow for compact loading of

explosives into the warhead chamber,

thus making it possible to attain

the highest parameters of demolition-

Fig.*3.1. Shape of warhead, explosion effectiveness. The warhead

resulting in minimum aero- shapes that are optimum from the
dynamic resistance (drag).
R) ogive curve radius; d) standpoint of effectiveness exhibit
cylinder diameter; M) point
of intersection between the shortcoming of difficulty in
cylindrical part and ogive
curve, assembly, i.e., for missiles in which

the warhead is situated at the front.

The minimum aerodynamic resistance (drag) is offered by a war-

head shape which is comprised of an ogive curve and a cylinder,

connected without exact merging of the edges (Fig. 3.1). A shape

of this type makes it possible to reduce the coefficient of frontal

missile-warhead resistance Cx b.ch by 15 to 20% in comparison with

even a shape exhibiting maximum generatrix contact, which at first

seems to be more streamlined. However, a shape of this type does

not lend itself to production and is virtually never employed in

actual designs. The use of this shape on a tentative basis makes

sense only in the design of turbojet missiles where

x sn x b.ch'

where Cx sn is the coefficient of missile frontal resistance,

whereas for finned missiles the basic portion of Cx sn is composed

of the resistance of the tail assembly (50-70%) and, consequently,

the effect of warhead shape will be insignificant on the total

Cx sn"

CThus if a cone is the best shape from the standpoint of obstacle

penetrability, completely different shapes are optimum for purposes

- 54 -
 of achieving maximum effectiveness of demolition at the target as

well as from the standpoint of aerodynamics. As a result, the

selection of shape in each specific design case can be reduced
to the solution of the problem of determining the group of require-
ments whose fulfillment should receive preference. This solution

must be based on an analysis of the tactical-technical requirements

for the missile, taking into consideration the adopted structural

diagram of the missile, which determines its over-all assembly.

.Calculation of the Wall Thickness of the Demolition-Warhead Frame,

on the Basis of Strength Conditions on Impact Against an Obstacle

Since a demolition missile is, as a rule, designed with the

maximum possible fill factor, the body of the missile warhead in

this case is a comparatively thin-walled structure. Naturally, the

strength of this structure must be sufficient to withstand all

possible external loads during the fabrication process, during

storage, in transportation, and in the combat utilization of the

missile; it is for this reason that the maximum warhead wall thick-
ness is based on conditions of strength.

In an analysis of all possible external loads, it is easy to

establish that the greatest loads are those which act on the mis-

sile at the instant that it strikes the obstacle. It is precisely

this instant at which the missile strikes the obstacle that is

taken as the calculation base for the determination of minimum per-

missible wall thickness. It should be borne in mind that the strength

of the body must be adequate to withstand not only the initial in-

stant of impact against the obstacle, but it must remain intact

until the detonation of the explosive charge, since only in this

( case will the conditions for the complete utilization of the explo-

sive charge at the target prevail, i.e., only in this case will maxi-

- 55 -
mum explosion effectiveness be achieved.

Selection of Critical Cross Section

Let us examine a missile at some arbitrary instant of missile

penetration into an obstacle (Fig. 3.2). Neglecting the possible
angle of attack a of the missile on the last segment of the trajec-

tory, we will assume that the impact of the missile against the
obstacle is normal; moreover, we will assume the impact to be
symmetrical, which for angles of incidence close to the usual (40-
500), results in no basic errors in subsequent calculations, but

substantially simplifies the computations.

We know that the internal stresses in the component parts

and units of individual structures are produced by external forces
and moments acting on these component parts. Therefore, before we

consider the stresses acting on the wall of the warhead body, let
us examine the external loads which result in these stresses. In
the case of a direct strike, the external loads pertain only to

forces, and here in accordance with Fig. 3.3, these forces for the
part of the warhead body indicated by some arbitrary equatorial

cross section MM are the following:

- the force of obstacle resistance to penetration, distributed

over the part of the warhead frame penetrating the obstacle at the

instant of time t and resulting in the appearance of a distributed

load pn on the outer surface of the body;

-the initial weight of the metal above the cross section MM,
p'n, where n is the overload factor; Pm is the weight of the above-

mentioned metal, defined as the sum

Pb.ch is the weight of that part of the warhead frame above the cross
section MM; Pdn is the weight of the bottom plate; Pk.s is the
- 56 -
 weight of the combustion chamber;

~................................... Pst is the weight of the stabilizer;

- the pressure (pn) due to the

equipment, acting on the inner wall

a) b) of the warhead cavity.

Fig. 3.2. Missile impact

against an obstacle, a) actual As a result of the action of
diagram of impact; b) theo-
retical (calculation) diagram these loads, two basic types of
of impact; 9) angle of inci-
dence; V) velocity at instant stresses are developed: longitudinal
of impact. compressive stresses z = f(Pn) and

circumferential stresses a = f(pn).

If we assume that the weight characteristics of the missile

are fully known, then in order to find the magnitudes of the active

stresses we must also know:

- the magnitude and nature of change in overload with depth of

penetration;

Fig. 3.3. Diagram of forces acting on

the warhead in the case of missile im-
pact against an obstacle.

--the counteraction of the obstacle to missile penetration.

It has been established experimentally that the magnitude of

overload is a function of penetration depth; here, at the instant

- 57 -

4.
 that the missile has penetrated

approximately to a depth equal to

the length of the ogive curve, the

overload attains nmax. Along the

remainder of the penetration course,

the overload gradually diminishes

. to zero (Fig. 3.4). With respect to

Fig. 3.4. Nature of' change in the countereffect of the obstacle,

overload n as a function of however, it can be taken into
missile penetration into
obstacle, for various warhead consideration in first approximation
shapes. 11) depth of penetra-
tion, corresponding to maxi- if it is assumed that the pressure
mum overload; 1r) total depth
m;--p; due to the equipment remains constant
of penetration.
in those sections of the warhead

that have penetrated into the obstacle.

If we take all of the above into consideration, we can present

the diagrams of active forces for various instants of time in the

form of the curves shown in Fig. 3.5. By examining the curves we

can satisfy ourselves that the "dangerous" (critical] cross section,

i.e., loosely speaking, the cross section in which the greatest

forces act, shifts with respect to the penetration of the grain

(charge) into the obstacle, from the nose to the cylindrical part

of the missile. However, a comparison of the absolute values of the

forces acting at various instants of time (tl, t2 , ... ), will re-

veal that the true critical cross section AA should be sought at

the instant of time t at which the greatest inertial overload is

3
acting on the missile, i.e., at the instant of time at which the

active forces are at their maximum. In formal terms, the critical

section in this case may be assumed to be any equatorial cross

section. However, if we take into consideration the geometrical

-58-
 features of the warhead and the fact that the deformations of the

cross sections within the obstacle are limited by the counteraction

of the very medium receiving a part of the load, it should be as-

sumed that the actual critical cross section AA will be situated

approximately at the point at which the ogive curve of the missile

makes the transition to the cylindrical part of the missile, some-

what above the theoretical point of contact between the ogive curve

and the cylinder.

The cited justification for

.
e. the selection of cross section AA

as the critical cross section is

* not rigorous and is based primarily

on intuitive concepts regarding the

t' .J ~ -_! ! physics of this phenomenon; however,

- the final conclusion cannot be sub-

ject to any doubt and can be con-

firmed theoretically at any time

by means of rather rigorous relation-

i - ships.

P •P, 0 (pa, Derivation of Tentative Formulas for

Calculation of Stresses in the Critical
Fig. 3.5. Diagrams characteriz- Cross Section
ing change in longitudinal
force and pressure due to In actual practice, it is
equipment, as functions of
missile penetration into ob- expedient to isolate and examine
stacle. nl, n 2 , and n3 ) the
overloads which correspond to separately two calculation cases:
the instants of time tV, t2, the case in which the stresses pro-
and t3 ; 1) t, duced by the action of the forces of

the inertial weight of the metal above the cross section AA are

determining factors in warhead body strength, or the case in which

- 59 -
 these stresses are the stresses from

(pn).
The first case is found, for
example, in long-range missiles of

Fig. 3.6. A missile in whose normal configuration and with a

warhead body the stresses due relatively low fill factor; the
to the internal pressure of
the equipment are critical second case is found with a missile
(dangerous).
of the type shown in Fig. 3.6.

In the first case, a rather rigid cylindrical shell, compressed

by a longitudinal force P'nmax' may be taken as the calculation
diagram. For such a shell

A(3.1)

and the condition of strength will be

P='S (3.2)

where Pmlmax is the inertial weight of the metal above the critical

cross section; nmax is the maximum overload; d is the caliber of

the warhead; dvn is the diameter of the inner warhead cavity;

aszh is the ultimate compressive strength of the material; C is

the safety factor.

From (3.2) we can derive the relationship for an estimate of

the limit wall thickness 6min' for which it is sufficient to use the
obvious relationship
dl-d-26.

by means of which it is easy to rearrange (3.2) to take the follow-

ing form:

4#n - 60 -
 This expression is a quadratic equation for the sought 6!

2
formally yielding two solutions

but which in essence uniquely defines the sought magnitude of the

minimum permissible wall thickness

-V
21- P ;6 (3.3)

The calculations that have been

presented are quite tentative and

make it possible to evaluate the
R oo i magnitude of 6 only in approxi-
min
mate terms.

In the second case, the cal-

Fig. 3.7. For the determina-
tion of stresses due to pres- culation diagram is that of a thin-
sure (pn).
walled vessel under the action of

internal pressure (pn). Under this pressure, circumferential stresses

ae are developed in the wall, and these are determined in accordance

with Fig. 3.7 by the following relationship
o=(p)d.wd, (pn)dw_ (3.4)
21 ds 2 "
The condition of preservation of structural strength

where ab is the ultimate strength, makes it possible to define the

minimum wall thickness which will guarantee body strength with a

safety factor ( as
a2Aat (3.5)
C

-61-
or in terms of missile caliber

d
(,)+ (3.5')

In the more general case, it is not immediately clear which

of the loads - the "pressing" weight of the metal or the pressure
due to the equipment - may be the factor responsible for missile

destruction. Here we must analyze the complex stressed state with

active stresses, determined by the following relationships:
%=

1_ .(3.6)

2j
o, -(Pn).
where Or is the radial stress, and the minimum wall thickness must
be determined on the basis of the so-called equivalent stress. How-

ever, the requirement which calls for the consideration of all

three stresses in the tentative selection of 6mi n occurs compara-

tively seldom, so that the problem need not be considered in greater

detail.

We can see from Formulas (3.3) and (3.5) that we must know the
magnitude of the rated (theoretical) overload for the calculation
of 6 min and we must be able to calculate the pressure due to the
equipment.

With respect to pn, the physical nature of this pressure is

such that it represents the lateral component of the axial stress
developed in the elastic-plastic column of explosives on missile
impact against the obstacle. The magnitude of pn could be calculated
as follows:

(p,) . (3.7)
4

-62-
 where P4 is the weight of the column of explosives above the cross

section under consideration; Ppn is the inertial weight of this

column of explosives; L is the Poisson coefficient; K is the coef-

ficient by means of which we take into consideration the dynamics

of load applications on impact as well as certain secondary effects

of the phenomenon.

However, there are no reliable values for the constant K,

and in practical calculations it is impossible to employ Relation-

ship (3.7). At the present time, the practice is to calculate pn

by using the semi-empirical calculation relationships of the follow-

ing type:
(pn) = k, (h +.%k) x. (3.8)

where h's is the height of the cylindrical part of the body (frame)

above the cross section AA; Ah is the height of the additional

noncylindrical volumes in the upper part of the cavity containing

the explosives; *n is the overload factor; kl, k 2 are the experi-

mental coefficients.

Calculation of Maximum Overload Acting on Missile on Impact Against

Obstacle

The overload is denoted by the number n which indicates the

factor by which the mass forces are increased in the case of their

dynamic application in comparison with their magnitude under static

conditions.

PCT (3.9)

If we assume that the mass of the body remains constant in

the phenomena under consideration, from (3.9) we will obtain

5--,

where a is the acceleration which, in this case, characterizes the

1 -63-
dynamics of force application; Z is the acceleration of gravity.

Hence, it is absolutely necessary to know how the missile is

decelerated in its penetration into the obstacle for purposes of

calculating the overload, i.e., to determine the relationship

a = a(t) or at least to be able to calculate the quantity amax .

If we hold that the entire kinetic energy

2 2g

where m = qp/g, which the missile possesses at the instant of im-

pact against the obstacle, is expended only on overcoming the re-

sistance of the medium being penetrated, the energy balance can be

determined in the following form

2 ~9
where Asopr is the total work of the forces of obstacle resistance.

We can assume in tentative calculations that the resistance

force changes linearly from some Rmax to zero as the missile pene-

trates deeper into the obstacle, so that

Now we will have

2 2~

or

4.' (3.10)
after which nmax is defined as

~(3.11)

where vk is the missile velocity at the instant of impact against

the obstacle; 1 is the total depth to which the missile could

penetrate into the obstacle, if all of the kinetic energy of the

-64-
missile were expended on the overcoming of the resistance forces.

The short-term effect of maximum overload produces a calcula-

tion factor

npac- a Rmai, (3.11)

where a < 1 is the coefficient by means of which we take into
consideration the impact conditions and certain structural fea-
tures of the warhead.
With respect to the quantity 1
-pr it should be stated that at
the present time there are several empirical formulas which allow
us to calculate this characteristic with sufficient accuracy for
a preliminary analysis.
Of these formulas, the most widespread are the following.
1. The Berezanskiy formula
. .=A-V'(3.12)
where 1pr is the depth of penetration, in m; qp is the weight of
the missile at the instant of impact against the obstacle (the
passive weight of the missile), in kg; d is the caliber of the
missile, in m; vk is the velocity of the missile at the instant
of impact, in m/sec; X is the coefficient of missile shape; X
equals 1.0 for missiles exhibiting an ogive curve having a height
of
h .I ,5d;

X equals 1.3 for missiles exhibiting an ogive curve having a height

of

k is the coefficient of penetration whose magnitude is determined

by the properties of the obstacle (see Table 3.1).

- 65 -
 TABLE 3.1
The Berezanskiy Coefficients of Penetration (k )

1) THU .perpaAu

) flAoTuiu rpaM N Mapauue nopoar oeub wpecuft 1.6.10-S

nOcqaMuM N maec't
) 0sCO9,UNAi MCRaUNu N 0umaemMr. uec'amd m ran 3.0.10-4
NT camiu
SMsruu caaueu; ,nacun MOpum ,pymt 4,5.10-4
) efeoeueA rpyu?; oTaepemman rapma 4.3.10-4
)MIaos
WeN; ne=ol ramua;
Iuagg
-penid' unOC; aexam. cuememul Cus- 5.0.10-4

3eusm uaoTuat; o6uuoeuud paC~rTeabuv rpynT 5.5-10-

Soamcmu none; uoxphi rauuucnd rpyn 1.0.10-4
)Kenseomu 0.9.10-6
1 eTon (ueuTmo-rpanwrnul) 1.3. o-
1 KnpwmquUs aaitita a Iuememm SYAUUSat uRAauA 2.5-10-4

1) Type of obstacle; 2) dense granite and

granite rocks; extremely strong sandstone
and limestone; 3) conventional sandstone
and limestone; sandy and argillaceous shales;
4) soft shale; limestone; frozen soil;
5 gravely soil; hardened clay; 6) thick
clay; heavy alluvial deposits; dirt mixed
with rock; moist sand; 7) packed earth; con-
ventional planting soil; 8) swampy soil;
wet clay soil; 9) reinforced concrete; 10)
concrete (cement-granite); 11) stacked bricks
on cement; cobblestone construction.

2. The Petri formula

~(3.13)

where 1 is the depth of penetration, in m; % is the weight of

-pr
the missile at the instant of impact against an obstacle, in kg;

d is the caliber of the missile, in cm; is the coefficient of

obstacle properties (see Table 3.2); f(vk) is the function of im-

pact velocity (see Table 3.3).

In addition to Formulas (3.12) and (3.13), we may also en-

counter in the literature relationships that are of the same type

as those proposed in his time by Ponsele [sic], Val'ye [sic],

Vuich (sic], Zabudskiy, Peres [sic], Nobile [sic], and other in-

vestigators. There is no basic difference between these formulas,

- 66 -
 TABLE 3.2 and the apparent difference only in-
Coefficients XP of Obstacle dicates the individual approach of
Petri Pene-
Properties for the
tration Formulas each of the investigators to the

) Tannpwpau solution of the posed problem. As

an example, we will cite the Nobile
Cua. uae¢ K • 0.43
Ka,,aOu uaAz 0.94 formula.
BTON CPAMerO KSaeCta 0.64 1
gNpUN aAncA 1.3
2.94
u-kNp.(.) m. (3.14)
fleclaanuI rpyn
3eua, C pacTNTeAbrn, nozpouoM 3.86 where P. qp/(ird 2 /4) is the lateral
) Mrxdi raXIcITMl rpyuT .5.87

load, in kg/cm 2; X is the coefficient

1) Type of obstacle; 2) lime-
stone rock; 3) rock pile; of shape; X = 1 for pointed missiles;
41 medium-qualty concrete;
5 brick pile; 6) sandy soil; X = 1.5 for blunt missiles; k is
ground with seed cover; N
soft clay soil. the coefficient of medium properties;

Fm(e) is the coefficient of impact velocity for solid obstacles and

soils (according to the subscripts).

TABLE 3.3
Values of the Velocity Function f(vk) for the Petri Pene-
tration Formulas

1) Maim cupo. yzap

40 o 80 1!00 120 140 100 180 200

_I
Awn 2.35
[.3F71.11.76 2.97 3.56 4.18 4.7715.34
2) Cpgxs c=s0c.w a
20.' M" M lM M ! m .
f( 50 6.,41 16, 1,40 7,87 8.31 8,74 3 ., 9,49

1) Low impact velocities; 2) average impact velocities.

On the basis of the terms and coefficients, Formula (3.14) is

similar to Relationships (3.12) and (3.13), which we examined in

detail and which were selected as the basic relationships because

the coefficients in these formulas were determined in greatest de-

- 67 -
tail and the greatest quantity of experimental material was general-

ized in their derivation.

Evaluation of Missile Effectiveness at the Target

The combat effectiveness of a demolition missile against an

obstacle is measured in terms of the destruction of this obstacle

by the gaseous products of the exploding charge and the fragments

of the warhead shell. It has been established in practice that the

basic destructive factors of a demolition explosion are the explo-

sion shock wave, the stream of fragments, and the seismic effect

of the explosion.

Under combat conditions, the

force of a demolition missile is

evaluated in terms of the combined

destructive effect of all three

factors, and in this case the depth

Fig. 3.8. Theoretical dimen- of the crater that is formed in

sions of the crater formed in the ground as a result of the ex-
the soil on the explosion of
a missile at a depth h. 1) plosion (Fig. 3.8) is generally
Soil thrown out.
taken as the standard measure of

comparative explosion force.

In a tentative determination of the effectiveness of a demo-

lition missile, the characteristic depth H (in m) can be evaluated

in accordance with the following emperical formula:

H-h. (3.15)
where k'z is some coefficient which characterizes the extent to

which the obstacle yields to the action of the explosion; C is the

coefficient which characterizes the effect of the depth h, in m, of

missile explosion on the effectiveness of explosion; P. is the

- 68 -
weight of the combat charge, or it is possible to use an even

simpler relationship

H* (3.15')
where the coefficient C' is employed to take into consideration the

features of the obstacle and the effect of charge explosion at

various depths; the numerical values of this coefficient are pre-

sented in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.4
Values of the Coefficient C'

1) Tit nperpaxu J 2)3vaieNHe Kos ,4ileufa

C'

.' .9 A 5.0
Kamea
&Tom; aaKiataca; |AA Ao 1.5 At
to 2,0 4.0
cxa.1a; x 3.5
1 k>2.0
/ A x 3.0
6011H H eCCBn311ae macbmln 1.0 (cpetamee sfaqemne) 7)
Xwdqube rpyHT 0,7 (cpeAHee llaqenwe)
,CAC0o6eTo 8,0

1) Type of obstacle; 2) value or the coefficient C';

3) rock pile; concrete; rock; 4) gravel and loose
mounds; 5) conventional soils; 6) reinforced concrete;
7) average value.

If the explosion takes place directly at the surface of the

obstacle, all other conditions being equal, the formed crater will

be smaller; the depth of such a crater is generally estimated in

accordance with the following formula:

H==kV P-,--.T, (3.16)

where k"z is some coefficient similar to the coefficient kz in
vz
Formula (3.15) (see Table 3.5); hts.t is the coordinate of the

center of gravity of the missile warhead at the instant of explo-

sion with respect to the surface of the obstacle (Fig. 3.9) (more

exactly, this is not the coordinate of the center of warhead gravity,

but the corresponding coordinate of the explosive charge).

- 69 -
 TABLE 3.5
Values of the Coefficient k"
vz'

1 Tn nperpTa.
, 3a.ea.,em. o4"..

)ewfi pAau 0.6

uni- C necoM R rpamueu 0.86
c)OdKniO il I rpyuT 0.53
zOT.,.,l ICTI Rec= 0.46

$ e

PyOu
,,, cuema
U3i
aim c KaIeu
aaIeCTNINOam
0.5
0.23
0.175
e~ieao~ezo- 0.13
1) Type of obstacle; 2) value of the
coefficient k" ; 3) mellow soil; 4) soil
with sand and gravel; 5) conventional
soil; 6) packed pure sand; 7) soil mixed
with stones; 8) limestone rock; 9) con-
crete; 10) reinforced concrete.

It has been demonstrated in

practice that the maximum explosive

effect (the dimensions of the

crater formed in the soil) are ob-
tained if the explosion takes place
at a depth, which for a missile
Fig. 3.9. Determination of the carrying an explosive charge weigh-
coordinates of ts.t when
using the calculation Formula ing P kg, amounts to approximately
(3.o). h.,- (o-,85-i-O.)VP , (3.17)
With missile explosion at any depth, direct destruction due
to the explosion is noted over a certain region with a limit radius

Rr which originates at the point of explosion and is determined by

the relationship

where kr is the coefficient whose numerical values for various ob-

stacles are presented in Table 3.6.

- 70 -
 This area is referred to as the region of destruction or the

sphere of destruction. In addition to the sphere of destruction,

there are also the so-called spheres of compression and percussion,
in an explosion, which are characterized by the presence of certain
characteristic deformations in the obstacle. If the missile pene-
trates into the obstacle to the following depth

the explosion does not expose the entire thickness of the obstacle

but rather a so-called camouflet is formed. In the case of a camou-

flet, the effect of the destructive shock wave and the fragments
goes virtually unused, but the seismic effect of the explosion is

at its maximum.

TABLE 3.6
Values of the Coefficient kr .

i)Tuu 12)~
naqm O3

)SUas I)ax
Tu nppmu
puiu 1.4
Knt
Oseu ei Ipycu 1.01

Nos CNOWus 0.16

3)Iba*,m ,u osuuu.1
)~caaeuua
uaaua0.64
0.77
Ism
1 WNeaws6"On 0."-07

1) Type of obstacle; value of

tne coefficient kr; 3) mellow soil;
43 conventional soil' 5) sand;
6 clay with sand; 75 limestone and
sandstone- 8) stone pile; 9) con-
crete; 105 reinforced concrete.

Selection of Explosive. Calculation of Time of Delayed Action Assur-

ing Maximum Missile Effectiveness

Demolition warheads are made with two types of nose or side

fuses - an impact (instantaneous) fuse and an inertial (delayed-

- 71 -
action) fuse, the latter delaying the explosion somewhat.

Impact (contact) fuses are used for thin-walled warheads, and

these are characterized by the highest possibie fill factors and

relatively low strength. Caueing the missile to detonate at the sur-

face of the obstacle, such fuses predetermine the application of

the effect of the explosion shock wave as the basic destructive

factor of the explosion.

In the case of delayed-action fuses, the explosion takes place

at some depth and its destructive effect is determined not only by

the shock-wave parameters but by the seismic effect of the explosion

as well. The basic problem that arises in the selection of a delayed-

action fuse is the one relating to the matter of obtaining a delay

in the explosion such that the effect of missile explosion will be

the maximum. Bearing in mind the existence of an optimum depth of

explosion hopt, we have the problem of determining the optimum

delay and this can be reduced to the calculation of the time re-

quired for the missile to penetrate to a depth hopt. In this case,

if we assume that the motion of the missile in the obstacle, in

first approximation, is decelerated uniformly, we can use the

following well-known relationship for uniformly decelerated motion

for purposes of calculation:

from which it is easy to obtain t = t(l) in the following form:

If we bear in mind that in our denotations

Wo-I

and

- 72 -
 and that in accordance with Formula
(3.10) and the assumption of uniform
missile deceleration, the following
equation will be valid

a.,

X and we will obtain

Fig. 3.10. For the determina- -_+1_

tion of the optimum delay time V, $ ,amao
for a delayed-action fuse.
whence the final calculation relation-

ship for the estimation of optimum fuse delay time Topt is determined
as follows:

Here 1p r is the total depth of penetration which is calculated

for the given missile in accordance with Formulas (3.12) or (3.13);

vk Is the velocity of the missile at the instant of impact with the

obstacle; hopt is the optimum depth at which the fuse of the given
missile should be actuated; a is the angle at which the missile
strikes the target.

The Topt found in this manner is quite tentative and is re-

fined finally in accordance with the results obtained in test firings

of a control group of missiles.

If there is a discussion in the tactical-technical require-

ments of the type of fuse involving a certain definite delay or if

the fuse type has been selected on the basis of some special con-

siderations, then the depth h at which the initiation of the fuse

and the explosion will take place under conditions of combat appli-

cation of the missile against any given obstacle can be determined

(estimated) on the basis of the relationships presented above. The

-73-
following will be the corresponding calculation relationship:
4(Tp (3.19)

where T is the delay time of the fuse being employed (the remaining

denotations are the same as before).

It is precisely on the basis of the numerical value of this
depth that we should seek in tables the coefficient C' of depth of

explosion that is required for the application of the following

formula

by means of which we can estimate the comparative effectiveness of

the warhead being designed.

It should be stressed that in order to obtain maximum combat

effectiveness of the item being designed, the selection of the fuse

must be without fault and, in particular, the fuse itself must

assure a delay which will guarantee the initiation of the fuse at

the optimum depth.

§ 2. FRAGMENTATION WARHEAD

Basic Structural Characteristics of Fragmentation and Fragmentation-

Demolition Warheads
Fragmentation missiles are intended for firing against air and

ground targets, including combat equipment and the enemy's combat

forces. In accordance with the designation of fragmentation missiles,
the basic requirements imposed on these can be reduced to the obtain-

ing of the maximum quantity of lethal fragments and the maximum

possible effective fragment (shrapnel) range.

As a rule, a fragmentation warhead must have a rather thick-

walled shell and only sufficient explosive material in order to

- 74 -
fragment the shell into the lethal fragments as well as to impart

the required initial velocity to these pieces of shrapnel.

A fragmentation warhead is characterized by the following

structural parameters:

1) a relative warhead length which, for example, for the M8

missile amounts to
16.:: 2,I1d,
2) a relative wall thickness for the warhead body
C,=Ld (M8, USSR);
4. 82
3) the fill factor

qpw]5%;
4) the coefficients k s and k. of relative weight, where on

the average

0.
pk-=!O.6. kg/dm3 ,

=-1 kg/d m3

Fragmentation-demolition missiles are intended to produce shell

fragments in attacks against an enemy's combat forces and equipment,

as well as to produce the destructive force of a shock wave whose

action can be directed against defense installations. In terms of

combat and design parameters, warheads of fragmentation-demolition

missiles are classified in some intermediate position between frag-

mentation and demolition missiles.

The parameters of a typical fragmentation-demolition warhead

of a solid-propellant rocket missile have the following values:

1) a relative warhead length

T&-3,5d (M13, USSR);

2) a relative wall thickness

U- (ML3, USSR);

- 75 -
 3) a fill factor n = 25%;

4) coefficients of relative missile and equipment weight

3
k, -8,0 kg/dm ,
k,-2,0 kg/dn 3 .

Selection of Shape for Fragmentation Warhead

The body shape of a fragmentation warhead is selected on the

basis of the conditions required to provide for uniform fragmenta-

tion of the entire shell into the smallest possible (minimum weight)
lethal fragments. Fragments in this case are regarded lethal if
they are capable at a given distance to take out of action some pro-

posed target or to damage the vital parts of unarmored combat equip-

ment.

On the basis of existing information it is possible, to re-

gard as lethal a fragment which exhibits a kinetic energy of the

order of 10 kg/m, weighing no less than 5-10 g, at the instant of

contact with the target.

In addition to the basic requirement with respect to the shape

of a fragmentation warhead - uniformity of shell fragmentation -

it should also be borne in mind during the design stage that the
shape must correspond to the adopted structural assembly of the

missile and the shape must provide for convenient assembly of the

individual missile units.

From the standpoint of fragmentation uniformity it is neces-

sary to begin with a shape which will provide for symmetry in the

stressed state over the entire warhead surface. The most suitable

shape, from this standpoint, is the spherical or cylindrical shape

given the condition that the initiation of the explosion takes place

from the center of the warhead or along the warhead's axis of

symmetry.
- 76 -
 The requirements associated with the assembly of the missile

are presented as optimum from the standpoint of the shape of the

ogive curve or the cylinder.

It follows from what has been said above that, all other con-

ditions being equal, the basic premise for the design of fragmenta-

tion armament (missiles) must be a cylindrical warhead made in the

form of a fixed-thickness shell having a system of central axial

initiation. On the one hand, in this case the fragmentation warhead

is relatively simple and lends itself to production, and on the

other hand, it is the most powerful warhead.

However, for example, missiles of standard configuration as

a rule cannot be made with a warhead of this type. In fact, the

need for a special ballistic cowling in the case of a cylindrical

warhead on a missile of conventional configuration substantially

increases the length of the foward part of the missile while

virtually not changing the position of the missile center of gravity,

thus reducing the stability of the missile in flight.

A spherical warhead has not yet come into practical use be-

cause of extreme difficulties in mounting such a shape on any of

the possible structural missile configurations.

Designs for Fragmentation Warheads which will Provide for Shell

Fragmentation into a Given Quantity of Fragments

In the explosion of conventional fragmentation warheads a cer-

tain quantity of nonuniform (with respect to weight) fragments are

formed, and of these only some are capable of inflicting actual

damage. It has been established that of the total weight of warhead

body metal up to 30-40% is expended on the formation of small frag-

ments which do not possess sufficient energy to damage the target,

i.e., in actual fact these fragments are useless from the stand-

- 77 -
point of effectiveness in damaging the target. Moreover, a group

of major fragments is formed in the explosion and these possess

energy that is in excess of that required for the given target.
As a result, only a comparatively small part of the metal of the
missile shell is employed usefully.
The presence of fragments exhibiting inadequate or excessive
energy for the damaging of a given target reduce the number of optimum

lethal fragments, i.e., the combat effectiveness of the missile.

The effectiveness of fragmentation warheads can be increased sub-

stantially by the forced fragmentation of the shell into a given
quantity of fragments of required weight.

Fig. 3.11. Fragmentation war- Fig. 3.12. Fragmentation war-

head with rectangular notched head with rhombic notched grid.
grid.

The attempts to control the destruction of the warhead so as

to obtain the greatest possible quantity of lethal fragments of

minimum weight were undertaken as far back as the 1870's - 1880's.

However, missile designs at that time were so cumbersome and un-

reliable that they found no practical application. The first suit-

able solutions to the problem of shell fragmentation into a given

quantity of fragments of given weight appeared very much later.

Let us examine some of the warhead configurations which provide
the given shell fragmentation.

Figure 3.11 shows a warhead which, generally speaking, can be

fabricated in some other shape, depending on the assembly of the
- 78 -
units in the adopted structural configuration of the missile; this

particular warhead is distinguished by the fact that a grid of

special notches has been cut into its surface. These notches are

stress concentrators and denote the sections into which the shell

will be fragmented on explosion. Experimental explosions have

shown, however, that the notched grid shown in Fig. 3.11 does not

produce reliable shell fragmentation along the notch lines, since

there is generally no explosion along the lateral notches.

The fragmentation can be stabilized if the notched grid is

cut into the surface of the missile at a certain angle to the axis

of the cylinder (a rhombic notched grid), as shown in Fig. 3.12.

The angle of inclination of the notched lines is a function of cer-

tain structural parameters and the characteristics of the warhead

material; this angle can be calculated in each specific case. The

magnitude of this angle is a function of the diameter of the missile

body and is constant therefore only for the cylindrical part of the

warhead; in the case of the ogive-curve section, the angle of in-

clination of the notched line changes continuously so that the line

itself becomes a complex helical curve of variable pitch.

If the warhead of a fragmentation missile is designed in the

shape of a straight-line cylinder, the telescope assembly of two

tubes with an assured tension will prove to be an extremely effec-

tive design. Rhombic notched grids are cut into the inner surface

of the outer tube and the outer surface of the inner tube, the lines

of these grids coinciding with each other. We can also cite, for

example, such other highly effective missile designs as the pre-

fabricated-cemented warheads and certain others.

Calculation of the Parameters of the Fragmentation Action of a Missile

The mechanism of warhead-shell fragmentation in the case of an

- 79 -
explosion is an extremely complex phenomenon whose theoretical study

is made even more complicated by the fact that during the course

of the basic processes there arise certain factors which have a

substantial effect but do not lend themselves to rigorous examina-

tion. Nevertheless, as far back as the last century various investi-

gators have made attempts to derive calculation formulas by means of

which it would have been possible, for example, to calculate the

number of fragments formed. Of these investigators we should mention,

first of all, Yustrov and Yulovskiy. In their work on the problem of

missile-shell fragmentation into a given number of fragments, and

they did this work independently of each other, they came to the

conclusion that the following missile parameters affect the process

of fragmentation and determine, in the final analysis, the number of

fragments formed:

- missile weight and caliber,

- weight of bursting charge and characteristics of explosive

material,

- mechanical characteristics of the metal used in the shell,

- angle of missile impact against the obstacle,

- type and characteristics of fuse, etc.

Of all the calculation relationships the simplest and yet the

most reliable is the formula proposed by Yustrov, which determines

the relationship between the number of fragments and the basic

parameters of the warhead in the following form:

St0f(3.20)
1f~-1,0 d'
where N is the number of fragments that are formed on the explosion
of the warhead; aB is the coefficient whose magnitude is a function
of the properties of the explosive (BB) used hs the bursting charge
(for TNT a = 46); P. is the weight of the explosive charge, in kg;

- 80 -
d is the caliber of the warhead in cm; ab is the ultimate strength

of the material, in kg/mm 2 ; a. is the elasticity limit, in kg/mm 2 ;

£ is the elongation on explosion, in %; X is the total structural

parameter which determines the fragmentation capacity of the mis-
sile, and has the following average values for warheads with various
fill factors n:

X = 1.8 (at n = 7%),

= (at n = 10%),
X 1.5
X = 1.4 (at n = 15%).
Formula (3.20) can be used to determine only the total number
of fragments, without being able to determine the number of lethal
fragments, and this is, for all intents and purposes, less signifi-
cant.*

A more exact determination of the total quantity of fragments

formed on the explosion of any given warhead, and the determination

of the distribution spectrum with respect to mass, can be obtained
only on the basis of statistical data produced in the explosion,
in an explosion test pit, of a experimental models of the warhead

being designed (see Chapter 7).

a)

Fig. 3.13. Diagram of fragment scatter-

ing on warhead explosion, a) Plane dia-
gram; b) three-dimensional diagram.

On the explosion of the missile, the fragments are scattered

- 81 -
in space in a nonuniform manner. The nature of this dispersion cor-

responds approximately to the diagram shown in Fig. 3.13. In the

final analysis, the actual number of effective lethal fragments
must be determined on the basis of a consideration of the features
exhibited by the actual scattering of the fragments.

An important parameter which affects the lethal nature of a

fragment and which determines the maximum distance over which the

fragment preserves its lethal characteristics is the initial velo-

city of the fragment. This velocity is a function of a number of

warhead parameters (the fill factor, the rate of explosive detona-

tion, the shape of the warhead, etc.); on the average, this velocity
amounts to 1000-2000 m/sec and is selected as a function of the

specific conditions of missile application. It is possible, for

example, to estimate the maximum velocity of the fragment at the

point of explosion on the basis of the following formula:

D 6 ,, (3.21)

where D is the rate of explosive detonation, in m/sec; (Pb.ch _ p

(0
is the weight of the missile shell, in kg; P. is the weight of the
explosives, in kg, or on the basis of other calculation relation-

ships by means of which we can take into consideration the structural

features of each warhead version through the use of a system of

correction factors.

Effectiveness of Fragmentation Missile at the Target

Proximity tubes (fuses) of various designs, which initiate the

warhead at some determined point along the trajectory, are the most

expedient for fragmentation missiles, depending on the designation

and the features of tactical application. Only with the use of such

initiation devices at the target will it be possible to achieve the

- 82 -
effect of the maximum quantity of fragments formed at the instant of

explosion, and only in this way will the greatest effectiveness of

the warhead be obtained.

In addition to proximity fuses, fragmentation missiles fre-

quently employ conventional impact fuses of instantaneous action.

The utilization of such fuses reduces somewhat the effect of the

fragmentation action, since some of the fragments penetrate, for

example, into the surface of the earth on explosion. However, because

of the simplicity of design in the case of conventional fuses and

the difficulties encountered in the initiation of proximity fuses,

in a number of countries impact fuses are still employed in the

design of fragmentation missiles.

In recent times we have noted a tendenzy abroad to use such

noncontact devices as radar fuses which are connected to the control

equipment or the self-guidance apparatus of the missile; fuses of

this type make it possible to initiate the missile at the most

favorable missile position with respect to the target.

The quantitative measure of the effectiveness of a fragmenta-

tion missile is the so-called radius of continuous target damage

and the magnitude of this radius is determined experimentally in

each case by experimental explosions of warheads around targets.

The assumption is that within the limits of the circle having the

radius of continuous damage the probability of damaging the target

must be 100%. In addition to this circle, the areas in which the

probability of target damage amounts to 75, 50%, etc., are also ex-

amined, characterizing these areas with radii that correspond to

the probability of damage. The radial values of the determined

probability of target damage (destruction) serve as a detailed

characteristic of the combat effectiveness of a fragmentation missile.

- 83 -
 3. HOLLOW-CHARGE WARHEAD
The Effect of a Hollow Charge and Its Application in the Case of
Armor-Piercing Missiles

Among the field rocket missiles used for short-range purposes,

the so-called hollow-charge reaction-thrust shells have become
quite popular. The hollow-charge shells are an effective means of

destroying armor-plated vehicles and tanks; in this case, an impor-

tant advantage of missiles of this type is the fact that they ex-
hibit not only high armor-piercing characteristics, but that the

smallest combat units of an army, down to an individual infantryman,

BNJ
can be equipped with corresponding reaction-thrust systems.

a) b) a) b)
Fig. 3.14. The effect of an ex- Fig. 3.15. The effect of an ex-
plosion of a charge on an armor plosion of a hollow charge on an
plate of conventional shape. armor plate. a) Prior to the
a) Prior to the explosion; b) explosion; b) after the explo-
after the explosion; Dp and sion; Dp and Hp) the diameter
H ) the diameter and height of and height of the detonating
P charge; ~~D
and hv)
h)tedaee
the detonating charge; A) the charge; the diameter
depth of the indentation (crater). and depth of the funnel.

The effect of the hollow-charge shell at a target is based on

the utilization of the so-called "cumulative" effect of an explo-
sion, and this effect consists in the following.

If a conventional detonating charge is exploded at the surface

of an armor plate, a shell-like (conchoidal) indentation is produced

in the plate (Fig. 3.14). The depth of this indentation is a func-

tion of the quantity of charge and the brisance properties of the

explosive; as a rule, the brisance is generally not too great. The

- 84 -
depth of the indentation can be increased substantially if the

same detonation charge is exploded, but if a funnel of specified

shape is drilled into the charge.

Finally, we can select the shape and dimensions of the funnel

so as to penetrate the entire plate (Fig. 3.15) with the original

quantity of explosive material.

In the latter case, as a result of the particular properties

of the funnel in the grain, the energy of the explosion is redis-

tributed so that the greater part of the energy is concentrated

in the so-called "cumulative" stream and will be directed along the

axis of the funnel to the surface of the obstacle. It is precisely

in this that we find the "cumulative" effect of the explosion.

A study of the "cumulative" effect has shown that the basic

factors which affect the effectiveness of armor piercing are the

following:

- the dimensions and shape of the hollow-charge funnel,

- the material used for the facing of the inside of the hollow-

charge funnel,

- the distance from the outer edge of the funnel to the obstacle

at the instant of explosion, and certain other factors.

The optimum shapes of the hollow charge, as a rule, are quite

complex from the standpoint of fabrication; therefore, it is but

rarely that hollow-charge shells are used in actual models; the

most popular practical funnel shapes are cones and spheres.

Experiments have demonstrated that, all other conditions being

equal, the armor-piercing effect increases noticeably if the inner

surface of the funnel is coated with a thin layer of some facing

material; in this case, the increase in charge effectiveness is a

function of the material selected for the facing and the thickness

- 85 -
 .00i

Fig. 3.16. The nature of the relationship

between the "cumulative" effect and dis-
tance at the instant of explosion between
the outer edge of the funnel and the ob-
stacle. H', Hmax' and H") the depths of
the indentations; D and H ) the diameter
and height of the detonating charge; h,
h', and hopt) the distances between tie
outer edge of the funnel and the obstacle.

of the coating layer. Of all the tested facing materials, copper and
zinc alloys proved to be the best; other metals (iron, aluminum)
have less of an effect on the effectiveness of the "cumulative"
explosion.
An investigation of the armor-piercing capability as a function
of the distance (at the instant of explosion) between the outer edge
of the funnel and the obstacle has shown that in each case there is
some optimum distance which will produce the maximum effect, on
initiation, at the target (Fig. 3.16). This distance is generally
referred to as the focal distance and it is regarded as a basic
parameter of the funnel.

Tentative Determination of the Dimensions of the Hollow Charge Which

Will Ensure the Penetration of an Obstacle of Given Thickness
The "cumulative" effect in armament is used by imparting to the
grain a certain configuration which includes the "cumulative" funnel
as one of its elements. In all other respects, the hollow-charge
warhead shows no differences from missiles of other classes.

-86-
 The design of hollow grains is based on the conclusions drawn

from the theory of the armor-piercing effect of the "cumulative"

stream, said conclusions first derived by the Academician L.M.

Lavrent'yev. He established, for example, that it is not the entire

"cumulative" stream, but only some part of it, that exhibits armor-

piercing capacity; that part of the "cumulative" stream is referred

to as the effective length lef of the stream. The quantity 1

ef is

primarily a function of the dimensions and shape of the funnel and,

moreover, of the material used to face the funnel and the parameters

of the grain. The depth of armor piercing is essentially a function

of the parameter 1ef of the "cumulative" stream.

In designing a hollow-charge warhead it becomes necessary to

seek the optimum funnel with respect to the depth of complete ob-

stacle penetration as stipulated in the tactical-technical require-

ments. This problem is resolved on the basis of extensive experi-

mentation and the utilization of statistical data for the explosions

of various hollow grains. The following extremely tentative relation-

ships may be useful.

1. The diameter of the hollow-charge funnel is, on the average,

where bmax is the thickness of the given obstacle which must be

penetrated; nf is the coefficient that is a function of the funnel

shape.

2. The diameter of the pierced hole generally does not exceed

dp- (0,05+0,3) Do.

3. For each type of funnel there exists a certain optimum

height h v of funnel cupola that is equal to 0.5 D v for semispheri-

cal holes (1.0-1.5) and D v for conic holes.

- 87 -
 Fig. 3.17. An example of a design of a hollow-
charge shell.

4. A layer of explosive, whose height does not exceed 0.5-

0.8 D v (above the apex of the funnel) participates in the shaping

of the "cumulative" stream. In this case, any further increase in

the height of the column, and consequently, in the weight of the

explosive charge, without a corresponding change in the dimensions

of the funnel, produces no increased effectiveness for the hollow

grain and is therefore inexpedient.

Figure 3.17 shows an example of one of the designs of German

hollow-charge shells used during the Great Fatherland War. We can

see from the figure that the rocket part of the shell is basically

like the rocket parts used in conventional finned field rocket

missiles. However, the warhead is unique. It consists of a body of

definite shape, stamped from sheet metal, and filled with explosive

in addition to certain additional design elements which provide for

the normal functioning of the shell - primarily an explosive train

(chain) and the hollow of the charge. The sensing element of the

fuse is extended beyond the outer edge of the grain to a special

ballistic cowling so that the explosion, on contact with an obstacle,

takes place at distances close to the optimum. It should be borne

in mind that since the velocity of the hollow-charge shells in flight

is, as a rule, not great (80-100 m/sec), the shape of the warhead

has virtually no effect on the ballistic characteristics of the mis-

sile; this makes it possible to neglect the requirements of aero-

dynamics in the design of the warhead and to base the design exclusively

- 88 -
on the concepts that are associated with the required operating con-

ditions of the explosive chain and the hollow charge.

As has already been pointed out, the rocket part of a hollow-

charge shell is designed in the same manner as for other rocket mis-

siles. We should mention the one interesting feature of manual

hollow-charge cartridges having an effective range of up to 100 m.

This feature consists in the fact that the rocket engine of such a

cartridge generally functions on black powder. This is explained

by the requirement of absolute reliability for this weapon and the

need, in this connection, to provide for constancy of the physico-

chemical and ballistic parameters of the powder, which is difficult

to obtain when rocket solid propellants are used.

(Footnotes]

Manu-
script
Page
No.

81 M.G. Yefimov. Kurs artilleryskikh snaryadov. Oborongiz

[Course in Artillery Missiles. State Defense Press], 1939;

G.M. Tret'yakov. Boyepripasy artillerii. Voyenizdat (Artillery

Armament. Military Press], 1940.

[List of Transliterated Symbols]

52 7CT "Sst , a
stena 2 7 wall
=
56 PAH dn = Pdno = Pbottom plate
56 P =
-P
=
Kee Pk.s kamera sgoraniya - combustion chamber
57 PCT = Ps t =
Pstabilizator =
Pstabilizer
60 d BH = dvn = dvnutrennyy dinner
60 0 cx szh =szhatiye = 0 compression
63 P = Pdin Pdinamicheskiy = Pdynamic
64 = k = IEineticheskaya = Ekinetic
64 A conp =Aop sopr =A
soprotivleniye - A resistance

- 89 -
Manu-
script
Page
No.
64 1 =1 =1 =1e
-np pr
-- -poiaie -penetration
65 hz= hozh =hozhival - hogive
66 Xn= Xp= Xpregrada Xobstacle
68 k 3 = kvz = kvzryv =kexplosion
69 hu = htst htsentr tyazhesti hcenter of gravity
70 orI opt hoptimalnyy hoptimum
70- k= r = razrusheniye = kdestruction
72 a 0p = asr = asrednyy= aaverage
87 % = Dv =DE~oronka = Dfunnel
87 n. = nf nform 4 a =n shape
87 dp= dpr =dproboina = pierced hole

f - 89a-
 Chapter 4
ELEMENTS OF THE INTERIOR BALLISTICS OF
A SOLID-PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINE
§1. SOME INFORMATION ON THE SOLID PROPELLANTS (POWDERS) USED IN ROCKET

ENGINES

Composition of Rocket Powders

Smokeless (colloidal) powders. At the present time, the so-called

smokeless or colloidal powders have become most popular for use as

solid propellants for rocket engines. Colloidal powders are a solid

solution of a fuel (combustible) based on an oxidizer, with special

additives.

The fuel (combustible) base of the smokeless powders is a nitro-

cellulose of the pyroxylin type which is capable of being gelatinized

in certain substances which contain a high percentage of active oxygen,

thus producing a colloidal solution. On the cooling of such a solution,

a plastic powder mass is obtained, and this mass lends itself easily

to extrusion into grains that are then used as elements of the powder

charge (grain) of the engine. In industrial production, nitrocellulose

is obtained as a product in the treatment with concentrated nitric

acid of cellulose contained in wood (50-60%), cotton (90-93%), flax,

straw, and certain other forms of raw material. For the fabrication of

rocket powders, the most important nitrogen contents of nitrocellulose

are the following:

11.5-12.0% N - collodion

- 90 -
 13.0-13.5% N - pyroxylin No. 1
12.0-12.5% N - pyroxylin No. 2.
Various materials may be used as the nitrocellulose solvent. In
the adopted classification, these substances are generally divided
into so-called volatile and nonvolatile solvents. In this case, vola-
tile solvents are those which are almost completely removed from the
powder during the production of the powder mass and the fabrication of
the grain. Compositions using a volatile solvent are designated accord-
ing to the type of nitrocellulose employed (for example, pyroxylin
powder, etc.); as a rule, these are used comparatively rarely in
rocket engineering. Nitroglycerine exhibits the best properties among
the low-volatility solvents. However, because of its tendency to ex-
plosive decomposition, this material cannot be used in large quanti-
ties in a powder and it becomes necessary to use auxiliary solvents in
order to achieve the complete solution of the nitrocellulose, thus
making the powder mass explosion-proof. Dinitro diethylene glycol, for
example, is used as an auxiliary solvent on a wide scale. The quantity
of this auxiliary solvent may vary within a wide range and it may even
exceed the amount of nitroglycerine used. Depending on the percentage
content of solvent, powders using low-volatility solvents are referred
to as nitroglycerine or diglycol, respectively.
In addition to the basic components, certain additives are in-
cluded in the composition of the powder mass, making it possible to
obtain a propellant with the desired physicochemical properties and
ballistic parameters.
To obtain chemical stability for the powder, stabilizers are in-
cluded in its composition; these are materials which retard the rate
Zof the chemical decomposition reactions that take place within the pow-
der mass during the storage of the grains, and the substances also pre-
- 91 -
 vent the aging of the powder. The most widely used stabilizers are di-

phenylamines, ethylphenylurethane, various "centralites," and certain

other compounds.
The chemical stability of the powders is of substantial signifi-

cance in evaluating the operational suitability of the powders. The

so-called litmus-paper and "brown- vapors" tests are used to determine

the margin of chemical stability; the results of several other labora-
tory tests are also used for this purpose.
In addition to chemical stability, the physical stability of the
grains is also of great significance in estimating the length of time
that powder charges preserve their operational effectiveness. Experi-
ence has demonstrated that physical stability is a function of grain

dimensions, powder composition, and the production techniques used in

the fabrication of the powder mass and the grain. From the standpoint

of physical stability, the basic defect of grains is their disintegra-

tion during storage. It is assumed that grain disintegration results
not only from physical processes, but is due also to certain of the
chemical reactions that take place within the powder mass during the
storage of the grains. It has been established that the introduction
of certain special admixtures into the powder composition has a favor-

able effect of the physical stability of the grains.

The properties of the powder mass, from the standpoint of grain
fabrication techniques, are substantially improved if vaseline, wax,
chalk, carbon black, and a certain other so-called industrial additives
are included in the powder composition.
Finally, as a rule, the powder contains a great quantity of spe-
cial additives for each composition, and these reduce the burning rate
of the powder ("phlegmatizers"), increase the burning stability, reduce
4.

the temperature of powder burning, reduce the sensitivity of the burn-

- 92 -
 ing of the powder to changes in the initial temperature of the charge,

and the parameters of the interior ballistics of the engine, etc.

Thus smokeless rocket powder is a multicomponent solid solution
of the colloidal type, based on nitrocellulose and a solvent. Powders

based on a low-volatility solvent are generally used for the fabrica-

tion of rocket propellants.

The composition of several colloidal rocket powders is presented

in Table 4.1. In American literature, smokeless powders are generally
referred to as bipropellant solid rocket propellants.
Composite propellants. In connection with the development of en-
gines operating on solid propellants, intensive work is being done
abroad on seeking out and mastering new combinations and types of pro-
pellants which will exhibit greater ballistic and operational charac-

teristics.
One of the trends in these new developments is the design of so-
called composite propellant powders. Composite propellants are d fine

mechanical mixture of the fuel (combustible) and the oxidizer, bonded

by means of a plasticizer.
We have the following information on composite propellants from
foreign literature.

The fuel components of composite propellants are usually rubber-

or resin-like substances, and inorganic salts in whose molecules there

is a great percentage of active oxygen are used as the oxidizers. Salts
of the nitrate or ammonium perchlorate type are most frequently used as

oxidizers since these are comparatively inexpensive and accessible

while they exhibit high density and satisfactory energy characteristics.
Of the fuel (combustible) constituents, asphalt-hydrocarbon resins,

fphenolfurfural, and formaldehyde rubber, as well as similar substances,

are widely used.
- 93 -
 There are also composite propellants which exceed the smokeless
powders in terms of energy; however, their main advantage lies in the
simplicity of grain fabrication and the convenience of operating en-

gines using such propellants.

The most important feature of composite propellants is the fact

that grains made of these powders can be obtained by casting, and here

the powder can be poured directly into the engine chamber. As a result
it becomes possible to fabricate solid-propellant grains of virtually
any dimensions, whereas in the case of extruded grains made of smoke-

less powder, substantial production difficulties arise once diameters

of 500 to 550 mm are attained and special extrusion equipment becomes

necessary.
Composite propellants, as a rule, exhibit greater plastic proper-
ties, i.e., they do not disintegrate with fluctuations in temperature,
and this distinguishes them from the smokeless powders which, as a

rule, shatter during storage under conditions of variable temperature.

With the pouring of the composite propellant directly into the
chamber, as the charge cools a strong bond is formed between the walls
of the combustion chamber and the charge thus making it unnecessary to
employ any special devices to receive the load acting on the charge

during flight. Moreover, with an engine in which the combustion takes

place along the surface of the inner channel it becomes unnecessary,
in this case, to employ a restriction coating on the grains and the
heating of the chamber walls is prevented throughout the greater part
of the combustion, thus eliminating the need to apply a coating of a

special thermal-insulation material to the wall or to use cooling sys-

tems. All of this makes it possible to use the maximum volume of the
combustion chamber of the engine for propellant and to obtain an en-

gine with increased weight characteristics.

- 94 -
 TABLE 4.1
Chemical Composition of Several Smokeless Colloidal Solid Rocket Pro-
-- pellants
* 2 Map4 _ repa, Jj Aura__

l11.314a.,10 Z167 R.61 17 H 105 HSC A Jp JPN M'7 MRN BCA JRN
JR-6

IlTpoI.cTaTa 55.8 67.8 63,7 60,0 %9.5 49,56,5 62,2 51.5 54.5 56.51 61.5 50,9 51,5
Q
ll,..Tpo nsnu~eurIoab 16,3 35,3 66,0 39.66 - - - . . . 35,0 - -
IIIHUTpoTpHSraeHramob 16,35 - 6,0 - -- - - - - -
U.HTporalUep - - - - 41.5 47,0 28,0 4a,0 43,0 35,5 28.0 - 26.9 43.0
T'rn,.,,poloao..
AI,.TpOToyo 9.-0 - -2,5_-
--------------1,0 11.0 - -

,CIrpa ,ur - 2,0 9,0 3 4,4 3 ,0 0 4

1:.H 'Tau. ,8 --- 0.6 - -

AapA.T
rii'.poueait~oaa- - -- ---
1,5---------------------------- - -

CTa611AHT 0.5 - - 0,74 . . ..

T3H 6.0 -...
HIITpO311H- - - - - --- 0,1 .
..IuITpoHa4TaH--- --- 6,1 -
• L.,eTHA4Ta.aT- - - - - - - - -- - 3,2
1KNO3 - 0,6 . . . . .-- 1,1 - -
K2SO4 .- . . - . 1,25 1,5 2,0 1.25
BaSO 4; TIO - - 0,5 ... - -
MO 0,25 04 1,0 - -
T10 2- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0,9 -
'cola 0,3 0,1 0,2 1,2 0,5 -. - 0,2
UBOCK 0,35 - 0, 0,070, 0,05 - 0, -0.08
CaCO3 0 ,3 5 0 , 3. 5 . .
KCIO14- - - - - - - - 7 ,8 - - - -

i) Component; 2) brand of powder; 3) Germany; 4) Great Britain; 5) USA;

6) slow burning; 7) nitrocellulose; 8) dinitro diethylene glycol; 9)
dinitro triethylene glycol; 10) nitroglycerine; 11) dinitrotoluene;
12) trinitrotoluene; 13) centralite; 14) diethylphthalate; 15) diphen-
ylamine; 16) diphenylurethane; 17) ethylphenylurethane; 18) hydzocellu-
lose; 19) acardite; 20) stabilite; 21) TEN; 22) nitrosine; 23) -nitro-
naphthalene; 24) dimethylphthalate; 25) carbon black; 26) wax.

The ratio between the fuel (combustible) and oxidizer in the com-
posite solid propellant may vary within a rather wide range. This
makes it possible to obtain the desired magnitude of oxygen balance in
the propellant mixture, whereas in the case of smokeless powders the
ratio between fuel and oxidizer is determined by the chemical composi-
tion of the components and the quantitative relationships governing
the formation of colloidal solutions; in this case, this is a fully
determined quantity which, as a rule, is less than unity. Finally, the
catalog of initial products used for composite solid propellants is

- 95 -
almost unlimited, whereas for the fabrication of smokeless powder only

certain nitrocellulose products and a restricted number of solvents

can be used.
Among the basic shortcomings of composite solid propellants we
should include the strong relationship between the parameters of the

solid-propellant combustion and the dimensions of the particles that

go to make up the powder, hygroscopicity, and danger of explosion.
The combustion parameters as a function of particle dimensions
(of the components) and particularly of the particle dimensions of the

oxidizer determine the increased instability of combustion for com-

posite solid propellants.
In terms of a margin of internal energy, composite solid propel-
lants exceed smokeless powders and, in certain cases, even some regu-
lar explosives; in view of this, they represent a danger of explosion.

The normal combustion of these powders may result in detonation. Com-

posite solid propellants may also be detonated by reaction to various

external impact. Special experiments, carriea out by the Thiokol Chem-

ical Corporation (USA), have demonstrated that the sensitivity of com-
posite solid propellants to external impact is a function primarily of

the volumetric relationship between the fuel (combustible) and the ox-
idizer. The lower the volumetric ratio (given one and the same weight
ratio), the more sensitive the powders.
For the most widely used anmonium perchlorate-based compositions,

the maximum volumetric ratio of oxidizer to fuel (combustible) amounts

to 2.85:1.0 (Fig. 4.1).*
Intensive work on seeking new rocket propellants and, in particu-
lar, on the testing of composite solid propellants is being carried

on in America. For example, one USA firm developed an effective pro-

pellant which uses an inexpensive ammonium nitrate and a special corn-

- 96 -
 2

1 0

1 ' 6S 70 75 .80 8S %MH.CLO,

Fig. 4.1. Sensitivity of com-

posite rocket solid propellants
based on an nonium perchlorate
to external impact as a func-
tion of the ratio of the volu-
metric content of fuel (com-
bustible) and oxidizer in the
propellant. 0, A, 0) The points
which correspond to various
propellants tested for sensi-
tivity to external impact; 1)
region of compositions safe in
handling and storage; 2) volu-
metric ratio of oxidizer to
fuel (combustible); 3) region
of detonating compositions.

bustible base. The fuel (combustible) base consists of a special ma-

terial which polymerizes well with butadiene and yields a material ex-

hibiting satisfactory bonding properties. Carbon black (2%) and a plas-

ticizer (2%) are introduced into the composition in the form of admix-

tures.
The composite solid propellant produced by the Thiokol Chemical
Corporation consists primarily of a polymer, an inorganic salt as the
oxidizer, and a small quantity of certain chemical additives. It is as-
sumed that polymers of butadiene and primarily polysulfide elastic ma-
terials are used as bonders in the solid propellants produced by this
firm.

The Aerojet-General Firm developed a solid propellant, in 1957,

- 97 -
which uses polyurethanes as binders. On the basis of statements made
by representatives of this company, the specific impulse of this pro-

pellant is assumed to be 240 kg. sec/kg. However, experience in working

with polyurethane solid propellants has demonstrated that these ex-

hibit a series of substantial shortcomings (instability in the rate of
the oxidation reaction during combustion, rapid solidification with

significant shrinkage, etc.), and they can therefore be recommended

for use in engines only after appropriate finishing operations. Poly-

urethane solid propellants have not found any widespread application

to this time. The firm has obtained patents on a series of solid com-
posite propellants. One of these consists in the following:

trinitrocyclohexylamine ....................... 85%

plasticizer (wax)............................. 15%
and in the other we use

anmnonium perchlorate ........................ .. 50%

trinitrotoluene (TNT)......................... 25%

thermoplastic binder (for example, asphalt)... 25%

The Aerojet-General Company and certain others (Hercules, Rohm

and Haas) are working on solid monopropellants like nitropolymers and

nitrated plastics. The Rohm and Haas Company recently announced the
successful test of a new solid propellant of this type - "netrinac-
rylate" - for which we do not as yet have any data. It is assumed that
the specific impulse of this propellant may be approximately 300
kg. sec/kg.

The British firm Imperial Chemical Industries developed an exper-

imental solid propellant which is composed of:
ammonium nitrate ........................... 55-75%
calcium formate ....... ... ..... 45-25%

calcium stearate ........................... 0.5%

-98 -
 The solid propellant produced by the Grand Central Rocket Company

consists of ammonium perchlorate, a polysulfide, and additives, pro-

ducing a specific impulse of up to 250 kg'sec/kg.

The work being done on the development of composite solid propel-

lants have been begun relatively recently, but the first specimens of

such propellants have already been tested successfully in rocket en-

gines of various designations. Examples of the compositions of such

composite solid propellants are presented in Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2
Chemical Composition of Some Composite Solid
Rocket Propellants

No4CWA
2 apn11
Mapxa 2 A 6& 7W8
h
2 7 c

xomUoHeHTS 4~ h* u

XXopfoKncaAi KaXA 76,0 - 75,0 - - 00o 50.0

1I flepxaopaT IMU Idll - 81,0 . . . . .-

nlflrlXpaT aMOMN, - - - 45,0 - - -

'1K fhxpT "aTpi - - - 45,0 - - -
13 HInTpaT aUMONiA - - - - 80.0 - -
1 Ac4aabToJee1TenpoXyxT 16,8 - 25,0 - 18,0 10,0 49,0
1 CMOaJtCTa COss 7,0 13,0 - 10,0 - 8.0 -
-16,CnennaaHue AO6aaKx 0,2 6,0 - - 2,0 2.0 1,0

1) component; 2) brand; 3) Great Britain; 4)

USA; 5) perchlorate powder; 6) the propellant
produced by the Thiokol Chemical Company; 7)
a composition using GALCIT base; 8) a cocposi-
tion with a reduced combustion temperature; 9)
potassium perchlorate; 10) ammonium perchlorate;
11) ammonium picrate- 12) sodium picrate; 13)
ammonium nitrate; 145 asghalt-petroleum prod-
uct; 15) resin binder; 16) special additives.

It is interesting to point out that composite rocket solid pro-

pellants were developed by the Germans as early as during the Second
World War. However, the development of these propellants during that
period was necessitated by the serious shortage of raw materials for

- 99 -
colloidal powers rather than the effort to obtain a powder (solid pro-

pellant) with increased characteristics. As an example of a composite

solid propellant, developed in Germany toward the end of the Second

World War, we can cite the Z-36 composition (in %):

tetranitrocarbonal ........................... 52.0

KNO 41.o
sawdust ...................................... 3.0

polyvinyl acetate ............................ 2.0

carbon black ................................. 2.0

The heating value of the Z-36 powder amounted only to 650 kcal/kg,
i.e., it was substantially lower than the regular colloidal powders.
Basic trends in the development of promising future solid propel-
lants.* Of other trends in promising investigations which are receiv-

ing particular attention abroad at the present time we should make men-
tion of the work being done on propellants exhibiting increased heat-
ing values, a low burning rate, a reduced sensitivity of the rate to
changes in the initial temperature of the charge and to pressure fluc-
tuations within the engine, as well as on powders which have an ex-

panded range of stable combustion and a low combustion temperature.

Work along these lines is being done both in order to develop new pow-
ders as well as to modify the propellants and powders that have al-

ready been adopted for armament purposes. Apparently, these develop-

ments are far from having been perfected, since no reports have ap-
peared in the literature, which would permit us to draw any final con-

clusions nor to make any recommendations as to any operating composi-

tions.
One of the trends in promising developments is the increase of
the power characteristics of the propellants. With this purpose in
mind, attempts have been made to use lithium, fluoride, boron-contain-
- 100 -
ing substances, and several others, as components for solid rocket

propellants.
At the present time, much experimentation is being done on compo.-

sitions which use nitrate and lithium perchlorate. Lithium perchlorate

has an extremely high oxygen potential and may be used for the produc-
tion of propellants exhibiting an extremely high specific impulse. In
America, the American Potash Company, and others, are working on the
development of lithium propellants.

Particular attention is being devoted to the propellants contain-

ing boron.* Boron has a high heating value (14,400 kcal/kg) and is
capable, in combination with hydrogen, to form substances - boron hy-
drides - which have even greater heating values. A general shortcoming
of the boron hydrides, in their application as fuels (combustibles)
for rocket engines, is their toxicity, thermal instability, and sev-

eral other properties which make it difficult to operate engines on

propellants containing boron. Investigations which sought to improve
the physicochemical properties of the boron hydrides resulted in the
development of borohydrocarbons which exhibit satisfactory stability
and toxicity parameters, but a somewhat reduced heating value. It is

assumed that the solid propellant advertised by the Olin Mathieson

Chemical Corporation is an alkylated pentaborane or decaborane.

Fluorine-containing solid propellants are quite effective, since
fluorine is one of the most powerful of the known oxidizers; however,

these propellants are extremely toxic and have not found any practical

application to the present time.

Basic Rocket Solid Propellant Characteristics
In accordance with the requirements imposed on rocket solid pro-
pellants, the most important propellant characteristics are the follow-
ing:
-101-
 specific impulse .................................... J1 kg. sec/kg

heating value ....................................... Qw(zh ) kcal/kg

referred force ...... ................................ fp kg-n/kg

3
specific weight ..................................... y g/cm
combustion temperature .............................. Tp OK

heat capacities of products of combustion,

per unit mass .................................... CpCv kcal/kg0C

index of combustion process ......................... k = Cp/C V

gas constant of products of combustion .............. R kg-m/kg°K

Pn kg/cm 2
boundary of anomalous combustion ....................
The parameter which characterizes the effectiveness of the rocket
engine from the standpoint of an increment in the momentum of the
rocket as a result of the combustion of 1 kg of propellant is referred
to as specific impulse. For contemporary propellants, the magnitude of
specific impulse is equal, on the average, to
Jl- 200 kg. sec/kg.
Strictly speaking, Jl is a characteristic not only of the pro-
pellant but of the entire rocket engine; it is therefore more proper

to speak of the specific impulse of the engine. However, to make the

comparative evaluation of various propellants more convenient it is

the practice to employ this characteristic, determining its magnitude

by burning the propellant charge in some standard test engine.
Much work is being done on increasing the specific impulse of
propellants and engines. Data is available on the successful testing

of engines having a specific impulse of up to 250-280 kg.sec/kg.*

The heating value of the propellant determines the reserve of
thermal energy that is liberated in the engine on the combustion of
the charge, and for various compositions averages 800 to 1250 kcal/kg.

It should be borne in mind that because of the negative oxygen balance

- 102 -
in the solid-propellant compositions, i.e., because of a shortage of
oxygen in conventional smokeless powders, as these are burned in a

rocket engine only a part of the total reserve of internal heat energy
is liberated (20-40%), whereas the remaining energy is liberated in
the final oxidation of the products of combustion in the flame of the
gas stream beyond the nozzle. The total heating value of smokeless

powders is 3000-4000 kcal/kg. We can use the lost heating-value per-

centage by developing various engine combinations with complete com-

bustion or by shifting the oxygen balance of the composition. The heat-

ing value of the powder is generally determined by carrying out experi-

mental combustion tests. The magnitude of the heating value is equal
to the quantity of heat liberated per 1 kg of powder burning in a
closed volume, given the condition that the products of combustion are
cooled by water to a temperature of +180 C. In first approximation, the

magnitude of the heating value may be estimated by calculation, using

the so-called Pi coefficients that have been determined experimentally.

The change in the heating value of the powder is referred to as the

coefficient Pi for the powder component; this change is brought about
by the introduction of 1% of this component. It is conventionally main-

tained that 0 = const, i.e., the given quantity of any component, with
some arbitrary powder composition, liberates a constant quantity of
heat. This makes it possible to calculate the heating value in accord-

ance with the following formula:

Q. (4.1)
am|

where Pi is the coefficient, in kcal/kg%; pi is the content of the ith

component in the powder, in %; Sp is the number of components in the

powder composition.
The specific weight of the propellants for those compositions
- 103 -
 that are already in production is found within the following range:

y = 1.4-1.8 g/cm 3 . In order to obtain high engine characteristics, it

is desirable to obtain a propellant with higher specific weight, since
in this case it will be possible to concentrate a greater reserve of
energy per unit volume of combustion chamber, or with a given magni-

tude of required energy reserve it will be possible to obtain smaller

engine dimensions and weight.
With the combustion of a powder charge in the combustion chamber
of an engine, temperatures of 2000-25000C are developed. At such tem-
peratures, almost all of the structural materials melt, and special
heat-resistant compositions and alloys begin to lose their strength

properties. However, because conventional solid-propellant rocket en-

gines generally operate for only short periods of time, no dangerous

overheating of the structure is, as a rule, observed; special cooling

measures must therefore be implemented only in the region of the crit-

ical section of the nozzle. Nevertheless, it is recommended that pro-
pellants with lower combustion temperatures be selected. The high com-
bustion temperature becomes a problem in the design of engines in

which combustion lasts for 30 to 50 seconds or more. Such engines can

function normally only if extensive use is made of special heat-insula-

tion coatings or if forced-cooling systems are developed.

If we contend that the combustion process in a solid-propellant

engine is isobaric, we will have

Q.M, -C(4.2)
i.e., the propellants with a high heat capacity Cp for the products of
combustion (kcal/kg0 C) will be characterized by low combustion tempera-
ture. On the other hand, if we use the well-known thermodynamic rela-

Stionship
- 1o4 -
 h-I (4.3)
where k is the index of the procese; R is the gas constant of the
products of combustion; A is the thermal equivalent of work, and if we
express R in terms of the universal gas constant
R= 848/pZ kg-m/kg°K, (4.4)
we will obtain
c- hAA848,
~' h-k-I p*j

i.e., the products of combustion exhibiting low molecular weight will

have greater specific heat capacity. Thus, all other conditions being

equal, it would be desirable to use propellants whose products of com-

bustion have low molecular weight and a high gas constant. The molec-
ular weight of the gas mixture of the products of combustion is deter-

mined by the composition of the mixture and is calculated in accord-

ance with the following formula:

t,rn pa, (4.5)

where pi is the molecular weight of each of the products of gas com-

bustion entering into the composition; ri is the volumetric fraction
of this gas in the mixture; p. is the so-called apparent molecular
weight of the mixture.
The quantity that is conventionally referred to as the force of
the powder is an extremely important characteristic for rocket propel-
lants:
f = RT kg-r/kg. (4.6)
p p
The force of the powder is a complex characterization of the com-
position of the products of combustion and their temperature, and de-
termines the specific operating capacity of the powder. In addition to
the heating value, the force of the powder is a basic power character-
- 105 -
 TABLE 4.3
Some Ballistic Characteristics of Rocket Pro-
pellants

Maxapsa
20v(,) 3T rh
K 1
lnig 4 51o
xcex/xa c 12

Z-167 830 1.58 22500,376 1.23 84000 - -

7 R-61 (repma.HX) 890 1,60 2390 0,382 1,24 87400 - -

17-H 790 1,62 2160 0,360 1.21 82000 - -

1054 890 1,59 2390 - - 86900 - -

JP 1230 1,60 31600,437 1,22 103400 230 -
JPN 1230 1,61 31600.424 1,21 103400 230 -
M-7 1250 - 3210 - - 104000 220 -
MPN 880 - 23100,398 - 86800 - -
8 R-61 (CIUA) - 1,62 - - 1,23 - 240 20.0
JRN 895 - 2390 0.381 - 87400 195 -
SC 955 - 2535- 1,22 90700 190 -
HSC 1170 1,84 3030- 1,22 100600 200 -
9 axcnep=eaab- - 1,57. 17 0.367 1,24 - 160 -
3MM auri.lciul
nopox
ALI-161 - 1,77 1750 - 1,27 - 185 -
o0AuraIcini'map- - - 240 0,367 1,26 .. . .
I10ALSMI -D 1,74 1970 - I:25 - 195 15.0.
12CoCTS m PcM - 1,55 1460 - 1,26 - 190 -
Tllokol hemlcal -

NDRS - 1,77 17 -- 1.2 - 200 -

13H"aaoTe mepa. - 1,65 152 - 1.24 - 165 -
1TyPUM
CocTru
ICOcTDnoymeu. - 1,94 272 127 - 210 -
NMI no OCNOM
GALSIT

The quantity Cp is a function of temperature

and pressure. The table presents the value of
CP (and correspondingly of k) at p = 100 kg/cm 2
and temperature Tp for each propellant.
**The magnitude of the specific impulse is pre-
sented for the standard test engine at a pres-
sure of 70 atm and a nozzle expansion of da/dk=
= 2.24.
1) Brand; 2) Gw(zh)., kcal/kg; 3) T, g/cm 3 ; 4) f, kg-mvikg; 5) Jl,**
( kg.sec/kg; 6) p*mi, kg/cm 2 ;
7) R-61 (Germany); 8) R-61 (USA); 9) ex-
perimental British powder; 10) British perchlorate powder; 11) GALCIT;
12) composition produced by the Thiokol Chemical Company; 13) low-tem-
perature composition; 14) composition based on GALCIT.
- lO6 -
 istic of the propellant.
With respect to the quantity P*min which determines the lower

boundary of pressures at which the propellant will burn without anoma-

lies, it should be pointed out that the boundary of permissible pres-

sure values must be as low as possible. In this case, it will be pos-

sible to design an engine for low operating pressures, i.e., with min-

imum wall thicknesses and correspondingly low structural weight. Con-

temporary foreign propellants exhibit a limit pressure boundary of the

order of 15 to 35 kg/cm2 .

It has been established that the quantity P*min is determined not

only by the properties of the propellant, but by the structural fea-

tures of each individual engine; therefore, under certain conditions

P*min increases to higher values. The problems of anomalous combustion

and the selection of the operating pressure are examined in greater

detail below; here we must concern ourselves only with the fact that

the best propellants are those which under comparable conditions burn

normally at lower pressures.

Some characteristics of various propellants are presented in

Table 4.3. It should be pointed out that with respect to individual

propellants, contradictory data are encountered in the literature, and

therefore the corresponding characteristics are not presented because

of their doubtful reliability.

§2. APPROXIMATE CALCULATION OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE PRODUCTS OF COM-

BUSTION

Many of the processes that take place within a solid-propellant

rocket engine, and some of the parameters of interior ballistics, are

strong functions of the ccmposition and the properties of the products

of propellant combustion; therefore the determination of the composi-
(" tion of the products of combustion is an extremely important matter.

-107-
 In first approximation, the calculation of the composition of the
products of combustion can be reduced to finding and solving a system

of equations for the coefficients of the propellant-combustion reac-

tion, and this system of equations, in general form, is written as

follows:
C.H&O,Nd-xCO 2+YCO+zH,+HO+ A-Nj.

where CaHbOcNd is the so-called conventional formula for the propel-

lant; a, b, c, and d are the number of gram-atoms of the corresponding
elements in a conventional molecule of propellant; x, y, z, u, and d/2
are the number of gram-molecules of the corresponding substances in
the products of propellant combustion (the coefficients of the reac-

tion).
The notation which enumerates all of the above chemical elements

that enter into the composition of the propellant components is re-

ferred to as the conventional formula; this formula indicates the
total gram-atoms of these elements for all compcnenta. The cnventional
formula is found on the basis of the chemical composition of the pro-

pellant and is derived for 1 kg of propellant.

The procedure employed for the derivation of the conventional

formula is best demonstrated in a specific example. Let us examine a

propellant having the following composition (in %):

nitrocellulose (12.2% N)..................... 56.6
nitroglycerine ...... ....... 28.0
dinitrotoluene ................... 11. 0
centralite ............ . ... . . . .. .. 4.4

industrial wax ............................... 0.1

and the known chemical formulas of the individual components:
.
nitrocellulose (12.2% N)................... 0 2 2 . 5 03 6 . 1 6 H2 8 . 8 N8 7

- 108-
 nitroglycerine ............................... C 3 H 5 (ON02 )3

dinitrotoluene ............................... C 6 H 6 (CH3 )(NO 2 )2

centralite ..................... **
........
. .. ..
0. C0N 2 C 2 H5 (C6 H 5 )2
industrial wax ............................. C2 0 H4 2,
where the formula for nitrocellulose is derived through the utilization
of the following relationships:
C.. = 21,85- , 180 (N%- 2,75);
O. - 36,40 + 0,444 (N%- 12,75); (4.7)
How= 27,32- 2,690 (N%- 12,75);
N.,= 9,10+0,722(N%-1275) I
(N is the nitrogen content, in %, in the nitrocellulose of the powder).
According to definition, the conventional powder formula will
take the following form:
Cs Ho Of N5
J -I II i I N,-

5
where, for example, 2 C3 is the sum of the gram-atoms of carbon in
J=l

each of the five components of the given composition, per I kg of pow-

der.
We will find C for one of the powder components; for example, we
will find this quantity for dinitrotoluene. In accordance with the
chemical formula, there are seven atoms of carbon in the molecule of
this substance; on the other hand, if the powder contains 11% dinitro-
toluene, there will be 110 g of the substance in 1 kg of the powder.
Hence the number of gram-atoms of carbon in the total of the subscripts
in the conventional powder formula will be

C,-~7*m4,23.

or, in general form

- -(4.8)

-109-
where n is the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of the Jth com-
ponent of the powder; g, is the weight fraction of the 1th component,

in ) kg of powder; p, is the molecular weight of the Jth component.

As a result, the subscript of the conventional formula is defined

as the sum
•-
# i F
F-j' (4 .9)

where s is the number of components entering into the composition of

the given powder.

The subscripts for the other elements in the conventional formula
are determined in much the same manner.
Without dwelling in detail on the calculation, we will present
the calculation results in special form (Table 4.4).
After the conventional formula for the powder has been formed, we
determine three relationships for the calculation of the combustion-

reaction coefficients, and these relationships are equations of the

material balance of the reacting substances:

a-=+-,
b-2z+2u.
c-2x+Y+u.
It should be borne in mind that in addition to the basic combus-

tion reaction

C,HoON-. xCO,+yCO+z Hs+aHJO+-N,

secondary reversible reactions take place in the gaseous products, and

of these the following are the basic reactions:
2CO±-'CO.+C

and the dissociation reactions:

CO;CO +0,
Co
HO);;- H +OFL

-110-
 It has been demonstrated by special analysis that for the pres-

sures and temperatures characteristic of the combustion chambers in a

solid-propellant rocket engine, the equilibrium constant of the reac-
tion
2C0±CO,+C

is so great that this reaction may be regarded as shifted as far as

possible to the left, i.e., it need not be considered in practical
calculations. The dissociation reactions also play no significant role,

so that we must take into consideration only the following reaction:

HO-+CO ;-COH2,

which is written in the following form for the products of propellant

combustion:
UH20+yCO 'xCO,+iI-.

The equilibrium constant of this reaction

K- -IH2O! iCO!
JCOJ JH.

yields the additional equation

which when taken into consideration serves to close the system of equa-
tions employed for the determination of the combustion-reaction coef-
ficients:
a-X+y
bm2z+2a,
c y(4.10)

The quantity K is a function of the temperature of the products

of combustion; therefore, the solution of the system can be found only

if the temperature of powder combustion is known. If the combustion
temperature is not given, we proceed in the following manner. We assume

- 1i1 -
 TABLE 4.4
Data for the Calculation of the Conventional Propellant Formula

3 4 5 Coiepzanme omezinux meSeUNON US I x3

2Xawuuqecnau opaeya 14:11I zACes nopoxa a S-aui
1 H83SUmiee
j(OUoneu OMDOMIn sc KOMa Iopoaa
XC ,j ; L H/mh, IL OjmjL NjmIJ

6
HNTpOXAleCTIK Cn14 1 26jOO1 1 N..7 . 1000 3N 12,70 16,25 20,40 4.91

7
HTporanuepe CaHa(ONO) 227 290 3,70 6,18 11,10 3,70
8
ANHTpoTroAyoX COH3(CHS)(O) 182 110 4,23 3,63 2,42 1,21
9
UeuTpaaT CONAN
1 (CHs) 3W 44 2,18 2,18 0.14 0,29
10
BOCX TOXMHqeCKI CIIHa 282 1 0,07 0,15 - -

llHToro 9 I NaSMnDa 6yM?. 22,8 2V39 3406 10,11

12?. e. ycbosaai 4opuyaA unecM aK: Cgaeu'lsu.osaonIm

Note. k3 , mi, and fj are the number of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
atoms in a molecule of the Jth component of the propellant.
1) Component; 2) chemical formula for component; 3) molecular weight
of component; 4) content in 1 kg of powder; 5) content of individual
elements in I kg of powder, in gram-atoms; 6) nitrocellulose; 7) nitro-
glycerine; 8) dinitrotoluene; 9) centralite; 10) industrial wax; 11)
the total for 1 kg of propellant will be; 12) i.e., the conventional
formula is written as follows: C22.88H2839034.06N10.1ii

, e r

II, | |

zu rue iyara
Fig. 4.2. Graph for the deter-
mination of true temperature
of the products of powder com-
bustion. H i is the heat content
(enthalpy) of the powder; 1)
Hi, kcal/kg.

- 112 -
three tentative values of Tp and the composition of the products of
combustion for each temperature is determined. On the basis of the com-
position of the products of combustion and the heat content of the com-
ponents of the gas mixture, the total heat content of the products of
combustion is determined; a comparison of the heat contents against
the heating value of the powder makes it possible to find the tempera-
ture of the products of combustion (Fig. 4.2), on the basis of which
we can refine the composition of the products of combustion.
A more detailed calculation of the temperature of the products of
combustion was presented in the book by G.B. Sinyarev and M.V. Dob-
rovol'skiy: "Zhidkostnyye raketnyye dvigateli" (Oborongiz, 1957) ["Liq-
uid Rocket Engines" (State Defense Industry Press, 1957)].

If we know the composition of the products of combustion, we can

easily calculate the basic quantities which characterize the proper-

ties of the gas mixture. For example, in accordance with the laws gov-
erning gas mixtures, partial pressures of individual components of the
mixture can be calculated according to the following formula:
.,.A,,.
(4.11)
where Pi is the partial pressure of the ith component of the gas mix-
ture; p. is the total pressure in the gas mixture, said pressure equal
to the pressure within the combustion chamber; ri is the volumetric
fraction of the gas in the mixture.
The apparent molecular weight L of the mixture will be

,,,
', (4.12)

where pi is the molecular weight of the ith gas in the composition of

the mixture; sr is the number of components in the mixture.
If we know these quantities, we can determine the heat capacity
of the products of combustion, their gas constant, and certain other
- 113 -
parameters which are of great significance for the interior-ballistic

and thermal calculations for the engine. The composition of the prod-
ucts of complete combustion of certain solid propellants is presented

in Table 4.5.

TABLE 4.5
Composition of the Products of Combustion of
Certain Brands of Solid Rocket Propellants
2Mapa AurAu.
JPN JP M-7 AL-161 BACA HSC Cxoi nq
,IPOYIO~i umI -- n p
noyrm cropsazz

cot 25.1 27.1 24.8 3.3 28.3 25.3

Co 26.0 25,0. 24.7 44.0 24.9 25.7
H2,0 28.3 26.0 28.5 9.9 27.7 '27.9
5.0 3.9 4.1 27.4 i.8 4.7
N, 15.1 16.5 14.9 0.1 15.0 15.4
OH 0.5 0.4 0.4 - 0.6 -
.4Tepaue qacmu - - 0.9 - 1.1 0.4
KCi - 1.7 15.1 - -
SOl - - 0.2 o,3-
.mo~eyap-,Ui se¢fs 27.8 28.0 28.7 30.0 27.9 X.0.jI 25,0

Note. Composition of the products of propel-

Tacombustion is presented in molecular
percentages for p = 70 atm.
1) Components of the products of combustion;
2) brand; 3) British perchlorate powder; 4)
solid particles; 5) molecular weight ."

§3. BASIC QANTITATIVE RELATIONSHIPS GOVERNING COMBUSTION OF SOLID

ROCKET PROPELLANTS
Mechanism of Combustion of Solid Rocket Propellants
On the basis of published works, we would come to the conclusion
that only the combustion of colloidal powders has been studied in suf-
ficient detail up to the present time. It is for this reason that all
that follows is of direct significance only with respect to the com-
bustion of smokeless rocket powders of this class. With respect to
composite propellants it has been established experimentally that, in
- 114-
 first approximation, the basic quantitative relationships governing
the combustion of these propellants can be assumed to be the same as
in the case of the colloidal powders.
As a rule, a great quantity of various components are included in

the composition of the powder; these components form complex physical

and chemical bonds between one another and, therefore, the powder com-
bustion is a complex multistage process.

The earliest experiments and the first theoretical generalizations

of the observation results made it possible to establish that the pow-

der, as a rule, burns in parallel layers, and it was also established

that the basic reactions of the combustion process occur in the gas
phase; in addition, it was determined that the combustion of the pow-

der precedes the thermal decomposition of the surface layer of the pow-
der grain. Since nitrocellulose, the base of the rocket powder, is non-

volatile, it was not possible to explain the mechanism of the forma-

tion of the gas phase until 1942; it was at this time that the hypo-
theses as to the gasification of the products of the thermal decomposi-
tion of the surface layer of the powder was offered; in addition, it
was impossible to offer an explanation for the above until we were
able to obtain theoretical results that were in good agreement with

experimental data.*
By gasification we mean the process of the primary decomposition
of the solid propellant which results in the disruption of certain

chemical bonds and produces gaseous products and solid particles that

are suspended in the gas phase. These products enter into final chem-

ical reactions of combustion within the confines of the gas phase.

In the opinion of many specialists and investigators, the disrup-
(:, tion of the solid phase is the stage of combustion which determines
the rate of the entire process and this, in the general case, is not
- 115 -
 equal to the rate of the formation of the primary gaseous products,
said rate calculated in accordance with the following formula:
N

-- (4.13)
where mr is the mass rate of gas formation; km is some constant of the
process; E is the total energy of activation; R is the gas constant;
Tz is the gas temperature at the boundary of separation between the
solid and gas phases.
We can present, in the following form, a more complete picture of
the successive processes taking place in the powder during combustion
in the chamber of the rocket engine.
As the outer layer of the powder grain is heated to temperatures
of 100-1200 C, the molecular bonds of the nitrocellulose in the powder
grain are depolymerized and the solvate-hydrate complexes of the
molecules are destroyed.
With continued increase in temperature, the stronger chemical and
physical bonds are destroyed, and by t = 200-2200 C a liquid-viscous

layer of melted powder is formed at the surface of the grains.

The volatile components of the powder are vaporized at the sur-
face of the liquid-viscous layer and the nitrocellulose is gasified;

as a result, a layer of so-called vapor-gas is formed at the surface

of the grain. The region in which the gas phase is formed is referred

to as the zone of powder gasification. Here, in the immediate vicinity

of the burning surface, the products of the gasification virtually do

not interact, and only certain exothermic reactions take place; these
are of no particular significance. The stream of particles in the gas-
ification zone is normal to the surface of the grain. The products of
Cthe gasiftcation, entrained by this stream, are carried into the vapor-
gas cloud where the combuscible mixture of the gases is prepared.

- 116 -

--
.. . -,..
. .. _. ._....... .... . ..r . . . . .. . . . . .
 2M S

280 '2

a b

Fig. 4.3. Diagram of the com-

bustion of a colloidal rocket
solid propellant. Tz) gas tem-
perature at the boundary of
separation between the solid
and gas phases; TO) initial
charge temperature; a) solid
powder phase; b) gaseous prod-
ucts; 1) cupola of grain with
initial powder parameter; 2)
zone of primary decomposition
of powder components' 3) liq-
uid-viscous layer; 4) gasi-
fication zone; 5) zone of com-
bustible mixture preparation;
6) zone of combustion; 7) prod-
ucts of powder combustion.

The final combustion reactions which take place intensively in

the so-called zone of combustion are initiated in the layer of the
vapor-gas cloud where a corresponding concentration of active products
is achieved. At the end of the combustion zone, the gas temperature
attains the isobaric combustion temperature.
Figure 4.3 shows a diagrara of the combustion of a colloidal pow-
der. A detailed study of the reactions taking place within the combus-
tion zone has demonstrated that these take place successively, in two
C stages. At the end of the first stage, the products of incomplete oxi-
dation predominate in the products of combustion and these contain ox-

- 117 -
 ides of unreduced nitrogen. In this case, approximately one half of
the enthalpy of the powder is liberated. During the second stage, the
t complete reduction of the nitrogen from its oxides takes place, and

the remaining substances are oxidized. The reactions of this phase

liberate the remaining 50% of the energy of powder combustion.
It has been established that as the combustion terminates on the
completion of the reactions of the first stage alone, low-frequency
pressure fluctuations are observed in the engine, combustion becomes
unstable in nature, and there is a tendency to anomalous attenuation.
On the other hand, the reactions of the second stage may take place
only under definite conditions within the engine, and we have refer-
ence here particularly to pressures not below some definite operating
pressure for the given powder composition. Thus the nature of the
phases of the powder-combustion mechanism is a function of the param-
eters of the interior ballistics of the engine and the engine design;
in order to liberate a greater quantity of energy within the combus-
tion chamber and to achieve stable combustion, we require conditions
which guarantee the occurrence of the chemical reactions of the second
combustion stage.
On completion of the combustion reaction, the gaseous products
that have been formed move through open passages in the engine to the
nozzle and are ejected. As a result of the discharge of the products
of combustion, a reactive force is developed and this force is the re-
action of the exhaust stream of the products of combustion.
It should be pointed out that the sequence of processes (examined
in detail) that takes place in the combustion of solid rocket propel-
lants is not absolutely reliable. However, it may be used as an operat-
S ing diagram of the combustion, since it yields results that are, for
the most part, in good agreement with experimental data.
- 118 -
 Burning Rate Function
One of the basic features of a solid-propellant rocket engine is
the fact that the burning rate of the powder in the engine is a strong
function of the magnitude of the pressure in the combustion chamber.
The linear burning rate of the powder as a function of pressure is
generally referred to as the powder-combustion function, and here by
linear (mechanical) burning rate for the powder grains we mean the
rate at which the burning surface of the charge shifts in the direc-
tion of the inside normal:

where uI is the linear burning rate; e is the so-called cupola of the

grain (the minimum distance covered by the burning front during the
time of engine operation).
The physical nature of the burning rate as a function of pressure
is obvious. In fact, the burning rate is defined as the rate at which
the chemical reactions take place in the zone of combustion and it is
determined by the quantity of gases entering into this zone of combus-
tion from the grain.
The quantity of these gases is directly proportional to the mass
rate of formation of the gaseous products of primary powder decomposi-
tion, which in accordance with (4.13) increases as the temperature in
the vicinity of the charge surface rises. Thus, the combustion (burn-
ing) rate in the final analysis increases as the temperature in the
vicinity of the charge surface rises. The characteristic curve of this
function is presented in Fig. 4.4. On the other hand, the grain is
heated as a result of the transfer of heat between the upper layer of
the grain and the high-temperature zone of combustion. The heat flow

C to the grain may be regarded as inversely proportional to the distance

- 119 -
 Burning Rate Function
One of the basic features of a solid-propellant rocket engine is
the fact that the burning rate of the powder in the engine is a strong
function of the magnitude of the pressure in the combustion chamber.
The linear burning rate of the powder as a function of pressure is
generally referred to as the powder-combustion function, and here by
linear (mechanical) burning rate for the powder grains we mean the
rate at which the burning surface of the charge shifts in the direc-
tion of the inside normal:
d
U e

where u1 is the linear burning rate; e is the so-called cupola of the

grain (the minimum distance covered by the burning front during the
time of engine operation).
The physical nature of the burning rate as a function of pressure
is obvious. In fact, the burning rate is defined as the rate at which
the chemical ructions take place in the zone of comoustion and It is
determined by the quantity of gases entering into this zone of combus-
tion from the grain.
The quantity of these gases is directly proportional to the mass
rate of formation of the gaseous products of primary powder decomposi-
tion, which in accordance with (4.13) increases as the temperature in
the vicinity of the charge surface rises. Thus, the combustion (burn-
ing) rate in the final analysis increases as the temperature in the
vicinity of the charge surface rises. The characteristic curve of this
function is presented in Fig. 4.4. On the other hand, the grain is
heated as a result of the transfer of heat between the upper layer of
the grain and the high-temperature zone of combustion. The heat flow
C- to the grain may be regarded as inversely proportional to the distance

- 119 -
 1
-CKA/reI

-- j

Fig. 4.4. The curve showing

the burning rate of a colloidal
powder as a function of the
temperature near the surface
of the burning grain. 1) Ul,
cm/sec.

I.....
.. .. .. .. .. .. 1

Fig. 4.5. Diagram clarifying

the burning rate as a function
of the magnitude of pressure
in the engine.
q, = k/6(p) (T. - Tz) =
= f(p) Ckcal/m2 r].
k) a powder constant; 6(p) the
distance from the zone of com-
bustion to the surface of the
grain; T ) the temperature of
the products of combustion;
Tz ) the temperature close to
the surface of the charge; 1)
the flow of the products of
combustion; 2) 2, kcm 2 ; 3)
reverse heat flow; 4) powder
grain.

between.the surface of the grain and the combustion zone, i.e., the
- 120 -
 -- O •
..... L

Fig. 4.6. Characteristic curves

of the relationship between the
burning rate u and the pres-
sure . for colloidal powders
of various compositions. 1-4)
Powder compositions; A) u1 ,
cm/sec; B) 200 p, kg/cm 2 .

burning rate, all other conditions being equal, is all the greater,
the smaller the distance between the combustion zone and the surface

of the grain (Fig. 4.5).

What takes place in the engine as the pressure within the engine
is increased? With an increase in pressure, the vapor-gas cloud is

compressed against the surface of the grain and the transfer of heat
between the grain and the combustion zone is intensified. As a result,
the temperature close to the surface of the charge rises and, conse-

quently, the rate of gas formation increases, i.e., the mass of prod-

ucts entering the combustion zone increases. All of this results in a

situation in which the rate of powder burning increases. Conversely,

with a drop in pressure in the engine, the vapor-gas cloud moves away
from the surface of the grain and the intensity of heat transfer be-

tween the cloud and the grain diminishes, thus resulting in a reduc-

tion in the burning rate.

It should be pointed out that in the case of an unlimited increase

in pressure there is a certain minimum distance between the surface of

the grain and the combustion zone (of the order of the mean molecular

- 121 -
 free path), i.e., there must exist some maximum burning rate. On the

other hand, with a reduction in pressure, the burning rate can be re-
duced to zero (the damping of the combustion process), if the heat

transferred to the grain from the zone of combustion is inadequate to

permit vaporization processes and the gasification of the liquid-vis-

cous powder layer.

As has already been indicated, in first approximation the combus-

tion rate may be regarded as constant at any point on the surface of

the grain. The hypotheses as to the burning in parallel layers become

invalid only in the case of engines exhibiting a high ratio of burning

surface to free combustion-chamber cross section,where the burning

rate increases along the surface of the grain; however, this case may
be regarded as special.

The theoretical determination of the relationship between the

burning rate and the pressure involves certain difficulties because of

the features encountered in the chemical kinetics of the reactions

taking place in the various zones of the vapor-gas cloud, and because
the basic quantitative relationships governing diffusion and heat

transfer in the gaseous products are extremely complex. Moreover, the

very structure of the vapor-gas cloud remains essentially uninvesti-

gated. Therefore, it is the general practice to seek the laws govern-

ing burning in the form of certain empirical relationships which will
generalize the experimental data from a statistical standpoint.

The evaluation of the results obtained in experimental burning of

powders has shown that it is impossible to represent the function of
the burning ul = ul(p) by a single function for the various powders
and the wide range of possible values for the operating pressures.
rTherefore, the burning functions for various powders are expressed in
various ways.
-122-
 In this case, the so-called power burning functions have become
the most commonly used:
, ua-A-+Bpu,.
UaUl P',

which approximate the relationship between the burning rate of col-

loidal powders and the pressure in a range from 100 to 150 kg/cm 2 com-

paratively well. Given higher pressures (up to 300 kg/cm 2 ) the burning

function for the powders generally approaches a linear function:

us -Ap+B,
UamUI P.

In the formulas for the burning functions that have been pre-
sented above, u I is the linear burning rate, in cm/sec; p is the op-

erating pressure in the combustion chamber, in kg/cm2; A, B, v, and

u1
are certain experimental coefficients that are functions of the pow-

der composition, the initial temperature of the charge, the operating

pressure, and certain similar parameters.

Table 4.6 presents, as an example, the burning functions of cer-

tain powders. These functions have been averaged over the entire pres-

sure interval and must therefore be regarded as approximate functions,

yielding only a general qualitative characteristic for the relation-
ship between the burning rate and pressure. In practical calculations
it becomes necessary to bear in mind that the coefficients of the burn-

ing function are themselves functions of the magnitude of pressure.

Figure 4.6 shows characteristic curves of the relationship be-

tween the burning rate and pressure for several colloidal powders.
As a result of the fact that the burning rate is a function of

pressure, the engine characteristics are unstable, and we also have

the fact that the actual combustion process exhibits tendencies to
Soscillation in the case of pressure fluctuations appearing within the

- 123 -
 TABLE 4.6
Burning-Rate Function for Several Rocket Solid Propellants
2Amuans3ox xA&MNNAs
Mt
NaqihAM&
Patypa
iexNe.
pI180a
aapas 3y,,. p-io wei.lexs 4 150 xesja.cp-YO0 xscI

1o-+80"
..
[,,
1Mapa O--200 C o-+20' C to-+OC 4="-20' C 4-+20"C C

JP 0,06W.11 0,032jP'I 0,1011O" - 0.0049p+0,32 0.006p+0.41

O'
JPN 0,07 * 0,0879p° 'e 0,1016 '* - 0.0043p- ,51 -

O
Memaemmo ropeaxii aur. O,o3.7 0,03751*pP 0,04 .... O,OO p+O.22
AHACKNI COcMaB

17-H 0,023p° ' 0,0270p° " 0.0314p' - -

AL-161 - 0.0297p° - -

Anrmiacacx" Depliopa?- -4 0,00p' - -

muiR nopox

1) Brand; 2) range of pressures and initial temperature of charge; 3)

Prain-< p - 150 kg/cm2 ; 4) 150 kg/cm2 < p < 300 kg/cm2 ; 5) slow burn-
ing British composition; 6) British perchlorate powder.

engine. In this connection, there is some interest in the work being

done to find powder compositions whose burning rate is independent or

virtually independent of changes in pressure within the engine.

The Burning Rate as a Function of the Initial Charge Temperature t0

As has already been stated, the physicochemical decomposition

processes involving the components of the powder precede the actual
combustion of the powder; here, the powder components enter the solid
phase and, as a rule, the decomposition processes are accompanied by

absorption of heat. The intensity of these processes is a function of

C the intensity of heat transfer to the surface of the grain. The lower
the initial temperature of the powder charge, the greater the quantity

- 124 -
 of heat that must be supplied in order for the primary reactions of

the destruction of the solid powder phase and the formation of the
vapor gas to take place. If we maintain that the magnitude of the re-

verse heat flow from the zone of combustion to the solid phase of the
propellant is approximately constant (this is what is observed in a

solid-propellant rocket engine), it is easy to understand that for low

initial charge temperatures a correspondingly large heating-time in-
terval is required for the surface layer of the grain, as a result of

which the relative rate of the chemical processes resulting in the

formation of the gas phase will be low and, consequently, the burning
rate of the powder will also be low.
The thermal conductivity of the powder is comparatively low (in
comparison with the burning rate), so that during the burning time the

grain is not heated up, i.e., the temperature in the main part of the
grain remains virtually unchanged. Thus the relationship between the

burning rate and the initial charge temperature is preserved through-

out the entire burning time and it is for this reason that the second

basic characteristic of powder combustion appears.

In first approximation we may assume that a change in the burning
rate with a change in pressure in the engine and the initial charge

temperature are mutually independent. In this case, in order to take

into consideration the effect of these two factors on the burning rate,
we can use two various functions, so that
UA-U W)I{t().

where u1 is the burning rate; u(p) is the burning-rate function for

the powder; f(to) is a dimensionless function by means of which we
take into consideration the effect of initial charge temperature on
L the burning rate; this function is generally referred to as the tem-
perature function of combustion.
-125-
 It is most convenient to introduce f(to) as the quantity which
indicates the extent to which the burning rate undergoes change at any

given temperature in comparison with some established rate such as,

for example, the rate at t0 = +200 C (at p = const). In this case
(o) .,(p.)- (4.15)
N(P. go -+20)

In the general practice of calculations f(t0 ) is calculated in

terms of the temperature coefficient 3t of the burning rate in accord-
ance with the following formula:
1(t9) -1+6 (t,-a20), (4.16)
where 1t indicates the change in powder burning rate with a change in
charge temperature by 10 (from a temperature of +200C),

u,=N(P
to)- ,, +. (4.17)
In differential form, more suitable for the subsequent mathemati-
cal transformations,

(4.18)

where t z is the variable temperature of the charge.

Experiments have demonstrated that the temperature coefficient of

the burning rate is not an absolute constant and changes somewhat with

a change in the temperature of the charge and the pressure within the
combustion chamber; however, this need not be taken into consideration

in the tentative calculations.

The relationship Ot = P(p) is important only in the case of low
pressures; if we neglect Pt = 1(p) for pressures in excess of 50-70
kg/cm 2, this will have virtually no effect on the accuracy of the cal-
culation results. With respect to the relationship 3t = p(tz), this
will have an effect on the temperature function of the burning rate
S throughout the entire possible temperature interval of rocket engine

- 126 -
 application. The relationship Ot = P(tz) is generally presented in the
following form:

A,-%-,) '(4.19)

where Bt is some constant of the powder whose magnitude is inversely

proportional to the temperature coefficient of the burning rate at 200 C.
If we take (4.19) into consideration, the temperature function of
the combustion can be presented in the following form:

I)=
+ F,(ioB-
2o')( Bj (fo-20) 4 -2D('2o (4.20)

TABLE 4.7
T~uuepeT~rpuua md
WI -spa ~ama~

-100 -70 2.2.10-8

-40+0 -20 2,16.10-3
-10"+10 0 4.6.10-8
0++20 +10 7,0.10-8
+201+40 +30 10.3.10-4
+40.+0 +60 14,.0-8

1) Temperature interval, 0C;

2) mean temperature interval,
tsr; 3) mean value of the tem-
perature coefficient.

Experiments have shown that at atmospheric pressure the relation-

ship Pt = P(tz) can be characterized by the indicated values of the

temperature coefficient, as presented in Table 4.7.
In tentative calculations, it may be maintained that for the ma-
Jority of colloidal powders the change in the temperature of the charge
L by 1 0C for the operating pressures characteristic for solid-propellant
engines changes the burning rate on the average by 0.1-0.5% (in the

- 127 -
 U. ta' A

I IA

* * -m BNW/c
Fig. 4.7. Curves for the burn-
ing rate of colloidal powder
for various conditions of ig-
nition. 1) to = +60°C; 2) to =
= +200C; 3) to =-20 C. A) u,
cm/sec; B) 200 p, kg/cm

same direction).
Figure 4.7 shows a family of combustion curves for various initial
charge temperatures for a colloidal rocket powder.

Relationship between the Burning Rate and the Structural Features of

the E n Combuston Anomalies)
An extremely important feature of the operation of a rocket solid-

propellant engine is the relationship between the parameters of the

combustion process and, in particular, the magnitude of the burning

rate and the structural features of each specific engine and the rela-
tionship between certain geometric characteristics of the powder charge
and the dimensions of the combustion chamber.
From this standpoint it is interesting to point to two basic
phenomena which are observed in solid-propellant engines: erosive burn-

ing and vibration burning (referred to as resonant burning ["chugging"

or "screaming"] in American literature).
Erosive burning. Erosive burning is observed, as a rule, at the
initial instant of engine operation and primarily in structures in

Swhich the magnitude of the free combustion-chamber cross section is

- 128 -
 somewhat greater than the area of the critical section of the nozzle.
With this relationship between the dimensions of the flowthrough sec-
tions, the velocity of the motion of the products of combustion along
the surface of the grain can increase noticeably and attain substan-
tial magnitudes in the sections of the nozzle. With sufficiently high
velocities, a local increase in burning intensity is observed, and
this acceleration of burning is referred to as erosive burning.
The magnitude of the linear burning rate in the cross sections in
which erosive burning u I takes place is proportional to the local
velocity of the flow
, =, ,0+ 40, ( 4.21 )

where u 1 is the rated (calculated) linear burning rate, without any

consideration of the effect of the flow of products of combustion; kv
is the erosive-burning coefficient; wg is the velocity of the stream
(flow) of the products of combustion in the given cross section.
The physical nature of the appearance of erosive burning can be
presented in the following form. Given a sufficiently high rate of gas
flow from the burning surface and comparatively small dimensions for
the flowthrough sections, a local increase in static pressure in the
stream of the products of combustion and an increase in the velocity
of the flow is observed at the nozzle end of the grain. A substantial
increase in velocity results in the appearance of a nonsteady-state
turbulent boundary layer on the outer surface of the vapor-gas cloud.
An increase in static pressure and more intensive heat transfer in the
zone of combustion as a result of the turbulent mixing of the vapor-
gas layers results, in the final analysis, in an increase in the local
burning rate. A quantitative increase in the burning rate is deter-
L mined by the sensitivity of the kinetics of the reactions taking place
in the vapor-gas and the powder grain to a change in pressure and in
- 129 -
the heat flows in the corresponding phases of the system.
The nature of erosive burning is not yet sufficiently clear, and
various attempts at simplified calculations have not produced any sat-
isfactory results. It has, nevertheless, been confirmed that the de-
termining factors resulting in erosive burning are the parameters of
the stream of products of combustion and the intensity of heat trans-
fer; in addition, it has been established that erosive burning becomes
noticeable only for Wg > W*, so that more exactly
U:.,U.I1 + k.(w,-WP, (4.22)
where w* is the maximum velocity of the products-of-combustion flow,
at which the erosion effect is not observed.

Wimpress* and Green** found that for a powder of the JPN type the
quantity kv is
kv = 0. 00219 sec/.
Geckler*** recommends that iv be assumed equal to
= 0.00163 sec/m.
Later investigations**** showed that the coefficient kv is a func-
tion of the velocity of the flow; the following numerical values of kv
were obtained here:
k v = 0.00245 sec/m at wS = 200 m/sec
kv = 0.00225 sec/m at wS = 250 m/sec
k v = 0.00214 sec/m at wg = 350 r/sec
(for engine pressures up to 80 kg/cm 2 ).
At pressures somewhat in excess of 80 kg/cm 2 , the coefficient kc
increases approximately to k m 0.003 sec/m for the same velocities.
Figure 4.8 shows the curve of the relative increase in burning
rate in the case of erosive burning as a function of the velocity of
the flow. The curve was obtained for a powder that was similar in com-
position and properties to the JPN powder.
- 130 -
 Fig. 4.8. Curve of relative
increase in burning rate due
to erosion for various veloc-
ities of the stream of the
products of combustion. 1)
wg, m/sec.

Ip 2

Fig. 4.9. Curve of pressure in

engine with intensive erosion
at initiation of combustion.
1) P, kg/cm 2 ; 2) erosion peak
of pressure; 3) t, sec.

Figure 4.9 shows a characteristic curve for the change in pres-

sure in an engine in the case of intensive erosion at the initial in-

stant of burning.
An experimental investigation of erosive burning has shown that
it takes place only at the beginning of the burning process and comes
to a rapid conclusion, since the free cross section quickly increases

as the burning continues. Nevertheless, erosive-burning regimes, as a

rule, are regarded as intolerable for rocket engines. This is explained

by the fact that the appearance of an extended pressure peak which ac-

- 131 -
 companies the erosive burning regime results in the need for an unjus-

tified increase in the thickness of the combustion-chamber walls, i.e.,

it results in the need to increase the weight of the engine, and this
reduces the structural and operational characteristics of the power

plant.

Erosive burning can be eliminated or its effect can be substan-

tially reduced by increasing the initial free cross section of the

combustion chamber, or by making possible an intervening outflow of

the products of combustion through the sides of the combustion chamber.
A pronounced increase in the free cross section would not be desirable
in this case, since this would result in a reduction of charge density
and an increase in engine length, whereas a method of side outflow is
associated with additional losses. Another means of eliminating the

effect of erosive burning is the restriction of the initial burning

surface so that the calculated (theoretical) pressure does not immedi-

ately rise to its operating values after ignition. In this case, an
increase in pressure as a result of erosive burning only offsets the
pressure, without resulting in the appearance of any significant peak.*

Vibration burning (the American term is resonant burning). The

phenomenon of vibration burning is more complex in its physical nature

and conceals great dangers. The possibility of the appearance of com-

bustion vibrations determines the degree of engine reliability, as

well as the degree of reliability for the entire rocket.

Vibration combustion (combustion vibration) in a solid-propellant
rocket engine occurs as a result of the dynamic action of the flow of
the products of combustion on the process of the burning of the operat-
ing charge. As a result of this interaction within the combustion cham-

C ber intensive pressure pulses may occur, and their amplitudes some-
times become commensurate with the nominal values of the operating

-132-
 pressure. The presence of the above-mentioned pressure pulses is the
primary indication of a resonant-burning regime.

Despite the extensive investigations, the theoretical statements

with respect to the quantitative relationships governing resonant

(vibration) burning have not been reliably verified to the present

time because of the difficulties that arise in setting up the corres-

ponding experiments. Moreover, the very diagram of the mechanism of

the excitation and development of unstable combustion vibrations, said

diagram serving as the basis for the theoretical investigations, is

essentially hypothetical.

The clearest picture of the development of vibration burning at

some arbitrary point M of the grain surface can be given in the fol-
lowing form (Fig. 4.10). The random pressure disturbance whose appear-
ance is associated with the dynamics of the nonsteady-state flow of

the products of combustion extends to the zone of solid-propellant

combustion. Let the pressure pulse due to this disturbance be repre-

sented by the curve A. The adiabatic compression of the combustion

zone takes place under the action of this pulse and as a result the
temperature and density of the layer of reacting gases increase. This,
in turn, results in more intensive heat transfer and an increase in
the rate of diffusion between the volumes of reacting and nonreacting
gases. In summation, the chemical rate of the combustion reaction and
the pressure in the zone of combustion exhibits pronounced increases,

at least temporarily. Under certain conditions, this can result in the

movement, opposite to the direction of the flow of the products of
combustion, of a reinforced pressure wave consisting of the initial

wave reflected from the surface of the grain and the excess pressure

f developed in the combustion zone as a result of the action of the in-

itial wave (curve B).

- 133 -
 Fig. 4.10. Evolution of pres-
sure pulse as it interacts
with the burning surface of a
solid propellant in the case
of an engine tendency to vibra-
tion (resonant) burning. 1)
Flow of products of combustion;
2) surface of grain.

The pressure wave B is propagated within the cavity of the com-

bustion chamber, it is reflected from the other surfaces, and returns
to the initial point. In this case, if the returned wave C is less in-

tense than the initial wave, the pressure oscillations at the point
under consideration will gradually be attenuated. If, however, the

parameters of the returned (reflected) wave prove to be higher than

those of the initial disturbance A, the oscillations will begin to in-
crease. In this case, the system will be nonstable for those frequen-
cies corresponding to the frequency of the return (reflection) of the

reinforced reflected waves. The pressure oscillations will increase

until the damping or nonlinearity of the increase in burning intensity
prevent any further increase in vibration amplitude or until the com-
bustion chamber blows up.

Local changes in the linear burning rate of the grain are the ex-

- 134-
 ternal indications of the effect of resonant burning; these result in

phenomena such as the so-called grain "burnouts." The nature of the

change in the linear burning rate in the case of vibrations is a func-

tion of the nature of the propellant and certain parameters of interior

engine ballistics.

In accordance with experimental data, the burning rate for col-

loidal powders, in the case of vibration, on the average diminishes

with low operating pressures and increases with high operating pres-
sures. *

I PKZlCKA

, TZ 2 t ce"

Fig. 4.11. Curve of pressure in

engine, with pressure vibrations
at instants l and 2"
1) .R, kg/cm2 ; 2) t, sec.

Of the remaining factors which affect the nature of the change in

the burning rate on the appearance of vibrations within the engine we

should make mention of the operating pressure in the engine, the fre-
quency of the excited vibrations, the temperature of the powder charge,

the heating value of the powder, etc.

It is impossible to verify the quantitative relationships govern-
ing the effect that the above-enumerated factors have on the linear
burning rate, although it has been established, for example, that low-

( heating-value powders and powders with metallic additives stand out

- 135 -
because of their increased burning-rate stability in the case of ran-

dom pressure vibrations within the engine.

It is interesting to point out that pressure vibrations can ap-

pear in a solid-propellant rocket engine only, as a rule, at certain
identical and completely determined instants of burning time for the
given engine, and these are functions of the dimensions of the inner
cavity of the combustion chamber and the ballistic parameters of the

engine (Fig. 4.11). The nature of the vibrations in this case can

change from experiment to experiment.

An experimental investigation of the phenomena associated with

the vibration (resonant) burning regimes demonstrated* that the pres-

sure oscillations observed within the chamber generally correspond to

a certain spectrum of sonic frequencies. In this case, as a rule, it

becomes possible to record low frequencies. However, the appearance of

frequencies of the order of 50,000 cps and above in individual experi-

ments indicates that frequencies up to 10,000 cps, the frequencies

most frequently encountered in practice, by no means encompass the en-

tire spectrum of probable pulsation frequencies. The spectrum of stand-
ing pressure waves corresponds to the spectrum of observed vibration
frequencies; the nodes of the loops of these standing pressure waves

may either be stationary or they may wander and, as a rule, they do

not coincide for waves of various tones. In this case, the amplitudes
of the oscillations may be nonidentical in various parts of the cham-
ber, even in the case of waves of one and the same tone. Vibrations
are excited generally in those cross sections of the combustion cham-
ber in which pressure-wave loops occur (and correspondingly, in which
temperature-wave loops occur, etc.).
If the combustion vibrations release heat and an additional quan-
tity of gases in exact phase with the pressure oscillations, no addi-
- 136 -
 tional work need be done during the cycle. If, however, the combustion-
vibration cycle is delayed with respect to the pressure vibrations,
radditional work is carried out each time on the oscillating gas column
and the vibration amplitude increases particularly intensively. In
this case, the wave front becomes steeper and under certain conditions
within the engine the pressure wave may even degenerate into a detona-
tion wave. In all probability, the phase shift is a function simul-
taneously of the characteristics of several processes taking place
both within the gaseous products as well as within the solid mass of
the charge, and various processes may play the most important role de-
pending on the type of propellant used and the parameters of the engine.
Neglecting the possibility that the engine might be destroyed,
some of the energy liberated during the burning of powder in the case
of resonant-burning regimes is expended on the oscillation of the col-
umn of products of combustion and is virtually lost in the combustion
chamber. It is for this reason that the development of effective
methods of combating unstable vibration regimes is of such important
practical significance.
No uniform method of eliminating the appearance of vibrations in
an engine has been found sinco the very nature of the phenomenon has
not been studied too thoroughly. Nevertheless, as a result of experi-
mental investigations certain measures have been discovered, and these
can stabilize the burning process with comparative reliability in in-
dividual cases. Among these measures, in the opinion of foreign spe-
cialists, the following are the most effective.
1. The design of a combustion-chamber cavity for an engine, in
which the natural frequencies would correspond to energy excitation
(2 levels substantially in excess of the magnitude of energy liberated
per unit time in the engine as a result of the burning of the powder.
- 137-
 All random pressure vibrations are quickly damped in a combustion

chamber of this type and do not result in substantial disruption of

the engine operating regime.

This method did not find widespread application in the practice
of the design of solid-propellant rocket engines, since the utiliza-

tion of this method, as a rule, results in the reduction of the struc-

tural indices for the engine.
2. The design of an engine in accordance with a diagram in which
antinodes of standing pressure waves may appear in the random develop-

ment of vibrations only in those sections in which there is no burning.

3. The design of an engine in which provision has been made for

the damping of the possible vibrations.
For example, viscous friction and heat removal may be employed in

order to damp the vibrations that can arise within an engine. In fact,

the intensity of the vibrations drops markedly if it becomes possible

to produce turbulence in the stream of products of combustion, and

also if there is a sufficiently large heat-removal surface in the re-

gion of the antinodes of the pressure waves. The turbulent viscous

friction, which absorbs energy, and heat removal eliminate the source
of increased vibrations. Naturally, in this case there is a pronounced
increase in the internal losses within the combustion chamber.
The results of certain gasdynamic investigations have shown that
the presence of suspended particles in the products of combustion may

be an effective means of damping the oscillations. These conclusions

were confirmed in practice. Thus, for example, it was established*

that such inclusions as carbon (carbon black), aluminum, and its oxides,
and similar admixtures, introduced into the composition of the grain

C in the form of a fine powder, are sufficiently effective in blocking

the development of powerful vibrations within the engine. Unfortunately,

- 138 -
 contemporary concepts of the mechanism of burning and its interrela-

tionship with pressure vibrations makes it impossible to find any gen-

eral principles for the selection of these "blocking" additives, and
such additives are being sought only through tedious experimentation.
4. If the burning takes place only at the surface of the inner
grain channel, an extremely effective means of stabilizing the burning
process is achieved by positioning a central longitudinal rod made of
a noncombustible material in the channel or by fabricating the channel
to have a burning surface with a noncircular perimeter.
The mechanism of the damping of the oscillations through the in-
troduction of a central rod is not yet completely clear; however, it
is apparent that the observed effect can be reduced to the absorption
of the vibration energy of the gas column as a result of the resonance
vibrations of the rod itself.
With the introduction of a central rod, the structural weight of
the engine is increased and so are the heat losses within the combus-
tion chamber.
5. We were able to establish that in the case of grains burning
along the surface of the channel and along the outer surface (in par-
ticular, for single-channel cylindrical grains), combustion stability
increases if small-bore radial holes have been cut into the grain cu-

pola. It has been established experimentally* that the optimum diam-

eter of these stabilization openings is approximately 0.30-0.45 of the
diameter of the grain channel, and the maximum distance between these
is determined by the geometric dimensions of the lateral cross section
of the grain and the ballistic characteristics of the powder being

used. It has also been established that the system of radial holes

S must be positioned along the grain, approximately along a helical line,

so that adjacent openings exhibit an average shift of 1200 with respect
-139-
 to one another. In the case of powders exhibiting a heating value
ranging from 950 to 1200 kcal/kg, the optimum distance between two ad-
Jacent holes ranges from 20 to 100 mm for grains of various dimensions.
The introduction of radial holes introduces virtually no change
in the engine characteristic and produces only some additional degree-
sion of the curve p = p(t).

ip ,ICMS

S2tc "

Fig. 4.12. Curve of pressure in the case

of intermittent burning, in an engine
with an operating pressure of p < P*min*
1) ,p, kg/cm2 ; 2) t, sec.

Intermittent (anomalous) burning. Finally, there is another anom-

alous burning phenomenon which is observed in certain solid-propellant

engine designs and this is the so-called intermittent unstable burning.
Here we are dealing with operating pressures that are below a certain
critical value of P*min for the given engine design at which the burn-
ing concludes as the chemical reactions of the first stage of the gas-
phase oxidation processes alone come to a conclusion. As has already
been stated, in this case only a part of the thermal energy (corres-
ponding to the heating value of the given powder) is liberated. This
energy may not be adequate to support continuous burning, and the burn-
ing ceases. However, if the engine had an opportunity to warm up dur-
ing the time of the first ignition and if the igniter gases remained
Lin the combustion chamber, the burning may resume after a certain
period of time has elapsed. As a result, we observe some characteristic
- 14o -
 "chugging," after which either final damping takes place or an unstable
T burning regime involving powerful low-frequency vibrations is estab-

lished (Fig. 4.12).

In order to eliminate intermittent burning it becomes necessary

to increase the operating pressure in the combustion chamber or to
change the design of the engine. If such changes are undesirable, on
the basis of any considerations, it becomes necessary to select a new
powder composition which would provide for normal burning in the en-

gine at the selected operating pressure.

§4. THEORETICAL BASES FOR THE CALCULATION OF PRESSURE IN A SOLID-
PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINE
Curve of Pressure Change in Engine on Combustion of Powder Charge
During the process of the burning of the powder gaseous products
are formed and these fill the combustion chamber, producing pressure.
The time change for pressure in the combustion chamber is one of the
basic operating characteristics of the engine and is obtained in the
form of the so-called pressure curve (Fig. 4.13).
Several characteristic sections can be isolated on the pressure
curve and these characterize the various periods of engine operation.

The initial pressure required for reliable burning of the operating

powder charge is built up in the engine during a period of time 'n sec

through the action of a special igniter consisting of a pyrocartridge

and weighed portions of a fast-burning black powder. After a period of
Tn sec the pressure in the engine attains its theoretical value; how-
ever, as a rule, afterwards it continues to increase for some time and

only after p max sec, having attained maximum values (ejection pres-

sure), does it begin to drop to its operating level. The time required
for the final establishment of the pressure is referred to as the time

- - of engine entry into regime. At the end of the engine operation, upon

- 141 -
 3 ov U a

Fig. 4.13. Characteristic pressure curve

for a solid-propellant rocket engine.
Tn) The time required to build up to the
operating pressure; T,) total time of
transient response (entry into regime);
T 2 (rh)) time required for complete

combustion and free outflow of gases

from engine; Prab ) operating pressure in
combustion chamber; l)p, kg/cm 2 ; 2)
ejection prassune; 3) the case of combus-
tion "with loop"; 4) t, sec; 5) time of
theoretical burning regime; 6) total
time of engine operation.

1 p1040 ipx,0

a2tb

c. 2M

Fig. 4.14. Some types of pressure curves,

encountered in solid-propellant rocket
engines of various designations. a) Pro-
gressive-burning curve; b) degressive-
burning curve; c) curve of burning with
two stages of thrust. A, A 1 , A2 , B, B1 ,
and B2 ) characteristic points on the
curve; 1) 2, kg/cm2 ; 2) t, sec.

- 142 -
cessation of burning, the pressure is rapidly reduced through the noz-
zle and passed into the atmosphere. Sometimes, when for some reason
solid grain residue remains in the engine upon completion of the burn-
ing process, the so-called burning "with loop" is observed, and here
the pressure behind the point B drops comparatively slowly and follows
no particular quantitative relationship.
The phenomenon of burning "with loop," generally speaking, is un-
desirable, since it results in great variation in velocity at the end
of the active phase.
In addition to the curves shown in Fig. 4.13, some engines yield
curves of another type (Fig. 4.14). However, there is no basic differ-
ence between all of the various types of possible burning curves.
The Concept of the EQuation of Balance and its Application to the
Calculation of Maximum Pressure
The pressure produced by powder gases in an engine and the nature
of the change in pressure, in time, are determined by the balance be-
tween the influx of gases from the burning eharge and the flow rate of
the products of combustion through the nozzle.
In general form, the equation of balance for some arbitrary time
t can be expressed by the following relationship:
M#+M+--+AM,
where M+ is the per-second influx of gases into the engine; ?_ is the
per-second flow rate of gases from the engine; AM is the quantity of

gases remaining in the engine in addition to that quantity found in

the engine during the preceding instant of time; N0 is the gas mass in

the combustion chamber at the instant of time t.

If we assume that the powder burns in parallel layers and that

the grain is physically uniform, we will have

hf (4.23)

- 143 -
where y is the specific weight of the powder; SZ is the total burning
surface; ulS, is the volume of grain burned within 1 sec.
Completely analogously, for the flow rate of the gases through
the nozzle

where pkr is the gas density in the critical section of the nozzle
(throat); w , is the velocity of the gases in the critical section of
the nozzle; akr is the area of the critical section of the nozzle.
The gas parameters in the critical section (throat) can be ex-
pressed in terms of certain gas-mixture constants and in terms of the
parameters of the products of combustion in the combustion chamber of
the engine. For example, for pkr we will have

2 r
.(4.24)

where pO is the gas density in the combustion chamber of the engine;

k = cp/cv is the index of the combustion process.
If we assume that the state of the gases in the engine can be
described by the following equation

and if we bear in mind that

we will obtain

wherepo
0 th pprssr in / (Ts_ (4.25)
where po is the pressure in the combustion chamber; R is the gas con-
stant of the products of powder combustion; T o is the temperature in

the combustion chamber.

The critical velocity is determined by the following relationship:

- 144 -
 + .(4.26)

If we substitute (4.25) and (4.26) into the expression for the

per-second flow rate of the gases through the nozzle, we will find

or after transformation

P-p . (4.27)

The coefficient
2

AT-

is approximately constant and is referred to as the coefficient of ex-

haust discharge (outflow) and for various flows averages
A = 6-10 g/kg.sec.
If we neglect the mass MO of the gases, which was found in the
combustion chamber of the engine prior to initiation of combustion,
the equation of the balance of the gases in the engine during the time
At will be found in the following form if we take into consideration
(4.23) and (4.27):
£Ap~apAt+ AM.
7aSsat

Let us express the mass AM in terms of the parameters of the in-

terior ballistics of the engine. For this purpose, let us examine the
equation of state written for the entire volume of the combustion cham-
ber:
pe V'...-MRT.
f where v'k.s is the free volume of the combustion chamber; M is the gas
mass within the volume v'k.s at an arbitrary instant of time t.
- 145 -
 In accordance with this equation, the change in the mass of the
gases in time is determined by the derivative
dAf .d (eeN..& dey + A
di kl RTo RT*o di Ri, de

i.e., for At it amounts to

A= *To
_ __+
di tie@ dI)
Ai (4.28)

Now, the balance equation will be

iu"$" U =Ap°e..~\i+ o RTo AL)&I

or
',
ft,,,
... $,=Apo*.P+l.h -
Ro du -Rto id' (4.29)

where (po/RTo)(dv'k.s/dt) accounts for the quantity of gases used to

fill the volume of combustion chamber which becomes free as the grain

is consumed; (V'k.s/RTO)(dpldt) accounts for the quantity of gases

used to increase the pressure within the volume of the combustion
chamber.
Generally, Eq. (4.29) is transformed as follows:
di V. YAP ] (4.30)

for which it is enough to use

~di

which is valid, since a change in volume is determined only by the

burning up of the powder grain.
In the form of (4.30), the balance equation is a differential
equation for p = p(t). This equation is solved most simply by the
methods of numerical integration, for which it is convenient to pre-
sent it in the following form
[,.P Ps.p,(9) %,,.t
TU. W) &()- (4.31)

-146-
and to assume the following as the initial data: (p) 0 is some initial
pressure; (SE)0 is the initial total burning surface; A, y, fp = RT0 ,
uI = u(p) are characteristics of the powder used in the engine; (vk.s) O,
akare the structural parameters of the engine.
The pressure at any kth instant of engine operation is determined
in accordance with the following formula
pa-pa-,+A Pk

where
p, - (p)0+A1.

Equation (4.30) may be used not only for the derivation of the
curve for the change in pressure in the engine, but for the calcula-
tion of the magnitude of the maximum pressure Pmax" In fact, the con-
dition for the maximum of the function p = p(t) will be
AL-o,

which for RT0 pZ 0 and V'k. s 9 0 yields

- -Ap.%=0.
Nu&a'( (4.32)

If we bear in mind that for conventional powders y - 1.6 g/cm 3 ,

RT0 - 85,000 kg-m/kg, the term pma/yRT0 = Pma/13 6 ,000 of Relationship
(4.32) at pressures ranging from 100 to 150 atm can be neglected and
can be used in simplified form:
U.aTSAp.@%. (4.33)
From (4.33) the quantity pmax for the power function of burning
U= ulpVf(t0 ) is defined as follows:

and for the linear burning function u(ap + b)f(to)

- 147 -
 a
V 1~

482_
-OI -2020 100

Fig. 4.15a. The nature of the

relationship between the burn-
ing rate of nitroglycerine pow-
der and the initial charge tem-
perature at p = const.

F~i/CM

~
WE00 0000~; Co

Fig. 4.15b. The nature of the

relationship between the operat-
ing pressure in the engine and
the initial temperature of the
powder charge.
b

A (4.34")

Since the expressions for the calculation of Pmax were obtained

by using the empirical formulas for the burning rate, a mathematical
analysis of the relationships (4.34") and (4.34') is difficult. Never-
theless, we may arrive at the conclusion that one of the significant
parameters of the engine, which affects the quantity Pmax' is the

ratio of the burning surface to okr. With an increase in (SZ/Okr) the

pressure maximum in the engine increases and Relationship (4.341") in-
dicates directly the existence of some limit value of (S/akr) at
which the pressure Pmax " The maximum value of (SX/akr) is deter-
- 148 -
mined from the following condition

A I I-=0,
ay SS/epfK o)

i.e., it amounts to

( ) - A (4)35)

Magnitude of Pressure in Combustion Chamber as a Function of Initial

Charge TempeFratue

An important feature and a basic serious shortcoming of a solid-

propellant rocket engine is the strong relationship between the operat-

ing pressure and the initial charge temperature. This relationship is

explained by the effect that the initial temperature of the charge has

on the burning rate of the powder (Fig. 4.15a) and which at akr = const

results in significant variations in thrust, burning rate, etc., for

various temperature conditions of engine operation.

Figure 4.15b presents a characteristic curve which illustrates

the operating pressure in the combustion chamber of the engine (operat-

ing on solid propellants) as a function of the initial temperature of

the powder charge. We can see from the curve that in the temperature
interval of +400C the pressure in the engine, and consequently, the
magnitude of thrust, can change by a factor of almost two, and this
will, of course, result in a reduction of the combat and operational
characteristics of the weapon.
Formulas (4.34') and (4.34") make it possible to obtain the rela-
tionship between the pressure and the temperature of the charge in ex-
plicit form.
In fact, with a power burning function for a certain charge tem-
perature we will have

- 149 -
 and for t = +200 C

whence

if (to)
=uf ,

L As
39 I
i.e., taking into consideration (4.20)

PI.P+W[ B ( 1 ) (4.36')

Accordingly, for the case of a linear burning function

b
a I
P .4 I A I
ai S3 1, (to) by SalI.pf () b

P+Win A 1 a

From the last we will determine

A I :_ +TjP+,,
'I SoI%P P,.v +W4

and, substituting this expression into the formula for pt, we will
0
obtain
i I ___P+Wf(
Pa,. . -

P+ A(I) -7

which yields the following, if we take into consideration (4.20)

P1. • (4.36")

It sometimes becomes necessary to assume the pressure for a cer-

(. tain temperature to, but not in accordance with its value at to = +200 C,
but in accordance with its value at the lowest extreme temperature,
- 150 -
i.e., to =-4o0 C. Corresponding calculation relationships are easily
obtained from the relationships presented above. We will present these
without drawing any conclusions:

p,.=-m•[ B,+ W- ]9
(4.37')
P'.=-e'B,
B, (0--)+
B+OZp_ (,o- )(4. 37")

In analogy with the relationship between the initial temperature

of the charge and the linear burning rate of the powder, the relation-
ship between temperature and pressure is frequently given by means of
the so-called temperature pressure gradient, which is introduced in
the following form
±AL

using this to characterize the relative intensity of the pressure in-

crease in the engine with some change in the initial temperature of
the charge. If we use (4.36') and (4.36"), we will obtain the follow-
ing for the corresponding burning functions:
_I_ dpx_ (4.381)
.nW NO I - a--(W-O)'

aj.. ! +P+sr
•+' die8 (I -w. (9 (4.38")

We can see from these formulas that the sensitivity of pressure

to changes in temperature is all the greater the higher the tempera-
ture and the greater the pressure in the engine.
Formula (4.38') makes it possible to establish a direct link be-
tween the temperature pressure gradient and a change in the burning
rate:
PW Av -' 3 ) (4.39)

- 151 -
 where use is made of
I da 1
.,20o'
W d fi,- (to -20').

If we bear in mind that v = 2/3-3/4, we will see that

__A _.= (3 -.1-4)
-... ! d"
P+2. dri u+W drg

i.e., with a change in the initial temperature of the charge, pressure

changes substantially more intensively than does the burning rate of

the powder.
The temperature pressure gradient d(ln p)/dt
z for certain powders
amounts to:
for JP powder - 0.0126;
for JPN powder - 0.0162;

for ALt-161 composite powder (propellant) - 0.0036;

for British perchlorate powder - 0.0038.
The development of variable (controlled) nozzles or the utiliza-
tion of demountable nozzle assemblies are the only ways of stabilizing
the parameters of interior ballistics in the given temperature inter-
val of rocket operation. Consequently, a reduction or an increase in
the area of the critical section of the nozzle (throat) with minus or
plus temperatures, demountable or variable nozzles make it possible to
maintain the approximate constancy of pressure within the given tem-
perature interval. *
The limited utilization of these two methods is explained by the
fact that the design of variable, and particularly of automatically
variable, nozzles is associated with certain difficulties, and the
utilization of demountable nozzles reduces the mobility of the weapon.
Sensitivity of Maximum Pressure to Changes in Charge and Engine
Parameters
The following expression is referred to, in mathematics, as the

- 152 -
 sensitivity of the function y = f(x) to its argument (the logarithmic

derivative)
dy
dX
X

The quantity s characterizes the relative change of the function

for some relative change in the argument. It is easy to check that the

sensitivity of the exponential function y = xn is equal to the exponent:

d(xn) nxn-ldx '

dx dx

Let us use the concept of the sensitivity of the function to its

argument to investigate the features of engines operating on solid

propellants.

In accordance with (4.34') the maximum pressure in the combustion

chamber of the engine, for a given powder, is the function having the

following parameters
pwu--- (O,.
it ~,.

where S. and to are the parameters of the powder charge; ab' is the
structural parameter of the combustion chamber.
Since this function is exponential

its sensitivity to a change in the corresponding parameters in the

charge in the engine will be equal to the exponent, i.e.,

~ -,--I-"
.ir ii* d% + dtVi I
or, in finite differences

( (4.o1)
One of the features of the operation of a solid-propellant rocket

- 153 -
engine is the high sensitivity of the maximum pressure within this en-
gine to changes in the parameters for the charge and the engine. In

fact, since for contemporary powders v = 2/3-3/4,

AP =(3-c- 4)F AS3 -u±!I j]

pan . fI(1(4)
For a linear burning function the sensitivity of pressure to a
change in the corresponding parameters is most easily found if we ap-
proximate the linear function of some power function in accordance
with
ap+b=suip',

dp

From the last equation

after which it is easy to obtain

whence v is determined in the following form:

- a,
a, + I

Thus over a small interval of changes in pressure the linear

burning function

can be replaced by the power function of the following form

For the approximate function, the sensitivity of pressure is de-

fined as
1

i.e., it amounts to
- 154 -
 Thus, for the linear burning-rate function of the powder
AP- + soA3"% +p (4)J
.b
P.." %V+ (4.4o")

It follows from (4.40") that the sensitivity of the maximum pres-

sure to changes in the parameters of the charge and the engine is a
function not only of the properties of the powder but of the absolute
pressure in the engine as well.
In actual practice it is desirable to have an engine exhibiting
low sensitivity of pressure within the combustion chamber to changes
in the charge and engine parameters, since in this case the engine
characteristics would be more stable. Relationships (4.40') and (4.40")
indicate that in order to achieve this situation it is necessary to
operate at low pressures and to have powders exhibiting minimum coeffi-
cients v and burning-rate functions a/b.
Stability of Steady-State Pressure in the Combustion Chamber
Under certain conditions, steady-state pressure pst in the com-
bustion chamber of a solid-propellant rocket engine exhibits the prop-
erty of stability, i.e., pressure is maintained constant for the case
of random pressure oscillations.
The mechanism of stability for steady-state pressure is obvious
from Fig. 4.16. From the curves shown in this figure we can see that
at pressures p < pst' the influx of gases from the powder grain ex-
ceeds the flow rate (outflow), whereas in the case of p > pst' M. > M+.
This results in the fact that in the case of a random pressure drop in
the engine, the excess influx of gases again raises the pressure to
Pat, and vice versa, in the case of a random pressure rise, the flow
rate (outflow) increases substantially more intensively than does the

- 155 -
 a b

Fig. 4.16. Curves which explain the mechanism

of the stability of steady-state pressure in
the combustion chamber of a solid-propellant
rocket engine, a) In the case of the power
burning-rate function u I = ulp; b) in the case
of the linear burning-rate function u 1 = ap +
+ b; 26) the interval of possible pressure os-
cillations.

Fig. 4.17. Relationship M =

= M(p) for engines with ari-
ous akc. 1) Increase in a

inflow, and the excess pressure is dissipated, so that an operating

pressure equal to pst is established.
As we can see, the existence of steady-state pressure and its
stability is wholly determined by the nature of the relationship be-
tween pressure and M+ and M
In accordance with (4.27) and the remarks made with respect to
the outflow coefficient
k = (6-10) 10- 3 pokr kg/sec,

i.e., the character of N_(p) is virtually a function only of the dimen-

( sion of the critical section of the engine nozzle (throat); for various
ykr , this equation is satisfied by the family of curves shown in Fig. 4.1"1
- 156-
 The inflow of gases is determined by the following relationship:

i.e., it will be M+ = 'YSSu1 p for the power burning-rate function and

M+ = yS,(ap + b) for the linear burning-rate function.
In both cases, the form of the functional relationship M+ = M(p)
is determined by the relationships between the coefficients in the
burning-rate function for the powder.
Two families of curves correspond to the equation
M+=jSn p - kjP;
the first family for v < 1, and the second family, for v > 1 (Fig.
4.18). A comparison of the curves M+ = M(p) for the power burning-rate
function of the powder with the outflow characteristic M = M(p) for
the given engine indicates that in the case of either v < 1 or v > 1
there exists a point which corresponds to a steady-state regime of en-
gine operation. However, this point exhibits the property of stability
only in the case of v < 1. In fact, we can see from Fig. 4.19 that
when v > 1, the mutual relationship between M+(p) and M(p) is such
that in the case of a random change in pressure, the system will tend
to increase the difference so that in the final analysis the pressure
will either fall or increase without limit.

N. v~I

Fig. 4.18. Relationship M+ =

= X(p) for powders with a
power burning-rate function.

- 157 -
 0
-
Fig. 4.19. Instability of
steady-state pressure in an
engine, for v > 1.

Thus the steady-state pressure in the combustion chamber of a

solid-propellant rocket engine exhibits the property of stability if
the exponent v in the burning-rate function of the powder is less than

one (v < 1).

We can see from Fig. 4.20 that, all other conditions being equal,
the absolute magnitude of the steady-state pressure is all the lower
the lower the absolute value of v.

In the case of a linear burning-rate function, the curves for the

inflow of gases form the family shown in Fig. 4.21. Only the curves
with a > 0, in this family, have any real meaning. In the case of a = 0
we will be dealing with an ideal powder whose burning rate is not a

function of pressure, whereas in the case of a < 0 we will be dealing

with a powder whose burning rate must be diminished as pressure in-
creases, and this is in poor agreement with the adopted hypotheses on

the mechanism of the burning rate as a function of pressure, and more-

over this is never observed in practice.

It follows from Fig. 4.22 that steady-state pressure in the com-

bustion chamber is lower, the lower the coefficient a (or the ratio
a/b) in the burning-rate function of the powder, and that there exists
a certain limit steady-state pressure p*st such that for p > p*st en-
gine operation is impossible. With a given brand of powder, steady-

- 158 -
state pressure is a function of the shape of the flow-rate (outflow)

engine characteristic; there exists a certain limit steady-state pres-

sure at which it corresponds, even in this case, to conditions under

which
S2 A

and this has already been obtained earlier (4.3 5 ).

X.

Fig. 4.20. Magnitude of steady-

state pressure as a function
of the exponent in the burning-
rate function for the powder.
v, VII VII) are the values of
the exponent in the burning-
rate function; P'st' P"St'
and p"st) are the correspond-
ing steady-state pressures.

p.

Fig. 4.21. Relationship M+ =

= M(p) for powders having a
linear burning-rate function.
a and b) coefficients of the
linear burning-rate function.

- 159 -
 ner .- u on .
a P b

Fig. 4.22. Magnitude of steady-state pressure

as a function of the coefficients of the lin-
ear burning-rate function and the structural
features of the engine, a) The case in which
various powders are utilized; b) the case of
burning in engines exhibiting various flow-
rate characteristics.

In the final analysis, we come to the conclusion that stability

of steady-state pressure in the engine is a function of the relation-

ship of several charge and engine parameters and of the properties of

the brand of powder selected. For stability of steady-state pressure

Pst the ratio between the magnitude of the total burning surface of
the charge and the area of the critical section of the nozzle should
not exceed a certain limit value and the coefficients v and a/b of the
burning-rate function for the powder should be as small as possible,
and that in any event the following conditions should be satisfied:
v < 1,

a/b < 1.
Selection of Operating Pressure in Engine
The relationship between the nature of combustion and the burning
rate of the working charge and the pressure within the combustion
chamber indicates that essentially pressure within the combustion cham-
ber is a parameter which wholly determines the operation of a solid-
propellant rocket engine, since the burning of the powder may be re-
Lgarded as a basic process within the engine. Therefore, the designation
of a magnitude for the operating pressure in the combustion chamber is

- 160 -
 one of the most important points in the design of a solid-propellant
rocket engine. In the selection of the operating pressure we encounter
a great many, frequently contradictory, requirements, so that it is
virtually impossible to propose some general method for the selection
of the optimum operating pressure. The magnitude of the operating pres-
sure must be selected each time for specific conditions as given by
the tactical-technical requirements, isolating the group of require-
ments which is most important for the given case. The basic concepts
for the selection of the operating pressure can be formulated in the
following form:
1) the operating pressure must exceed some maximum value of P*min
in order to guarantee stable and uniform combustion of the working
powder charge at given charge temperatures;
2) the operating pressure must be sufficiently high if the engine
is to attain a comparatively high specific impulse;
3) with an increase in operating pressure the required structural
weight of the power plant also increases, and this reduces the effi-
ciency of the engine, even if the ballistic characteristics are great;
4) if it is necessary to provide for a definite time of burning
in the case of limited engine dimensions, the pressure is selected so
as to have a burning rate that corresponds to this pressura, thus mak-
ing it possible to attain the given engine operating time;
5) the thrust of the rocket engine is directly proportional to
the pressure in the combustion chamber; therefore, if the magnitude of
thrust is uniquely defined, it becomes necessary to select a pressure
for which consideration has been given to its effect on the thrust.
The lower boundary of permissible pressure. The tendency of a
C solid-propellant engine to anomalous intermittent burning in the region
of low pressures requires that an operating pressure be designated in
- 161 -
excess of a certain P*min' determined experimentally for each powder
composition. As has already been indicated, for the majority of rocket

colloidal powders, the quantity P*min averages 15-35 atm.

p80

Fig. 4.23. Lower boundary of

permissible pressure in an en-
gine for one compositions.
type powder of the colloida~l-
1)
to =-20°C; 2) to = +20°C; 3)

to = +6o~C; A) region of pres-

sures providing
burning for stable
of a powder of a given
brand.

In design practice and the testing of sold-propellant rocket en-

gines we observe cases in which intermittent burning took place even

at pressures in excess of Peinf
These facts proved mysterious for a
long period of time and were regarded as chance occurrences. However,
a more careful examination 6f A) reg of anomalous burning at pres-
sures of p > P*sin made it possible to establish that the lower bound-
aby of operating pressures is a strong function of the conditions of
powder ignition and the structural features of the charge in the en-
gine. The basic factors which determine the true pin = f (the operat-
ing conditions of an actual engine), were the initial temperature of
the charge and the ratio between the total burning surface of a work-
ipw charge and the magnitude of the free arose section of the ccmbus-

- 162-
 tion chamber. It was established that at low charge temperatures,
higher operating pressures are needed for normal burning in an engine
and for engines exhibiting high values of the parameter Sgor/Fsv the

permissible P*min increases sharply (Sgor is the burning surface, Fsv

is the free cross section of the combustion chamber).

Thus for the given brand of powder the lower boundary of permis-
sible operating pressures must be determined by taking into considera-
tion the given temperature interval of engine operation and the struc-
tural features of the engine:
Pi'.1( powder io Sn.).
oMUf
rand go, .

For practical calculations it is convenient to make use of spe-

cial curves which delineate the region of pressures which guarantee

the continuous burning of a powder of a certain brand in a specific

engine for various relationships between the dimensions of the charge

and the combustion chamber. These curves are constructed on the basis
of data obtained in special tests of powder for various t o and

SgoIFsv , said curves being parabolic in shape as shown in Fig. 4.23.

We can see from Fig. 4.23 that if the designs of the charge and
the engine are known, i.e., if the ratio Sgor/Fsv is known, then for

the given temperature interval (tO mint0 ) the pressure P*in is

uniquely defined as the point of intersection between the ordinates
corresponding to the given S go"Fsv and the curve for t O min* It should
be borne in mind that the ratio Sgo/Fsv changes with time and here,
as a rule, it also diminishes. This results in a situation in which,

if a certain pressure p has been selected so as to assure continuous

burning for (Sgor/sv)t=, as the burning of the charge continues the

stability conditions are not disrupted.

C' A more general case for the design process of a solid-propellant

- 163 -
rocket engine is the case in which the quantity Sgor/Fsv can be made
to vary. In this case, as can be seen from Fig. 4.23, there exists a

multiplicity of points which provide for conditions of stable.burning.

If no additional requirements are imposed on the magnitude of the
operating pressure, then of these points it is expedient to examine
those points along the boundary of the region of stable burning, said

points corresponding to the minimum temperature of the given tempera-

ture range of engine operation. In this case, the problem is to select

a certain optimum pair (p*min' Sgor/Fsv)"

For field reaction-thrust armament, one of the basic characteris-
tics of efficiency is the maximum range of missile flight, which for a
certain given weight is determined by the velocity of the missile at
the end of the active phase of the trajectory and by some secondary

parameters.
An analysis of Tsiokovskiy's formula
.__- . in(l +- -- ).

where ue is the gas-exhaust velocity; q, is the passive weight of the

rocket, shows that the maximum velocity of the missile, which deter-
mines its effective range, is the greater the smaller the structural
weight of the missile (at o = const). On the other hand, we can see
from the design of a solid-propellant reaction-thrust missile that the
basic part of the structural weight is the weight of the rocket com-
bustion chamber, and the latter in turn is determined by the thickness
of the combustion-chamber walls and the length of the chamber itself.
Consequently, in order to increase the maximum velocity of the missile
it is necessary to make the combustion chamber so as to have a minimum
wall thickness and a minimum length.
The thickness of the walls in the combustion chamber are selected

- 164 -
 on the basis of combustion-chamber strength under the action of a
given pressure within the engine; in this case, to make an engine with

walls of minimum thickness it is necessary for the working pressure in

the engine to be at a minimum.

The length of the combustion chamber is determined primarily by
the length lsh of the powder grains. The latter, with a given total
powder weight w, amounts to

where y is the specific weight of the powder; nshSt is the area of the
lateral cross section of the charge consisting of nsh grains, with a
butt-end area of st for each grain.
It is evident that for a combustion chamber with an inside diam-
eter Dk

i.e.,

We can see from the formula that at o = const and a given diameter
for the inner cavity of the combustion chamber, the length of the pow-

der grain is all the smaller the lower the magnitude of Fsv , i.e., the
greater the ratio SSor/Fsv. Therefore, in order to obtain an engine of

minimum length it is necessary to assume a high value for the ratio

Sgor/Fsv in the design stage.

Thus the greatest velocity at the end of the active phase would
be exhibited by missiles designed so as to have the lowest possible
operating pressures, and further designed so as to exhibit the highest
f possible parameter Sgor 1 Fsv.
However, in the case of such a missile, as can be seen from Fig.
- 165 -
4.23, the process of the burning of the propellant would be unstable,

since the operating point M of the process would be situated in the

unstable region.
It follows from what has been said above that with the selected

brand of powder (or the brand of powder stipulated in the tactical-

technical requirements) the minimum possible pressure in the combustion
chamber is estimated on the basis of the conditions which specify that
the missile exhibit adequate velocity at the end of the active phase

of the trajectory and, consequently, exhibit the required flight range.

A practical evaluation of the minimum permissible pressure can be
reduced to the following. Several pairs (p*mins SgoIFsv) are assumed
on the curve which delineates the region of unstable burning for the

given brand of powder:

For each of these pairs of parameters the required wall thickness

6 of the engine is calculated (according to pressure) and the required

length of grain and engine is determined (in accordance with the ratio

9gor/Fsv ) "
In conclusion, some pair of dimensions (6,1) will correspond to

each pair (p* min' Sgor'Psv)' and these dimensions will determine the

weight of the combustion chamber. Those values of P*min and Sgor/Fsv

are selected for which the weight of the engine will be at its minimum.

The P*min and Sgor/1sv selected in this manner can be corrected later
on; in this case, the pressure can be increased somewhat, if P*min

fails to provide the required magnitude of engine thrust or specific

impulse, or Sgor/'sV can be changed in order to obtain the required
over-all missile parameters.
- 166 -
 tt

(P *4
n' I Z

1ZOVOu
s eieo nopeprionm SIo "
Y Haqal? HbIU ZaOWNP?
ja Nvem irpO'OHU uapoa

Fig. 4.24. Means of stabiliz-

ing burning at the initial in-
stant of engine operation. 1)
Restriction of burning surface
at initial instant, by coating
the charge; 2) increase of
pressure at initial instant,
by means of igniter.

We should devote attention to the fact that if the final selection

of the initial operating point M exceeds somewhat the boundary of sta-
ble burning, the burning of the powder charge in certain cases can
nevertheless be stabilized; in this case, the following methods have
proved to be the most effective:
1) increasing the weighed portions of the igniter in order to
develop a pressure greater than P*min at the initial instant and so as
to have the point M enter the region of unstable burning;
2) the coating of a part of the grain surface, said coating to
cover the initial burning surface, which will also serve to shift the
point M into the region of unstable burning (Fig. 4.24).
The upper limit of pressure Jn the engine. One of the considera-
tions which restricts the magnitude of the upper limit of the operat-
ing pressure is (from the standpoint of the interior ballistics of the
engine) the requirement to provide for a given burning time of a charge
( (grain) of some selected configuration, i.e., the required time of en-
gine operation.
- 167 -
 The engine-operating time as a function of the operating pressure

is governed by the fact that the burning rate of the powder is a func-
tion of pressure. In fact, a grain weighing w burns in the engine dur-

ing the time

where wsec is the per-second mass flow rate of propellant.

For any powder grain configuration, in first approximation, we

may assume that

where ul is the burning rate; S. is the total burning surface of the

grain; y is the specific weight of the propellant, i.e.,
U
us21

and since
u-u (p),

the burning time of the grain will be a strong function of pressure.

Let
u (p) -U,p'.

The maximum upper pressure in the engine, whose operating time is

given as being equal to T, will be

or if we take into consideration that the engine is functioning under

conditions of various temperatures,

r (4.411)
With a linear burning-rate function

usi,. (, + b)/(.,J,,

- 168 -
 and

It is natural, of course, that if both the working pressure prab

and the time T are either given or selected for the engine, then the

above relationships will make it possible to evaluate the required mag-

nitude of burning surface which is defined as follows for the two burn-

ing-rate functions:

(Pa)I •t (4.42)
The final selection of the operating pressure on the basis of the
limiting range of its extreme values

is carried out at a much later stage of the engine design and, as a

rule, here we take into consideration the results obtained in test-
stand firings of experimental engine models.
§5. BASIC RELATIONSHIPS FOR THE THEORY OF GAS OUTFLOW FROM AN ENGINE
The operation of a solid-propellant rocket engine can be pre-
sented schematically as a combination of two interrelated processes -

the burning of the powder and the movement (outflow) of the products
of combustion from the combustion chamber. In this case, the reaction
force that results in the motion of the rocket or of some other spe-
cial installation comes about directly as a result of the outflow of
the products of powder combustion.
We know from the theory of Jet engines that the effectiveness
(thrust) of an engine of this type is a function of a great many fac-
tors, but is determined primarily by the parameters of the exhaust gas
stream and certain structural characteristics of the rocket. It has
C also been established that of all the parameters of the stream the most
important are the velocity of the products of combustion at the outlet
- 169 -
 from the engine, and in this case the engine is all the more effective

the higher this exhaust velocity.

To increase the exhaust velocity at the outlet from the combus-

tion chamber, special fittings are installed, and these are called
nozzles. They make it possible to increase the velocity of the flow of

the products of combustion to 1500-2500 m/sec.

Elements of the Theory of an Ideal Supersonic Nozzle

The study of the quantitative relationships governing the motion

of gases and gaseous mixtures indicates that there exist two types of

flows which exhibit basic differences between one another.

With low velocities of motion, gases behave virtually like an

ideal incompressible fluid and are subject to the basic quantitative

relationships of hydrodynamics. However, as soon as the velocity of

the gas motion begins to increase and exceed a certain maximum limit,

the effect of compressibility introduces such unique features into the

nature of the gas flow - such basic qualitative changes of the flow -
that the corresponding flow must be regarded as a special flow which
is subject to specific laws which are different from the laws of hydro-

mechanics.
It turned out that the maximum velocity which separates these two
types of flows is the velocity of sound propagation in the given gas

or gaseous mixture. The respective flows are generally referred to as

subsonic or supersonic.
Without dwelling in detail on an examination of the features of

subsonic or supersonic flows, we will point out only that with respect
to the problem of interest to us, i.e., the acceleration of the flow,
the following has been established: in order to increase the velocity
Cof the flow in the case of subsonic flow, it is necessary to compress

the stream, whereas in the case of supersonic flow the stream must,
- 170 -
 conversely, be expanded. In this case, the mathematical relationship
between the velocity of gas motion and the area of the flow cross sec-
tion takes the following form:
k+

*+,1 (4.43')

where F is the area of the flow in sane section of the gas stream; F
is the area of the stream section in which the velocity of the gas mo-
tion is equal to the critical velocity, i.e., the velocity of sound
propagation in this gas; M is the dimensionless gas velocity in the
cross section of the stream having a flow area F (the M(ach) number of
the flow);

w is the velocity of gas motion in the cross section under considera-

tion; azv is the speed of sound in this same cross section; k is the
exponent for the process of the expansion of the gas flow.

z - -

Ia I

Fig. 4.25. Dimensionless area

of the lateral cross section
of the flow as a function of
the dimensionless velocity M
of the flow, a) Range of sub-
sonic flows; b) supersonic
flows.

Relationship (4.43) is expediently presented graphically (Fig.

C' 4.25) for purposes of analysis. From the graph we can see that in the

- 171 -
cross section F/Fkr = 1, i.e., F = Fkr,a critical flow regime is es-
tablished (M = 1), i.e., w = azv. At velocities w < azv, lower ratios

of F/Fkr correspond to greater velocities (greater M(ach) numbers),

i.e., to accelerate the stream in this range of velocities it is nec-

essary to compress the flow in accordance with the left-hand branch of

the curve. On the other hand, when w > azv greater ratios of F/Fkr
correspond to higher M(ach) numbers, i.e., to accelerate the flow in
the case of velocities greater than the speed of sound it is necessary

to expand the flow, in accordance with the right-hand branch of the

curve.
In accordance with this, a supersonic nozzle intended to acceler-
ate the flow of the products of combustion from velocities of the or-
der of several tens of meters per second to supersonic velocities, is
given a complex shape (profile) which can conditionally be divided

into three sections:

- the inlet section of the nozzle, with a converging channel;
- the outlet section of the nozzle, with a diverging channel;

- the critical section of the nozzle (throat), with a channel of

minimum cross section.
Relationship (4.43) makes it possible to calculate the velocity
of the gas flow in any section of the nozzle, if the configuration of

the nozzle is known. This same relationship can be used to determine

the shape (dimensions) of the nozzle, said information necessary in

order to obtain the required flow velocities in the corresponding sec-
tions of the nozzle. Strictly speaking, Relationship (4.43) is valid

only in the absence of losses in the stream, i.e., with a change in

the state of the gas in accordance with an ideal adiabatic curve. It
is for this reason that this curve describes the process of gas accel-

eration only for an ideal nozzle.

- 172 -
 Gas-Flow Parameters in the Critical Cross Section of the Nozzle
In the theory of gasdynamics, in which we study supersonic flows
of gases, it is demonstrated that the parameters of the gas stream in
the critical section of a supersonic nozzle depend only on the gas
parameters in the combustion chamber and the exponent for the process
of gas expansion:
k
Po = k 2 I.k-I

Pa (
(4.44)
rP 2

:Ko (k+ I, !

axp 2

where P0 POO To, and a0 are the parameters of the gas mixture of the
products of combustion; pkr, pkr, and Tkr are the parameters of the
flow of the products of combustion in the critical section of the noz-
zle; akr(wkr) is the critical speed of sound.
Using (4.44) and bearing in mind that for an adiabatic process
the speed of sound azv =jkgRT, we can easily obtain a calculation
formula of the following form for the critical velocity of the flow:

a., = 2h1 gRr.. (4.45)

In addition to the dimensionless flow velocity M = w/azv it is

convenient to introduce the relative magnitude

Sor

which indicates by how many times the velocity of the stream in some

section differs from the velocity of the stream in the critical sec-
tion. This magnitude is referred to as the velocity factor and is de-

(7 noted by

- 173 -
 W~i'

It is evident that the parameters M and X are interrelated; we

can show that the relationship can be described as follows:

2
M2 = t. I
1k- 1-l
2
k+- (4.46)

t ! 2

* 1 23 M
Fig. 4.26. Curves showing the
interrelationship between the
M(ach) number and the velocity
factor X. 1) k = 1.20; 2) k =
= 1.25; 3) k = 1.30.

In the theory of Jet engines we use both the dimensionless veloc-

ity M as well as the coefficient X; in this case, some simpler rela-
tionships can be obtained through the use of the M(ach) numbers, whereas
in other cases simpler relationships are obtained through the use of
the coefficient X. Figure 4.26 shows the curves which illustrate the
interrelationship between the dimensionless velocity of the stream and
the velocity coefficient; these curves can be employed in the calcula-
tions.
The dimensionless area of the nozzle as a function of the veloc-
ity of the flow (4.43) is expressed as follows in terms of the veloc-
- 174 -
ity coefficient X:

S h-i (4.43")

This formula can also be used in addition to (4.43'), when it is

necessary to determine the velocity of the flow in various cross sec-

tions of the nozzle or when it is necessary to select the dimensions
of characteristic nozzle sections.
Calculation of Gas-Stream Parameters in Any Nozzle Cross Section
The parameters of the gas flow in any cross section of the nozzle
are functions not only of the gas parameters in the combustion chamber
and the exponent k, but also of the local velocity of the flow.

The calculation relationships for the determination of the flow

parameters at any cross section take the following form:

. =!

2~1Liu~ (4.47)

+k I

In calculating the flow not in accordance with the M(ach) number

but in accordance with the velocity coefficient X, it is convenient to
use the so-called gasdynamic flow functions:

'
4T
(,+-I-,Ih

,Q@u-- P44
---(tI ))

The values of the gaodynamic functions 7(X), e(X), and r(X) for

- 175 -
various k and X are presented in special tables, and this substantially
facilitates the carrying out of the reouired calculations. Figure 4.27
presents the curves for (X), e(x), and r(X), which can be used in
practical computations.
Formulas (4.47) or (4.48) make it possible to calculate the param-
eters of an ideal flow at the outlet section of the nozzle of an en-
gine, and for this purpose it is sufficient to substitute Ma or Xa into
the formulas; these quantities, determined in accordance with (4.43) or
(4.43') by the relative dimensions of the nozzle alone, characterize
the velocity of the flow at the outlet section of the nozzle. In this
case, the following will be the calculation relationships:

A. I+ -I
7=(4.49)

or

) ~(4.50)
TA I-,(I). L

Fig. 4.27. Curves of the gas-

dymic functions.

Figure 4.28 presents tentative curves which illustrate the nature

- 176 -
of the change in the parameters of the gas flow along the length of

the engine; for these curves pa' Pa' and Ta are the parameters of the

flow of the products of combustion at the outlet section of the nozzle;

Ma is the M(ach) number of the flow at the outlet section of the noz-
zle; %a is the velocity coefficient of the flow at the outlet section
of the nozzle; wa is the flow velocity of the products of combustion

at the outlet section of the nozzle; dkr and da are the diameters of the
critical and outlet sections of the nozzle, respectively.

DT

-------------- k7

.-- ------

Fig. 4.28. The nature of the

change in the parameters p, w,
and T of the products of combus-
tion along the combustion cham-
ber of a solid-propellant rocket
engine. 1) Gas-acceleration sec-
tion.

Concept of Rated and Nonrated Exhaust Regimes

The regime of the outflow of the products of combustion through
the nozzle is referred to as the rated regime, if the gases are ex-
panded during the exhaust process to a pressure equal to the pressure
of the ambient medium, i.e., if the pressure pa in the stream at the
outlet section of the nozzle is equal to the pressure pH of the ambient
medium:
P-1P.

-177-
 In practice, we frequently encounter cases in which pa P PH' in
which case pa > PH (an operating regime with underexpansion) or Pa < PH
(an operating regime with overexpansion).

An engine operating regime with underexpansion appears when the

area of the outlet section of the nozzle for some reason must be made
smaller than the theoretical (calculated) dimensions. In the case of
underexpanded outflow, the engine functions rather stably, and only

some loss of engine thrust, due to incomplete expansion of the stream

of products of combustion, is observed. Underexpansion may take place
when the area of the outlet section of the nozzle is equal to the cal-
culated dimension, if the pressure changes during the flight of the
object so that it drops noticeably below pa at some instant of time
(climb to great altitudes with pronounced rarefaction of the atmosphere).

In an overexpansion regime, the gas expands to a pressure below

that of the ambient medium. This results in a flow that is actually

moving from a region of reduced pressure to a region of greater prec-

sure. Experiments with nozzles which overexpand the gas stream have

demonstrated* that such motion, at first glance contradictory to phys-

ical concepts, can actually take place. However, the possibility of
the existence of such motion is restricted by comparatively low "super

differences," and the motion of the gas in an overexpansion nozzle is

itself distinguished by great instability. With significant overexpan-

sion, when pa/pH - 0.3-0.5, intensive jumps may arise within the noz-
zle, and these disrupt significantly the regime of the normal accelera-
tion of the flow of products, so that in certain cases not even the
critical velocity will be attained.
In the case of overexpansion, engine thrust may also diminish in

Ccomparison to the calculated thrust, and in this case the drop in

thrust will take place as a result of the action of the excessive coun-
- 178-
 -TR

P
JP

Fig. 4.29. Reduction in engine thrust Rt

in the case of operations with an over-
expansion regime.

1500 -_

J !0 6 12 :8 II M

Fig. 4.30. Curve of relative

measurement of engine thrust
(engine operating on solid pro-
pellant) as function of alti-
tude H of rocket flight.

terpressure exerted on a part of the nozzle contour (Fig. 4.29). In

the general case, the nature of the change in engine thrust in the
case of overexpanded gas outflow, in comparison with thrust in the

case of theoretical outflow, depends on the degree of overexpansion

and the configuration of the nozzle; in this case, with overexpansion

increased outflow velocity will serve to increase engine thrust some-

what, whereas engine thrust will drop as a result of pa < PH and the
effect of the counterpressure on the wall of the nozzle. It is generally
quite difficult to predict in advance what the final total change in
thrust will be, since this change is determined by the geometry and
ballistic parameters of each specific engine.
If the nozzle is functioning under a regime of underexpansion,
with a decline in external pressure (pH), for example, because of a

change in flight altitude, engine thrust generally increases somewhat

(rig. 4.30).

- 179 -
 §6. REACTION FORCE AND SPECIFIC IMPULSE OF A SOLID-PROPELLANT ROCKET
ENGINE
Derivation of Reaction-Force Formulas
For the derivation of the formulas of reaction force we will use
the theorem for the mechanics of momentum. In accordance with this
theorem, a change in momentum of any isolated mechanical system is
equal to the impulse acting on this system.
In our case (Fig. 4.31), at any arbitrary instant of time t the
isolated system consisting of a rocket and a certain volume of ambient
air surrounding the rocket will be characterized by momentum.
(- mu,

where m is the rocket mass; V is the flight velocity of the rocket

(vector).

I.--------------------- ---------------

Fig. 4.31. For the derivation of the

equation of motion for the rocket.

After an interval of time At, the system under consideration wlll

consist of the rocket, the ambient air, and the mass of the products
i.AU) (M. + aiI+A~i Av
of combustion ejected from the nozzle of the rocket during the time
.I. period At. In this case, the mass of the rocket has been reduced by
bm, and the velocity has increased by d . If the velocity of the prod-

ucts of combustion is denoted byiw, the total momentum of the system

in the latter case will be

--
180 -
 In accordance with the momentum theorem

where (%*a)Aiis the impulse acting on the system of forces;aW - is

the sum of all forces appearing in the system under consideration; AK t

is the change in the momentum of the system.

In our case

=Vo;-AM;v+miV-Ahi A+AnV- AMW- XV

or, neglecting the quantities of a higher order of smallness,

AK, AAmw.

In accordance with the theorem we will have

NIAV - Ani-.r IIAil

m A
i-I

or, in differential form,

MAdo a d.--
(4-57)
a-aI

Expression (4.51) is a differential equation for the motion of a

body of variable mass. This equation was first derived by the Russian

scientist I.V. Meshcherskly and published in his works on the dynamics

of a point of variable mass (1897). We can see from (4.51) that the
equation for the motion of a body of variable mass is unlike the equa-
tion for the motion of conventional solids only in that the number of

external forces includes yet another additional force ((dm/dt)w),

which characterizes the nature of the change in the mass of the body

- 181 -

wA~t zmm,
and the parameters of the relative motion of the ejected mass.
Let us examine ZR in greater detail. For the selected system,
I i
this total includes: the force of gravity me, the thrust Rt, and the

forces that are due to the action of the rocket in the face of the ap-
proaching stream of air (the aerodynamic forces Raerd):
+

Presenting the aerodynamic force in the following form:

where 11r is the equivalent force of pressure distributed over the body
of the rocket; ]tr is the equivalent force of aerodynamic friction;
Aproch is the equivalent force of all other aerodynamic forces, we
will obtain the following equation of rocket motion:

y (4.51')

Now let an operating rocket be made immobile (firmly held fast on

a test stand). It is evident that in this case v = 0; mg is offset by
the reaction of the stand supports; and ]tr' Amproch = 0, i.e., (4.51')
will take the following form:

da

Fig. 4.32. Diagram of forces acting on a

rocket fastened on a test stand, with engine
in operation.

We can see from Fig. 4.32 that as a result of the symmetry of the
rocket body, pressure is offset almost completely along the entire con-
- 182 -
 tour (outline) of the rocket and it is only at the outlet of the noz-
zle that some difference in pressure occurs, so that
RV- (p,-PS)a-

where pa is the pressure of the outflow products at the outlet section

of the nozzle; PH is the counterpressure of the ambient medium at the
outlet section of the nozzle; aa is the area of the outlet section of
the nozzle.
If we take into consideration the mutual direction of the vectors
w" t, and the component (Pa - PH) Oa and assuming a positive direc-
tion of rocket motion, we will obtain

dt

whence the formula which determines the thrust of the rocket engine

will be:
da

or
R,=m w (p,-,) ,. (4.52)
where msec = dm/dt is the per-second flow rate of gases from the engine.
In the case of a theoretical outflow regime pa = PH' and the

formula for thrust takes the following form:

,R-m.... (4.521)
If we denote

then for any outflow regime the thrust can be presented in the follow-
ing single form:
,'&-mfs.(4.52")
where Wef is the effective outflow velocity.

f" In calculation practice it is convenient to use a formula to cal-

- 183 -
culate Rt in terms of the pressure p. in the combustion chamber of the
engine. The corresponding relationship is easily obtained if we take
into consideration that according to (4.27)
mm -Ape a*,
In fact, if we substitute this expression for msec into (4.52),
we will obtain
-m.,-. +
=, (p0.-p,,)o .4Ape,.+p -p,,-
,*-

r(Aw.+2).Wp 8 .

Let us examine the sum in the brackets of the last relationship.

Here

A= mA(k);

According to (4.49)
A., + -. * l,)h.M)

but from (4.43) it follows that

i~e.e

so that Awa is a function only of k and aa/akr. In the final analysis,

we will see that

1i.e.,

- 184 -
or, neglecting the quantity PHaa in view of the smallness of atmos-
pheric pressure in comparison with the operating pressures in the com-
bustion chamber,
,(k. A1^,. (4.53)
The coefficient e(k, aa/ ak) is referred to as the coefficient of

reaction force or the Lanzheven [sic] coefficient. The numerical val-

ues of this coefficient for k = 1.25 and various nozzle expansions
da/dkr are presented in Table 4.8.

TABLE 4.8
Numerical Values of the Theoretical Magnitude
of the Coefficient of Reaction Force

1YUNPeUnS
daldup
1,0 1.2 I1.4 I1,6
I I I
I' I2,2I I2.4
',a20
I II.
2,6 2.831 .0 1

I Y ,,,I
,,I 25 1.81671 11161
1,dId) .701

1) Expansion, da/dkr .

Total Reaction-Force Impulse and Specific Impulse of Engine

The total impulse J of the reaction force is referred to as the
integral characteristic of the curve for engine thrust Rt with respect
to time:

where T is the operating time of the rocket engine.

If engine thrust is approximately constant throughout the entire
period of engine operation,
s -l,,. (4.54)
The magnitude of the total impulse is a complex characterization
of the effectiveness of the operation of a solid-propellant rocket en-

gine, and here the level of thrust developed by the engine and the

- 185 -
 period of time that the thrust acts on the rocket are both taken into
consideration.
It is the general practice to regard the magnitude which indicates
the impulse imparted to the rocket in the burning of 1 kg of powder in
the engine as the most important characteristic of a solid-propellant
rocket engine. This quantity is referred to as specific impulse:
' (4.55)
U

where w is the total weight of the working powder charge.

If we express w in terms of the per-second flow rate of the pow-

der gases w = mseeg and if we take into consideration (4.54), we will

find
j, _(4.56)

Substituting the value of R and msec into this equation, we will

obtain this formula in expanded form:

or
'I--' 6%-- -- (4.56)
(.5,
A A *,,p

Using this expression and some of the relationships presented

above, we can show that

(4-57)

The specific impulse should be regarded as the basic criterion

for the evaluation of the effectiveness of a solid-propellant rocket
engine. The greater the value of the specific impulse, the more effec-
tive the corresponding engine.
Derivation of the K.E. Tsiolkovskiy Formula
(" It is easy to derive the K.R. Tsiolkovskliy formula from the equa-

- 186 -
tion of rocket motion, if we assume that the flight is accomplished in
the absence of any resistance to the motion of the rocket and if we
neglect the action of mass forces on the flight. Given these assump-
tions, the equation of rocket motion is simplified to the following
form:

or if we take into consideration the directions of the vectors ' and ef

and the equation can easily be integrated.

In fact, dividing the variables, we will obtain

whence

I.0
ee No

where Avt is the increment in velocity as a result of the operation of

the rocket engine (in comparison with the initial velocity); mt is the
rocket mass remaining from the initial mass m0 at some instant of time.
The maximum velocity increment in this case is

Avmz -We$ In 9 (4.58")

where mk is the final weight of the rocket, i.e., the passive weight
qp; m0 is the initial weight of the rocket (launching weight).
The ratio m/mi0 characterizes the perfection of the structural
fabrication of the rocket and is referred to as the coefficient Pk of

the rocket:

Avmam-wo In p

-187-
 It can be demonstrated that for a multistage rocket, in which the
stages are successively Jettisoned,

where nst is the number of operating stages.

For solid-propellant rocket engines, the K.E. Tsiolkovskiy formula
is generally written somewhat differently, using

mo-qn+

i.e., in the following form

,, In # I+. (4-. 5 8,,,)

or taking into consideration (4.57)

Vasa.-;,In(I + (4.59)

Thrust and Specific Impulse as Functions of the Structural Features

and Ballistic Characteristics or the Engine
In the most general form, the thrust of a rocket engine is deter-
mined by the following relationship

for which it has been demonstrated that

Thus thrust is completely determined by the magnitude of the op-

erating pressure in the combustion chamber of the engine, the composi-
tion, and the properties of the gaseous products of powder combustion
(_c), and the structural features of the engine, particularly the rela-
tionship between the areas of the outlet and critical sections of the
nozzle; the parameters of the ambient medium (PH) also have some effect
on thrust. However, if the ambient medium is the atmosphere,
= 1 kg/cm 2
S(PH),
and at pressures of P0 = 50-100 kg/cm 2 in the combustion chamber of a
- 188 -
solid-propellant rocket engine their effect can be neglected.

Fig. 4.33. The nature of the

actual relationship e = e(da/dkr).
1) Theoretical curve; 2) actual
curves for various engines.

For a selected operating pressure established by akr and a defi-

nite powder, the thrust of a solid-propellant rocket engine is a single-
valued function of aa/akr. In design practice, instead of the area

ratio aa/akr we more frequently use the ratio of the diameters of the
corresponding cross sections, referring to this ratio as the expansion

of the nozzle:

9-P

i.e., for the conditions mentioned above engine thrust is wholly deter-

mined by the expansion of the nozzle.

The theoretical relationship R = R(da/dkr), determined by the re-

lationship e = e(da/dkr) (see Table 4.7), is achieved in practice only
in the case of small expansion. In the case of great expansion, a less
intensive increase in thrust (in comparison with the theoretical in-
crease) is observed with an increase in da/dkr because of losses in
the nozzle and certain secondary outflow effects; in fact, there may
be some drop in the magnitude of thrust for (da/dk) > (da/dk)pred .
The tentative relationship between the Lanzheven [sic] coefficient and
the expansion of the nozzle for conditions of actual outflow is pre-
sented in Fig. 4.33. We can see from the curve presented in this figure

- 189 -
 that

and the maximum magnitude of the lanzheven coefficient does not exceed
&.ai-h,4+ 1.55.

Of the factors affecting the magnitude of specific impulse, the

first that should be mentioned are the following:

1) expansion of nozzle, da/dkr;

2) pressure PO in the combustion chamber of the engine;
3) the initial temperature of the powder charge and the tempera-

ture of the products of combustion;

4) the heating value Qw(zh) of the powder;
5) the presence of various kinds of losses in the engine and pri-

marily in the nozzle, as well as the heat losses in the combustion

chamber.
Let us examine the successive effect on Jl of each of the. above-

enumerated factors.
In accordance with (4.56)
iZ= R, ,

and since msec is not a function of nozzle expansion, J, = Jl(da/dkr)

is similar to R t = R(da/dkr ) . The above-presented considerations with

respect to the existence of certain maximum expansion values remain in

force, and if these values are exceeded a drop in the theoretical

parameters of thrust and specific impulse is observed in practice.
Specific impulse as a function of expansion varies for various values

of operating pressure in the combustion chamber. With an increase in

the operating pressure the increment in impulse as a result of the in-

{
, creased expansion becomes more pronounced. As an example, in Table 4.9
we have presented the relative increment in specific engine impulse
- 190 -
for various pressures due to increased nozzle expansion from Ca/Ckr =
1.0 to Ga/akr = 5.0 in one case and from aa/ckr = 1.0 to the theoreti-

cal value (for each pressure) in the other case.

TABLE 4.9
Relative Increment in Specific Impulse as a
Function of Nozzle Expansion for Various Pres-
sures within the Combustion Chamber

1 laaneuae Kataepe cropaun !0 2 Igo 12W

3,,%3._
Snp --- p--I5,0 25 27,8 28,2

jM
%'Krip% 29.0 32.1 33,6

'IP __ P I I
1) Pressure in the combustion chamber; 2)
kg/cm 2 ; 3) at.

We can see from Table 4.9 that with great expansion, pressure has
a relatively weak effect on the magnitude of the specific impulse. For

example, for da/dkr - 2.24 an increase in operating pressure from 100

to 200 kg/cm 2 (i.e., by a factor of two) increases the value of the

specific impulse by only 1.4%. This increment in impulse virtually

fails to offset even the increase in engine weight resulting from the
need to provide for strength with this increased pressure.
On the other hand, increased nozzle expansion from da/dkr = 2.24
to the theoretical value increases the specific impulse by 2.2% at

P0 = 100 kg/cm2; by 4.3%, at p 0 = 150 kg/cm 2; and by 5.4%,at pO = 200

kg/cm 2 .

If we take into consideration that because of the limited flare

angle of the outlet cone it becomes necessary to increase the length
of the nozzle in the case of nozzle expansion, the weight of the en-
gine (its nozzle assembly) will increase as the expansion becomes

- 191 -
 greater. In this case, the effective impulse increment will be reduced

accordingly.
Thus with an increase in nozzle expansion, specific engine im-
pulse increases only up to some limit expansion values which are equal

approximately to

Further expansion can result in the reduction of the specific im-

pulse of the engine. With increased nozzle expansion the weight of the
nozzle assembly of the engine increases, so that it is always neces-

sary to estimate the effective impulse increment in the calculations,

rather than the absolute increment.
Let us dwell in some detail on specific impulse as a function of

pressure. In accordance with (4.56'), at aa/akr = const

J,-const, + o

i.e., with an increase in the pressure in the combustion chamber, the

impulse Jl increases, attaining its maximum value at pO -s C:

For one of the engines, the values of J, for various operating

pressures, calculated according to (4.56'), amounted to:
2
Jl = 215 kg sec/kg at PO = 50 kg/cm

Jl = 220 " at p 0 = 100 ,

Jl = 223 " at Po = 200

Jl = 225 " at PO = 500

however, test firings of this engine demonstrated that the true de-
pendence of specific impulse on pressure is somewhat weaker, and the
average values of the impulses measured during the experiment were as

r follows:

- 192 -
 2
Jl = 196 kg-sec/kg at PO = 70 kg/cm

Jl = 200
Jl = 202.4
"at
"
Po = 100
at pO = 200 "
1
J, = 202.5 " at p 0 = 250

Hence we can see that beginning with p 0 = 150 kg/cm 2 , the engine
exhibited a specific impulse that was virtually independent of the
operating pressure in the combustion chamber.

Thus with an increase in the operating pressure in the combustion

chamber, the specific impulse of a solid-propellant rocket engine in-
creases. It has been established in practice that for each engine de-

sign there exists a certain maximum value of (Jl)ma x such that no

changes in pressure can result in
/,> (I,)mU.
Again we must devote our attention to the fact that with an in-

crease in the pressure in the combustion chamber there is an increase

in the structural weight of the engine because of the increased wall
thickness of the ccmbustion chamber; thus it becomes necessary each

time to take into consideration not the theoretical, but the effective,
increment in impulse, and the losses due to the additional weight must
also be taken into consideration.
With an increase in the initial temperature t0 of the charge, the
specific impulse of the engine increases, since in this case there is
an increase in the reserve of physical heat contained in the powder

and liberated as the grain burns; in addition, changes are observed in

the remaining parameters of the interior engine ballistics, which re-

sult in an increase in specific impulse (increase in engine pressure,

reduction in operating time, etc.).

The nature of the effect that the initial temperature of the

charge has on specific impulse can be seen from the example presented
- 193 -
 in Table 4.10.

TABLE 4.10
Specific Engine Impulse as a Function of
Initial Charge Pressure in the Interval
±I500 C

toO°C +0+30 +15 10 -0-40

1
JKa cex/M 20=,9 202,8 201.3 199.6 199,2 16.6 13.6

1) J, kg" sec/kg.

As can be seen from the above-mentioned data, in the temperature

interval +500C the specific impulse can change by approximately 5%

with respect to its value at t o = +150C.

The gas temperature has an effect on the specific impulse insofar
as it determines the outflow coefficient

AM

and the specific impulse

i.e.,

The difficulty encountered in the thermal shielding of an engine

having a high temperature in the combustion chamber and the reduction
of the strength characteristics of the structural materials with an
increase in temperature limit the permissible temperature of the prod-
ucts of combustion. Therefore, an increase in the temperature of the
gases as a means of increasing the specific impulse of the engine is
undesirable and the problem as to the quantitative relationship A =

U" = f(AT) is not considered here.

- 194 -
 Since
Q. .) - ,
and

the specific impulse is formally proportional to In practice,

this relationship has a weaker effect and is expressed by the propor-
3 h 4
tionality to the root and even to

[Footnotes]

Manu-
script
Page
No.
96 EI VINITI AN SSSR, seriya "Raketnaya tekhnika" [Scientific-
Research Technical Institute of the Academy of Sciences
USSSR- not identified in standard references - series of
"Rocket Engineering"], 1959, No. 2, No. RT-4 (Rocket
Engineering No. 4]. Jet Propulsion, 1958, Vol. 28, No. 7.
100 EI VINITI AN SSSR, seriya "Raketnaya tekhnika," 1959,
No 29 No. RT-87; No. 41, No. RT-123. Aviation Week, 1953,
Voi. 66, No. 25.
101 EI VINITI AN SSSR, seriya "Raketnaya tekhnika," 1959, No. 25,
No. RT-73, 74.
102 Missiles and Rockets, 1958, 3, No. 1.
115 ZhETF [Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics],
1942, Vol. 12, Nos. 11-12.
130 *R.N. Wimpress, Internal. Ballistics of the Solid-Fuel
Rockets, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
130 **Jet Propulsion, 1954, Vol. 24, No. 1.
130 ***Combustion Colloquium, Cambridge University, England,
Butterworths Scientific Publications, 1954.
130 ****Jet Propulsion, 1958, Vol. 28, No. 9.
132 Journal of the British Interplanetary Society, Oct.-Dec. 1957
135 Astronautica Acta, 1959, Vol. 5, No. 1; El VINITI AN SSSR,
seriya "Raketnira tekhnika," No. 18, No. RT-51.
136 EI VINITI AN SSSR, seriya "Raketnaya tekhnika," 1959, No.
5, No. RT-13.
- 195 -
Manu-
script
Page
No.
138 Astronautica, Acta, 1959, Vol. 5, No.1.
139 R.N. Wimpress, Internal. Ballistics of the Solid-Fuel
Rockets, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1950.
152 D. Satton, Raketnyye dvigateli, IL [Rocket Engines, Foreign
Literature Press], 1952.
178 G.B. Sinyarev, M.V. Dobrovollskiy, Zhidkostnyye raketnyye
dvigateli, Oborongiz [Liquid Rocket Engines, State Defense
Industry Press], 1957.

[List of Transliterated Symbols]

109 ~ % =
0rCnl =
0 nitrokletchatka 0 nitrocellulose

119 u=U 1 = lineynaya (skorost') 'ulinear(rate)

120 T T T = T
12 3 zaryad grain (charge)
126 = Ot = Otemperatura = Otemperature
127 tp t
= tt
cp sr srednyaya (temperatura) = tmean (temperature)
13 =W=Wgaz=
wg Wgas
141 T = T =T =-T
H n nabor up -build

142 IF= sh = T shashka = T grain

142 P~a = grab = Prabocheye (davleniye) = Poperating (pressure)
144 PKP = kr Pkriticheskoye = Pcritical
15Kc k.s =vkamera sgoraniya combustion chamber
149 npexg pred = predel'noye = limit
1.59 CT =f t t = P'statsionarnyYe (davleniya)= P'steady-state

163 Srop Sgor =Sgoreniye = burningprsue

163 FB = FV = svobodnoye (secheniye) =Ffree (cross section)
16 cec 'sec = per second
171 a3 B = azv a zvk = a sound
182 aePA = aerd = aerodinaznicheskaya = aerodynamic
182 ) r = ravnodeyatvuyushchaya = equivalent
182 RTp Rtr = treniye = friction
182 ~ Rnpoti = Rproch = 1Rprochiye =Rall other
183 a(D We = effektivnaya = effective
187 =K "k = 'konechnyy (yes) = mfinal (weight)

-195a-
I

Chapter V
THE DESIGN OF AN ENGINE FOR A SOLID-PROPELLANT MISSILE
§1. SELECTION OF STRUCTURAL DIAGRAM FOR COMBUSTION CHAMBER AND
MATERIAL FOR TUBE
As a rule, the engine for a solid-propellant rocket missile con-

sists of a frame of a combustion chamber and several additional ele-

ments, the basic among which are the nozzle assembly and the forward

Fig. 5.1. Design of engie for solid-propel-

lant rocket missile. 1) Forward connection

device; 2) frame of igniter cartridge; 3)
grain trap (spacer); 4) tube of combustion
chamber; 5) diaphragm; 6) nozzle assembly.

spacer which connects the combustion chamber with the warhead of the
missile (Fig. 5.1). The combustion chamber is designed to house the
solid-propellant charge, the igniter, the ignition system, etc., as
well as to provide for normal conditions of propellant burning during
the time of engine operation.
Structurally the frame of the combustion chamber is generally
made in the form of a cylindrical tube. At times we encounter designs

of different types; however, the fabrication and assembly of combus-

. tion chambers involves, as a rule, considerable difficulties and it is

for this reason that such chambers are employed comparatively rarely.
- 196-
 ..
,..
=.

a t_1
L"_-

b
Fig. 5.2. Typical structural diagrams for the
combustion chamber of an engine. 1p) The length
of the threaded portion; 6) thickness of the
wall; Dn and d)vn outside and inside diameter,
respectively; dr) thread diameter; Dma) max-
imum diameter.

1,2

Fig. 5.3. Impact strength an,

kg-m/cm 2 as a function of tem-
perature T 0 C for steel, with
failure at low temperatures.

Some of the structural versions of combustion chambers are presented

in Fig. 5.2. A comparative evaluation of the typical combustion-

chamber designs shown in Fig. 5.2 demonstrates that there are no basic

differences between them; the chambers differ from one another only by
the location of the connecting thread (on the outside - Fig. 5.2a; on
the inside - 5.2b) and in the design of the threaded section. It should

be pointed out that if a missile. is not fabricated with threaded con-

- 197 -
 nections, but is designed to employ some other connection method (weld-

ing, gluing, pressure fitting, etc.), the design of the combustion

chamber remains as before and only the threaded section is replaced by

another, corresponding to the given connection.

The tube of the combustion chamber must be selected on the basis

of the consideration that a firm connection be achieved with the two

above-mentioned component parts in contact with the tube, and the con-
nection must provide for the permanence of the Joint and the hermetic

sealing of the combustion-chamber cavity under conditions of high

pressures and temperatures which occur within a solid-propellant

rocket engine that is in operation. An important criterion for the

evaluation of the structural diagram of a combustion chamber is the
requirement for technological adaptability to fabrication, said re-
quirement geared to conditions of fabricating these component parts on

a mass-production basis. From this standpoint, for example, tubes with

an inside thread are less desirable, since for these:

- the processing of the chamber from within presents certain dif-

ficulties, especially in the case of undercutting;
- it is difficult to obtain a high-quality thread on component
parts of small calibers.

Finally, we should also point out that the configuration of the

inner cavity of the combustion chamber has an effect on the parameter

K of the engine, of which more will be said in greater detail below.

In addition to the selection of the structural diagram, an ex-

tremely important stage in the design of the combustion chamber is the
resolution of the problem relating to the material employed in the

frame of the engine. In selecting the material, we should bear in mind

f that instantaneous pressure pulses at the beginning and the end of the
burning of the powder are possible during engine operation, especially
- 198 -
 during the missile-testing stage. Hence one of the most important

characteristics of the material used for the walls of the combustion

chamber is the impact strength which must be sufficiently great over
the entire temperature interval set for the engine.

Missiles that were used during the period of the Second World War
were fabricated, as a rule, of unalloyed structural steels. With re-

spect to their characteristics, these steels satisfy all of the re-

quirements imposed on the material used in the construction of a com-
bustion chamber, but these steels exhibit comparatively low mechanical
properties. In this connection, the requirements for strength demand

the fabrication of comparatively thick-walled combustion chambers, and

this increased the structural weight of the missile, thus reducing the

maximum velocity and flight range of the missile.

It is more expedient to use low-alloyed steels of increased
strength for combustion chambers. These steels make it possible sub-

stantially to lighten a rocket engine without introducing any signifi-

cant increase in cost.
In the case of steels involving more complex alloying, reductions
in impact strength at low temperatures may be observed (Fig. 5.3), and

moreover, the fabrication techniques for component parts made of such

steels is generally comparatively complex and these steels are there-

fore rarely employed.
In the case of engines operating on high heating-value powders or

if the engines are subjected to extended operation, the walls of the

combustion chamber are coated with special heat-insulating composi-

tions. Sometimes these heat-insulating coatings are introduced simply

in order to reduce the structural weight of the missile, since by in-

£ sulating the wall against the effects of high temperatures it becomes

possible to reduce the temperature stresses within the combustion cham-

- 199 -
 ber thus simultaneously reducing the necessary wall thickness. The
well-known German antiaircraft missile "Tayfun-P" operated on a powder
of conventional heating value Qw(zh) = 800-850 kcal/kg for 1.5 sec.
However, the walls of the combustion chamber in this missile were
coated with two heat-insulation layers, thus making it possible to re-
duce the thickness of the walls to 6 = 2.0 mm and to guarantee with
this thickness a preservation of combustion-chamber strength for the
operating pressure of Pmax = 130 atm. Test firings of the engines used

in the "Tayfun-P" missile, when no heat-insulation coatings were em-

ployed, resulted in the destruction of the combustion chambers. To

preserve the strength of the combustion chamber it became necessary to

increase the thickness of the walls by a factor of more than two. In
this case, the weight of the engine also almost doubled, thus reducing
the maximum velocity of the missile to 870-920 m/sec, whereas a mis-

sile with a heat-insulation coating and 6 = 2.0 mm exhibited a velocity

of vma x = 1500 m/sec.
At the present time, the new structural materials such as plas-
tics have found widespread application in rocket engineering, includ-
ing the field of rocket engine construction; among the plastics, we

refer primarily to various types of glass-filled plastics.

Glass-filled plastics are compositions consisting of a reinforc-

ing high-strength filler and a polymerized binder through which this
filler is distributed. Fiberglass or glass cloth is used most fre-
quently in structural glass-filled plastics. Various synthetic resins

such as, for example, the epoxies, the phenols, special polyesters,
etc., are used as the basic binder depending on the requirements im-
posed on the material and the operating conditions for the component

* parts.

Structural glass-filled plastics are characterized by extremely

- 200 -
high tensile stresses. For example, with a glass-cloth and epoxy-resin
base it is possible to obtain materials exhibiting ob = 4000-4500

kg/cm 2 and a n - 150 kg.cm/cm 2 , for a specific weight of y = 1.7-1.8

g/cm 3 . The comparative tensile strength of glass-filled plastics with

respect to certain other structural materials can be shown by the fol-

lowing figures*:
alloyed steel ............................... 900 (ab 7,000 kg/cm 2 )
heat-treated alloyed steel .................. 1800 (ob 14 ,000 kg/cm 2 )

high-strength alloyed steel ................. 2000 (ar -16 ,000 kg/cm 2 )

high-strength aluminum-based alloy .......... 2100 (or 6,000 kg/cm 2 )

titanium alloy .............................. 2800 (ar -13,000 kg/cm 2 )

fiberglass plastic with conventional im-
pregnation ............... ....... 2150 (or - 3,850 kg/cm 2 )

fiberglass plastic with special impregnation 2950 (ar - 5,250 kg/cm 2 )

(ar is the breaking strength)

While exhibiting high tensile strength, glass-filled plastics

also exhibit low thermal conductivity a - 0.002 cal/cmdeg-sec

(astali ' 0.1 cal/cmdeg.sec; aalyum = 0.4 cal/cmdeg.sec) and are

therefore simultaneously both structural and heat-insulation materials
which function satisfactorily under conditions involving temperatures
of the order of 2000-2500 0 C for short periods of time.
Let us cite several examples of the application of plastics in
the designs of rocket missiles:

- on the "Nike-Hercules" missiles and on certain other missile-

interceptors (USA) warheads have been installed and their frames (bod-
ies) are made of glass-filled textolite [a resin-impregnated laminated
cloth) (by the Aerojet-General Company);

891"- the cross-shaped wing of the antitank rocket missile "Vickers

8931" (Great Britain) is made of glass-filled plastic material;
- 201 -
 - stabilizers made of glass-filled textolite are mounted on the

U.S. Navy air missile "Talcs";

- the Contravers Company, in cooperation with the Erlicon B Com-
pany (Switzerland), developed model 56 of the RSC-l "ground-to-air"
missile class, whose engine frame is made of fiberglass impregnated

with a special organic adhesive composition;

- the Reinhold Company (USA) designed, developed, and undertook a

test production run of an artillery rocket missile with a solid-propel-

lant engine made entirely of plastics;

- finally, the inner heat-insulation of the frame of the solid-
propellant engine used in the anti-missile "Nike-Zeus" missile, which
operates for a period of 60 sec, is a lining made of glass-filled tex-

tolite.
The component parts of a rocket missile can be fabricated out of
glass-filled plastics by means of a wrapping method (the nose spinner,
the body of the combustion chamber, a nozzle) or by means of extrusion

(spacers, the grid, the nozzle, stabilizers).

With the wrapping method, the glass cloth (or a strip of glass
threads), impregnated with a binder, is wound in several layers on a
special rigid mandrel. The mandrel is placed into a thermostat together
with the material wound on the mandrel, and the binder is polymerized
in the thermostat where the material hardens. After the required length
of time in the thermostat, the mandrel is removed and the finished
product taken off.
Plastics are extruded in special heated die-casting molds. The
polymerization of the binder takes place during the time that the com-
ponent part is kept in the closed die-casting mold.
gIn the design of component parts made of glass-filled plastics it
should be borne in mind that individual critical cross sections of com-
-202-
 ponent parts can be reinforced by the introduction of steel fittings
into the structure of these component parts.

On the other hand, ways have been found of increasing substan-

tially the strength of the glass-filled plastics themselves in the
near future. One of these means is the attempt to increase the adhesion

of the binder to the fiberglass by, for example, the preliminary treat-

ment of the filler by means of special silicon-organic compounds. These

compounds are capable of forming chemical bonds both with the glass as

well as with the resins in the composition of the binder. In the final
analysis, the glass-filled plastics become more monolithic and their

strength increases.
Another method is the attempt to use a stronger filler - quartz

fibers, etc. Here, strength is increased only in those structures in

which the basic load is transmitted to the filler.

Examples of structural glass-filled plastics are such materials
as "roketon [sic]," "missaylon [sic]," "orbiton [sic]," and some others,*
which have found widespread application in rocket building in the USA.

§2. SELECTION OF DIAGRAM FOR CONNECTION OF ROCKET PART OF MISSILE TO

THE WARHEAD AND NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
It is possible to connect the rocket part of the missile with the
warhead either directly or by means of a transition element, i.e., a
connection plate.
Direct connection is possible if either the warhead has a bottom
plate (Fig. 5.4a), or the tube of the combustion chamber has a blind
end (Fig. 5.4b). Of the two possible methods for the case in which the
missile warhead has a bottom plate, all other conditions being equal,
it is best to select the first version. This method provides for per-
manence of Joints under the action of the high pressures within the
S combustion chamber, which expand the combustion chamber circumferen-

- 203 -
 PA. o

a b

Fig. 5.4. Structural means of

connecting the warhead and the
rocket part of the missile
without using a connection
plate.
? n is the pressure due to the
ttings.

Fig. 5.5. Comparison of two methods of connect-

ing the warhead of the missile to the rocket
part.

a) b) ) .d)

Fig. 5.6. Structural methods of connecting the

warhead and rocket parts of the missile by
means of a connecting plate.

tially, since the bulging forces at the end of the tube are borne by
the rigid element of the warhead. Generally speaking, the fabrication

of a warhead with a blind bottom plate exhibits a number of substan-

tial shortcomings in and of itself (difficulty in the mechanical proc-
essing of the inside cavity of the combustion chamber, the impossibil-
ity of utilizing advanced methods of outfitting, etc.) and this method
is therefore used only where absolutely necessary.

COf the two remaining methods, it is most expedient to use the

second. The shortcomings of the first method in comparison with the

- 204 -
 second method in this case are the following:
- the pressure (pn) due to the fittings, said pressure arising at
Tthe instant of missile impact against an obstacle and expanding the

walls of the warhead is borne, in the second case, by the rigid collar
of the combustion-chamber frame, so that the possibility of the Joint
opening at the instant of impact or premature explosion is completely
eliminated;
- it is extremely difficult to attain complete agreement between

the outline of the inner contour of the combustion chamber and the
head, from a production standpoint, during the fabrication (production

processing) of the component parts. In practice, we will always have

an error 6' in component-part dimensions (Fig. 5.5), and this makes
high-grade fitting out of the warhead difficult nor does it make it
possible to make use, for example, of the liner method of outfitting,

said method exhibiting great advantages;

- the spacer which provides for the selection of the clearance A
between the bottom plate and the head part has the shape, in the first
case, of a narrow ring (Fig. 5.5). In mounting (screwing on) the com-
ponent parts, we find that this spacer is easily deformed and fails to

carry out its functions.

An analysis of the possible types of connection devices for the

warhead and rocket parts allow us to draw the conclusion that in con-

necting these parts by means of a connection plate, from the stand-

point of strength and permanence of Joint, the best version of all
possible structural versions (Fig. 5.6) is the one in which the com-
t ponent parts being connected are encompassed by the structural ele-
ments of the connecting plate (Fig. 5.6d). Other connections may be
S used only when they are made necessary for some specific reason and

only if the strength of the Joint and the hermetic sealing of the Joint
- 205 -
will be assured in each particular case.
All that has been said about the connection of the warhead to the

rocket part pertains in equal measure to the second joint between the
rocket part and the nozzle assembly. And here, the most advantageous

connection version is the one in which the combustion chamber is cov-

ered by a nozzle cover. We must bear in mind only that there are in-
creased requirements imposed on this type of connection, since the
nozzle part of the engine is subject to greater temperature stresses.
§3. STRENGTH CALCULATIONS FOR THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
The body of the combustion chamber. The basic stress-bearing com-

ponent part of the combustion chamber is its cylindrical frame. The

frame (body) of the combustion chamber is subjected to a pressure

Prasch that is uniformly distributed over the inner surface, and it

is also subjected to axial forces of elongation which appear as a re-
sult of the pressure against the side covers of the combustion chamber.

Rd "-----dLp

p..~fi
.2pq - 40 P a. i

Fig. 5.7. Design diagram of loads, for veri-

fication of strength of middle section of
combustion-chamber tube.

For the design of the middle part of the frame cylinder we can use
the relationships of the momentless theory of shells, neglecting the

effect of the bending at the edges, and we can make use of the design

diagram of the loads presented in Fig. 5.7.

- 206 -
 A stress field is produced by the action of this load in the wall

of the combustion chamber, and each point in this field is character-

ized, in the general case, by three stresses (Fig. 5.8): a circum-

ferential stress ae, a radial stress ar and an axial stress o z .

Fig. 5.8. Diagram indicating distribu-

tion of main stresses acting on the wall
of the combustion-chamber tube.

Let us find the relationships which determine these stresses

in terms of the structural dimensions of the combustion chamber and

let us also determine the characteristics of the material used in

building the frame.

For the determination of 06 let us examine the equilibrium of

that part of the cylinder cut by two meridional and equatorial sec-

tions (Fig. 5.9). Since the wall of the combustion chamber may be

regarded as thin, we will assume that the stress a. is constant

throughout the thickness of the wall and distributed uniformly with-

in the wall. Given this assumption, the equation of the equilibrium

of the cut-out part, in its projection onto KK, will be

,28l--p.. .J=O (1 is the length of the engine) (5.1)

where the resultant of the pressure forces is found by the familiar

theorem on the resultant of pressure forces in a given direction:

the resultant of pressure forces, uniformly distributed over some

contour, in a given direction is equal to the product of the pressure

- 207-
 4K4

Fig. 5.9. Stresses ae in the wall of the com-

bustion chamber.

onto the projection of the closing line of this contour by the given
direction (Fig. 5.10):
Fk+k =p (AB)kh=p*, AB sin l=p*CB.

From Eq. (5.1) we will obtain

4,po, (5.1')

or from the caliber d of the missile

since
d=d..,+26.

The stresses a arise in the lateral cross section of the tube

as a result of the axial elongation force. We can see from the force-

distribution pattern (see Fig. 5.7) that two forces are acting on the

chamber in a longitudinal direction: prasch(rd2vn/4), acting on the

forward connecting device; (prasch(7rd 2 vn/4) - tPraschakr ) , is the

force acting on the nozzle cover (the Lanzheven coefficient t is

employed to take into consideration the redistribution of pressure

over the nozzle cover during the outflow of gases through the nozzle).

If two unequal forces act on the body in the opposite direction,

the body will shift and be elongated. In this case, the elongation
- 208-
 force will be the smaller of the ac-

A •! tive forces, and the force causing

I *6 the body to move will be given by

the difference between the active

forces. With respect to our case, it

will turn out that the combustion

chamber will be subject to elongation

Fig. 5.10. For the calculation
of the resultant produced by by the following force:
the forces of internal pressure
Prasch" p*) The pressure acting (5.2)
on the contour AB; a) angle be-
tween the closing lines of the
contour and the given direction and it will move under the action of
KK.
the following force:

where Rt is the force of thrust.

Under the action of the force p 1 in the lateral cross section of

the chamber, there will arise stresses that are equal to the follow-

ing (in accordance with the definition of the stresses)

(5.3)

where d is the outer diameter of the combustion-chamber tube; dkr

is the diameter of the critical cross section of the nozzle.

Finally, with respect to the stress ar it is not difficult to

see that this stress will have its greatest value on the inner sur-

face of the chamber:

- 209 -
 ? PC (5.14)

and this stress diminishes to

Cr = 0 (more exactly to ar = PH)

on the outer (free) surface of the tube (PH is the external pressure).

Thus all three of the main stresses that arise within the wall

of a combustion chamber under the action of the inside pressure have

been found:

0=ppieda.

2 (5.5)

GNUaz P IN ,q

A comparison of the algebraic magnitudes of the stresses e, az,

and av shows that in terms of the main stresses the greatest of these

- a1 - is, as a rule, the stress ae, and the smallest - a 3 - is the

stress ar, even if it attains its maximum value.

The strength calculation involves the successive solution of

two basic problems. The first of these problems - the structural cal-

culation - can be reduced to a tentative determination of the wall

thickness 6 which for the selected component-part material (with ab

known) must provide for the preservation of the structural strength

with a margin C, under a load of pressure prasch" In the solution of

this problem we generally take into consideration only the greatest

of the active stresses (in our case, ae) and we determine the re-

quired thickness from the following condition:

C eobn..

Substituting into this equation the values of ae from (5.1")

- 210 -
we will find 6 to be equal to

")(5.6)
g+.

The quantity prasch' entering into this formula, is calculated

as follows:
=k,/h5
PP ..Ppa~ +#onp~,
z
(5.7)

where the coefficients k1 and k are employed to take into considera-

tion the regulated tolerances for the scattering of pressure in the

case of various batches of powders and the elimination of pressure

P+t~max is the maximum pressure cal-

on the ignition of the charge; pmax

culated according to the balance equation for the extreme positive

temperature from the temperature interval stipulated in the tactical-

technical requirement.

The determination of the thickness of the wall according to

(5.6) will make it possible to estimate the weight qk of the engine

In this case, we may use the tentative relationship:

4 4
or after rearrangement
qx^4 (0-M (5.8)
where y is the specific weight of the tube material; d is the caliber

of the missile; 6 is the thickness of the engine wall.

If qk (in kg) does not fall within the limits permitted accord-

ing to the tactical-technical requirements for the weight of the

engine, it becomes necessary to replace the material with a stronger

material or it is necessary to reexamine the interior ballistics of

the engine, so as to bring the weight of the engine within the re-

quired limits.

After the correction of the quantity 6 the second strength-cal-

- 211 -
culation problem is solved, i.e., the verification calculation. In

the verification calculation the true stressed state at the critical

point of the chamber wall is estimated and the true strength margin

of the structure is determined. With the adopted assumptions with

respect to the nature of stress distribution through the thickness

of the wall, we will find that the critical point will be the one

that lies on the inner surface of the tube and has the main stresses:

d-26

@2= °,"'-i

In the case of a multiaxial stressed state, the concept of

equivalent stress a ekv is employed in order to determine the strength

of the component part at the critical point. By equivalent stress we

mean the conditional tensile stress whose effect at this point pro-

duces the same stressed state as the effect of the true main stresses.

This definition of equivalent stress makes it possible to write the

conditions of component-part strength in the case of a complex

stressed state in the following form

and the true strength margin can be defined as the ratio of these

stresses:

For the calculation of equivalent stress it is necessary for us

to know which factor of the stressed or strained state is the deter-

mining factor for the destruction of the component part. To this

time, the nature of the destruction of various materials and com-

ponent parts made of these materials has not been studied with suf-

-212-
ficient adequacy to enable us reliably to seek some equivalent state

and the conditional equivalent stress which corresponds to this

state. There are only individual hypotheses in this regard and

these are referred to as strength theories.

For materials such as tough steels we obtain good agreement be-

tween theory and experiment through the use of the so-called theory

of the strength of maximum tangential stresses, according to which

c(5.9')
or through the theory of the strength of the maximum energy of shape

change, according to which

7Y ( 5 -9

where U11 C2, and a3 are the main stresses; V is the coefficient

by means of which we take into consideration certain properties of

the material, and which for steel is equal to unity.

The questions related to the various theories of strength and

the calculation of equivalent stresses are considered in greater

detail in special literature on this problem as well as in textbooks

dealing with the resistance of materials.

The verification calculation will make it possible finally to

refine the unit 6, which provides for the required margin of struc-

tural strength.

If the walls of the combustion chamber are not coated with a

heat-insulating material, we must take into consideration the effect

of temperature on the strength of the engine. This effect makes itself

felt primarily in the appearance of auxiliary stresses within the

walls of the combustion chamber, said stresses proportional to the

magnitude of the temperature difference across the wall. These stresses

are referred to as temperature stresses. In first approximation, it

may be maintained that the temperature stresses and the stresses due

- 213-
to pressure are independent of each other, so that the total stresses

can be sought in the following manner:

where
i is the total stress determined by the effects of tempera-
ture and pressure; arP is the stress component by means of which we
take into consideration the effect
ii of pressure alone; and T is the

stress component by means of which we take into consideration the

effect of temperature alone.

The components ap can be calculated in accordance with Formulas

(5.5).
The temperature stresses aT are functions primarily of the tem-
i
perature difference across the wall of the engine and the geometric

characteristics of the lateral cross section of the tube. The formulas

for the calculation of the temperature stresses have the following

form:

r= f,, ) . O
Ts E(Ap. . ,). (5.10)

where E is the modulus of elasticity for the wall material; a is the

thermal conductivity of the wall material; p is the Poisson ratio;

f1 (d, 6), f2(p, d, 6) and f3 (.L, d, 6) are certain functions by means

of which we take into consideration the effect of the geometric char-

acteristics of the tube cross section on the temperature stresses;

ATmax is the theoretical temperature difference across the engine

wall.
One of the most complex problems associated with the calculation
of the temperature stresses is the determination of the temperature

difference

AT- 1.(4M--TR
-214-
where T = T(t) is the time-varying temperature of the metal at the

inner surface of the tube; Tn = T(t) is the time-varying temperature

of the metal at the outer (external) surface of' the tube.

In order to select the rated ATmax , we must know how the tem-

perature changes, with respect to time, at the boundaries of the wall.

The nature of the change Tvn = T(t) and Tn = T(t) is a function of

the temperature in the combustion chamber and of certain physical

characteristics of the stream of the products of combustion, moving

along the inner wall of the engine, as well as of the thickness and

the heat-conduction properties of' the wall and, finally, of the param-

eters of the stream flowing past the outer wall of the tube. At the

initial instant of rocket-engine operation, let the temperature of

the engine wall be T t. Then, during the powder-burning process a

fraction of the heat due to radiation and convection will be trans-

mitted from the hot products of combustion (Tp .s = 22000 K) to the

"cold" (Tgt << T p -s ) wall. The flow of heat will be received by the

inner surface of the engine wall. The heat absorbed by the wall will

in part accumulate in the layers of metal adjacent to the inner

boundary of the tube and in part be transmitted to the outer layers

of the metal. As a result of the accumulation of heat, the tempera-

ture of the inner layers will increase rapidly, tending at the maxi-

mum to the temperature T p 's

of the products of combustion. The trans-

fer of heat to the outer layers of the metal will in turn result in

the increased temperature of these layers. With an increase in the

temperature of the outer boundary of the wall, a fraction, of the heat

will be radiated into the external flow which flushes the engine. The

rate of temperature increase for the inner and outer walls, as well

as the distribution of the temperatures in the wall cross section,

are determined by the relationship between the processes of heat ab-

- 215 -
 sorption and heat conduction, the properties of the wall material,

the radiation of heat to the external medium, and certain other fac-

tors.

The solution of the problem re-

lating to the nonsteady-state heating

of the wall is comparatively complex

Iand is therefore not presented here.

6 The nature of the change of the tem-
Slperature field of the wall, with re-

0spect to time, is illustrated in

20 -
Fig. 5.11.

If we take into consideration the

Fig. 5.11. Change in the tem- temperature stresses, the stressed

perature field in the case of
nonsteady-state heating of the state of the critical tube point will
combustion-chamber wall of a
solid-propellant rocket engine be characterized by the total stresses:
pn , Tn) pressure, density, !+ E3 d.M
and temperature, respectively, =Pi 2 1-0 j(
of the external medium; pp .S, a -- +___ (5.11)
PP.s TP.S) pressure, density, -P
and temperature, respectively, pion + EAT.aJa(p, d,8),
of the products of combustion;
q 1 ) flow of heat to the wall where J az' and cZ
r are the total
of the combustion chamber; q2 ) e, an r
flow of heat to the ambient stresses, and the subscripts to the
medium; Aq) heat accumulated stresses are distributed in the follow-
by the wall.
ing manner, as before:

The heating of the wall results not only in the appearance of

( additional stresses, but it is also important to bear in mind that

with a change in the temperature of the wall there is a change in the

permissible stress for the given material. In this connection, it is

- 216 -
necessary to introduce into the calculation the quantity (a OT

rather than the standard value of ab; the first quantity is deter-

mined for some mean temperature of the engine wall.

If we take into consideration the temperature stresses and the

reduction of the permissible stress in the heating of the wall, the

formula for the structural calculation takes the following form:

p,... (5.12)

in which case, given comparatively low temperature differences ATmax

(given uniform heating of the wall), we can use the simplified re-

lationship
ppwsqd

12{Ppac1+ (Cadi (5.121)

a) b
Fig. 5.12. Selection of diagram for veri-
fication of the strength of the forward con-
nection plate of the combustion chamber.

The condition for the verification calculation takes the follow-

ing form:

Given uniform heating of the wall, the temperature components

of stress can, in first approximation, be neglected in the calcula-

tion of aekv*

The connection plate. The connection plate connects the combus-

tion chamber with the warhead of the missile. The basic load acting

on this component part is the pressure prasch distributed uniformly

- 217 -
 A Mr

-~ we

Fig. 5.13. Load diagram for a circular-

plate element. 9) Instantaneous section
angle; dr, de) dimensions of the ele-
mentary surface in the plane of the con-
nection plate; h) height of the surface
(thickness of tWe wall); Mr, Me) bending
moments; ar, oe)normal stresses at the
sides of the surface.

over the plate. Strictly speaking, the contour employed to test the
strength of this component part should be the round plate (pinched
along its contour) which lies on an elastic base, i.e., the fittings

of the missile warhead (Fig. 5.12a). However, in practical calcula-

tions we most frequently use the simplified diagram shown in Fig.
5.12b), neglecting the presence of this elastic base.

Figure 5.13 shows a diagram of the forces and moments acting on

an element of the round plate as well as the determining stresses at

the sides of this element.

We will not attempt a conclusion at this point, but will present

the final formula for the calculation of the stresses which determine

the strength of the component part. These formulas (for those points

lying on the outer contour of the plate) take the following form:

,.7P- ' (5.13)

- 218 -
 The structural design of the component part is carried out on
_max
the basis of the stresses ar . In this case, the thickness of the
twall is determined by the caliber of the missile in accordance with

the following relationghip

3 (d --26)2

in the form 8v '° (5.14)

2

Since the presence of an elastic pad BB in an actual structure

reduces a portion of the active load, the thickness 6 of the plate

wall, determined from (5.14), will assure the strength of the com-

ponent part. In this connection, the verification calculation for the

plate, as a rule, is not carried out. Moreover, we can select a coef-

ficient k < 1 such that

d1
2

will provide for the strength of the connection plate.

For a preliminary evaluation of

the magnitude of 6, we can use the

following relationship:

<(5.15)
(5-15
Fig. 5.14. Diagram of distribu-
tion of rated load on the wall
of a rocket nozzle. 2vykh) In the practice of designing
flare angle of the outlet
funnel of the nozzle. reaction-thrust armament we may en-

counter cases in which a convex shape is imparted to the connection

plate in order to increase the rigidity of the connection plate or

for certain other purposes (the improvement of the fragmentation of

- 219-
the combustion chamber on the explosion of the warhead, etc.). In

this case, the strength calculation for the component part becomes

even more cumbersome. In first approximation, it is possible to cal-

culate the required thickncss of the wall of the convex connection

plate by means of Formulas (5.14) and (5.15), bearing in mind that

the quantity 6 will, in this case, be determined with some excess.

The nozzle assembly of the combustion chamber. The nozzle as-

sembly can be made in the form of a nozzle cover or in the form of

a single central nozzle.

Figure 5.14 shows a diagram of the load acting on the walls of

a single nozzle. Under the action of the component of this load, the

nozzle walls become elongated in the radial direction, as a result

of which stresses arise within the wall;

where pi is the static pressure in the ith section of the nozzle

(diameter di).

In accordance with the elementary theory of nozzles, this pres-

sure is determined from the following relationship:

where pO is the pressure in the combustion chamber; M. is the M(ach)

number of the flow in the ith section, said number determined in

turn by the magnitude of the area F i of the ith section,

b+k

F kr is the area of the critical cross section of the nozzle.

Finally, for some ith section of the nozzle the minimum wall

- 220 -
 thickness which will ensure the strength of the component part with

a strength margin C is determined as follows:

(dw)g ___________

(, .r )L T %(5.16)

The stressed temperature conditions in the nozzle, and parti-

cularly in the region of the critical cross section, make it neces-

sary to fabricate thicker nozzle walls than would be required in ac-

cordance with (5.16). The additional mass of the metal increases the

quantity of heat removed from the inner surface of the nozzle profile

thus preventing overheating and metal erosion, caused by the action

of a high-velocity stream of gas against the overheated wall. In the

case of large flow rates and operating times, special graphite,

molybdenum, or other heat-resistant liners are employed in the

throat (the critical cross section) to prevent the formation of

scale on the nozzles. The temperature drops rapidly in the diverging

part of the nozzle and the temperature effect on nozzle wall strength

can be neglected.*

In fabrication of the nozzle assembly in the form of a nozzle

cover, the thickness of the component part is determined by the

linear dimensions of the nozzle, and this thickness, as a rule, en-

sures the strength of the connection plate with multiple margin

(Fig. 5.15a). The strength of such a component part need not be

checked again. Even in the case of a prefabricated multinozzle as-

sembly (Fig. 5.15b) the thickness is after all determined on the

basis of structural and production considerations, rather than on the

basis of strength. For purposes of control it might be borne in mind

U" that the connection plate will be stronq in the case of a multi-

nozzle assembly if the minimum thickness of the component part is not

- 221 -
made smaller than the thickness of the forward connection plate,

said thickness calculated on the basis of the formulas cited above.

Threaded joints of combustion-chamber units. The most common

joint for the combustion chamber of a missile with the warhead and

the nozzle cover is one involving threading. The thread may turn out

to be a weak point in the construction of the missile, especially in

the case of turbojet missiles in which great rpm produce additional

load, markedly reducing the effectiveness of the threaded joint.

Fig. 5.15. With respect to the problem of check-

ing the strength of the nozzle cover made in the
form of a multinozzle assembly. 6 < 61, 62;
6162 were determined on the basis of structural
and production considerations.

Figure 5.16 shows the load diagram for a threaded Joint that is

characteristic for thread operating conditions in a rocket missile.

The basic load on the turns of the thread is produced by the longi-

tudinal force p, which is equal, as has already been shown, to

4
The bulging load P2 produces no stresses in the thread; however,
as a result of this force the magnitude of the contact surface of the

turns is reduced and the hermetic sealing of the Joint is disrupted;

all of this results in a reduction in the strength of the Joint, so

-222-
 Fig. 5.16. Load diagram of threaded Joint be-
tween combustion chamber and nozzle assembly.
pl) longitudinal load; dl) inside diameter of
the thread; dr) thread diameter; dsr) average
diameter of the thread; p2) outward force which
separates the Joint; s, a, h, t) elements of the
thread profile.
that we can state that the presence

of P2 is equivalent to some increase

in the theoretical load pl, and this
must be taken into consideration in
the calculations. To reduce the un-

Fig. 5.17. Theoretical diagram desirable effect of the impairment

for tests of thread function- of the strength characteristics of
ing in the case of bending.
the Joint as a result of the action
of P2 1 the component parts of the two prefabricated units are fre-
quently screwed on with a red lead putty or with special lead monoxide
compounds. With this type of assembly, the tightness of the Joint in-
creases markedly, and it may be stated that the presence of P2 does
not reduce the strength of the threaded Joint.
The effect of load p1 is such as to produce bending, crumpling,
and shearing of the working turns of the thread. Calculations show
that the bending stresses are determining in this case.
In designing a thread to withstand bending it is assumed that

the work of a thread turn is equivalent to the bending of a beam which

-223 -
coincides in shape with the profile of the thread and is embedded

along the base of the profile (Fig. 5.17). Then, using the familiar

relationships for the bending of a beam, we will obtain

where ai is the bending stress; Mi is the bending moment; W is the

moment of cross-section resistance to bending; sz = 1r is the working

length of the thread; z is the number of working turns in the thread;

s is the pitch of the thread, or after substitition of Mi and W

1
3 1 08 8 PL (5.17)
(
(,8 &. ,P dItP
.6

Here the factor 0.85 is used to take into consideration the fea-

tures of an actual thread profile in comparison against a theoretical

profile.

The required working length of the thread is hence determined

in the following form

1I::0,88 i"
di - Ob

where C is the strength margin, or by taking into consideration the

expression which determines p1

I,,-o.88 )PPM2.o.7 - "C%

i.e., in terms of the nominal diameter of the thread:

1-O,7 . " (5.18)

(4 ft)-

The total length of the threaded section can be determined if

we hold that

-224-
i.e., according to the following formula

The condition of thread strength against shearing, apparently,

is written in the following form

where T is the destructive shearing stress, whence the shearing

stresses, which appear in the thread turns under the action of the

calculated load, are determined as follows:

d2 ' I
. (du-p PO (5.19)

We will see that this stress is smaller by a factor of more than

two than the stresses ai due to bending, which are determined accord-

ing to (5.18) for this very same section as being equal to

0,O7 (,_ ,(5.20)

We will assume, without proof, that the equivalent stress for

testing thread strength will be

which, if we take into consideration (5.19) and (5.20), yields

4'0.30 -
-0="/,-7r-+ l' p (5.21)
(d-2)1

0O,92 ,
(d _2#)!p

For test-stand chambers and engines capable of being started

repeatedly, it would be expedient to evaluate the possibility of

thread crumpling. Thread crumpling will not occur if

p,,x d ,(O,6.) z am. (5.22)

- 225 -
where 0.64 is employed to take into consideration that part of the

profile height engaged in the crumpling; sz = 1r is the length of

the working section of the thread; asm is the permissible specific

crumpling load.

Fig. 5.18. Examples of welded joints in the

construction of a rocket missile.

The relationships presented here can be used not only for the
design of the threaded joints between combustion chambers and war-

heads and nozzle covers, but for the design of other threads en-
countered in the design of a rocket missile (threaded [screwed in]

nozzles, sparkplugs, etc.).

Connection of combustion-chamber units by means of welding.

Threaded joints exhibit a number of structural inadequacies, of which
the most substantial are the need to make the component parts sub-
stantially thicker at the joint and the comparatively great fit area.

More promising from this point of view are connections made by

means of welding - contact welding (Fig. 5.18a) or arc welding

(Fig. 5.18b).
When arc welding is used, the component parts, as a rule, are
connected into a joint with a V-shaped spreading of the edges. The

rated load for verification of the strength of a joint seam is the

tensile stress, and assuming a continuous seam for the entire length
of the weld, the conditions of joint strength can be written in the

following form:
Pjd4'h2. d (5.23)

whence the required height h of the weld seam (the thickness of the

- 226 -
wall at the weld) is defined as

2,d16

or after substitution

4
h;%=0,125 pp._
d 1 (5.24)

where a' is the permissible tensile stress for the weld seam of the

Joint. The magnitude of this stress is primarily a function of the

type of welding employed and amounts to 0.6-0.9 of the permissible

stress for the basic metal (0.6 for manual welding, and 0.9 for auto-
matic welding with a layer of flux).

In refined calculations, it should be borne in mind that in addi-

tion to the tensile force pl, an outer bending moment acts on the weld
seam, and the magnitude of this moment is a function of the relation-

ship between the pressure in the combustion chamber and the rigidity

of the tube.

If the component parts being welded are not too thick, contact,

seam, or even point welding are generally employed. The strength of

the Joint in this case is determined by the possibility of shearing

the weld points and is written in the following form:

P 4 ",,,.,
4'' (5.25)

where T; is the permissible shear stress for the weld point ds.t is

the diameter of the weld point; ns.t is the number of points, whence

the required number of weld points is determined as follows:

-227-
or after substitution of the expression for p1

Pon (5.26)
" T7

Here, for the various types of welding, the values of T;S should

be set at 0.5-0.65 of the ab of the basic metal, and the optimum

magnitude of the weld-point diameter should be regarded as equal to

do.,- 1.5hb+5 x,4

where hmin is the minimum thickness of the component parts being

welded.

§4. DESIGN OF MISSILE NOZZLE ASSEMBLY

The diaphragm, the volume of the combustion chamber behind the

diaphragm, and the nozzle cover make up the so-called nozzle assembly

of the engine. This assembly serves to shape the stream of the pro-

ducts of combustion at the outlet from the chamber of the engine and

to set up the calculated outflow. The design of a nozzle assembly is

one of the most important stages in the development of a missile de-

sign.

Selection of Type of Nozzle Cover

The nozzle cover may be made in the form of a single central

nozzle or in the form of a multinozzle assembly (nozzle cover). The

choice between these two versions of nozzle assembly depends on a

number of factors, among which, first of all, we should point out

the following:

- the structural diagram of the missile;

- the type of missile stabilization;

- missile caliber;

- tactical-technical requirements with respect to flight range

and firing accuracy.

- 228-
 It is quite evident that the nozzle-cover version with a single
central nozzle is possible only in the case of a normal missile de-

sign or, for example, in the case of designs in which the rocket
portion is contained on the inside, Just as it is initially assumed
in the design of a turbojet missile that a nozzle cover is to be

employed. The influence of missile caliber on the selection of the

type of nozzle cover for the missile is a less determining factor. We

can say only that missiles having calibers between 80 and 100 mm are

made, as a rule, with a single central nozzle, although the well-

known Germany missile "Taifun-P" (d = 100 mm) nevertheless had a

multinozzle cover. With missiles having calibers of d > 100 mm, the
nozzle assembly can be fashioned as a multinozzle cover, as well as
with a single central nozzle. All other conditions being equal, the
fabrication of the nozzle assembly in the nozzle-cover version is

characterized by a number of substantial advantages, among which the

following are particularly important:

1) the possibility of achieving some gain in the weight of the
unit, particularly for missiles of medium and large calibers (Fig.

5.19);
2) the increase in missile firing accuracy by reducing virtually

to zero the possible excentricity of the reaction force;

3) improvement of the gasdynamic gas-discharge regime from the
combustion chamber and the reduction of losses attributable to the
formation of the stream at the inlet to the nozzle;

4) reduction of the dimensions of missile length, etc.

Individual nozzles, particularly nozzles of large dimensions,

are generally stamped and welded constructions (Fig. 5.20). Sometimes

casting is employed in the fabrication of such nozzles.
A nozzle cover can be made in the form of a single component part
- 229 -
 with bored (drilled) nozzles, either
K I-in the form of an assembly into which

- the individual nozzles are drilled

1 1 (less frequently, welded, rolled,

extruded) into a bottom plate carry-

ing a corresponding grouping of pre-

n 1
2)I SM set holes (see Fig. 5.15). The ver-

Fig. 5.19. Diagram of change sion for the structural outline of the
in weight of nozzle assembly
for various versions of covers nozzle cover is selected on the basis
with n bored nozzles. o) weight of a weight analysis or the assemblies
of actual component parts; x)
calculation points; 1) G,
weight of component part; 2) and a comparative evaluation of their
n, number of nozzles, adaptability to production. Individual

small nozzles of prefabricated multinozzle covers are made in the

form of a single component part, turned from a rod, or in the form

of a welded construction (Fig. 5.21).

Fig. 5.20. Example of structural design

of central nozzle. 2vkh and pvykh are
the flare angles of the inlet and outlet
nozzle cones; a is the angle of nozzle-
axis inclination to the engine axis.

Nozzles employed in engines exhibiting a burning time of between

5 and 10 seconds can be made of conventional low-carbon steel and need

not be cooled during operation. In the case of longer burning time,

- 230 -
 Fig. 5.21. Various nozzles for prefabri-
cated multinozzle covers. dvkh and dvykh
are the inlet and outlet nozzle diameters,
respectively.

special measures must be implemented in order to prevent the over-

heating or burning out of the nozzle walls. Since the external forced
cooling of a solid-propellant engine introduces undesirable compli-

cations from the standpoint of design and substantially increases

the weight of the engine as a result of the ballast mass of the cool-
ant, these measures must be reduced to the selection of special mate-

rials whose utilization in the nozzle construction will avert any

excessive overheating of the component part. Various ceramics, speciall5

processed graphite, and similar heat-resistant materials are employed

for such purposes on a wide scale. Component parts of these materials

are extruded or produced by powder-metallurgy techniques.

Calculation of Flowthrough and Linear Nozzle Dimensions

The contour of the inner nozzle cavity is defined by three
flowthrough (dvkh, d , and da) and three linear (11I 1' and 13)
dimensions, where dvkh is the diameter of the inlet section; d is
the diameter of the critical section (throat); da is the diameter

of the outlet section; 11 is the length of the inlet cone; l is the

length of the critical nozzle section; 13 is the length of the out-

let funnel.
- 231 -
 A diagram of the basic nozzle

dimensions is presented in Fig. 5.22.

The flowthrough sections of the

nozzle determine the most important

Fig. 5.22. Diagram of flow- parameters of a rocket engine. For

through and linear nozzle di-
mensions. example, the formula for the reaction
force R, written in a form containing
the Lanzheven [Langevin] coefficient, shows that the magnitude of this
force is wholly determined by the pressure in the combustion chamber
and the dimensions of the flowthrough sections of the nozzle.

where akr is the area of the critical nozzle section; j is the

Langevin coefficient whose numerical value is a function of the ratio
between the diameters of the outlet and critical sections of the

nozzle (a function of nozzle divergence).

The most important of the above-enumerated dimensions is the

diameter dkr of the critical section of the nozzle (the throat). The
magnitude of this diameter, in first approximation, can be found from
the equation of balance

u.IS$ =Apoop.

in accordance with which

or by taking into consideration the average values of the constants

y= 1.6 g/cm3 and A 8 g/kg'sec

4~Og5 V(5.27)
where u. is the linear powder (grain) burning rate for the conditions
given for the particular engine, in cm/sec; S. is the total burning

-232-
 surface of the grain, in cm2 ; P 0 is the working pressure in the cor-
2
- bustion chamber, in kg/cm
Experience in the testing of solid-propellant rocket engines has
demonstrated that the calculated throat diameter must always be cor-

rected on the basis of the results obtained in hot-firing tests, since

the outflow of the products of combustion is a strong function of
the structural features of each specific engine.
If the purpose of the experiments is to determine the coefficient

9 by means of which we take into consideration the difference between

the actual gas flow rate through the nozzle and that calculated on
the basis of theory, the dimension dkr can be determined more exactly

in accordance with the following formula:

do-0. . (5.28)

where q is the discharge correction factor, i.e., the ratio of the

actual mass flow (gas flow rate) from the given engine to the theoreti-
cal mass flow (gas flow rate):

W and pkr are, respectively, velocity and density of the gases in

the nozzle throat; Mist is the actual gas flow rate from the engine.

For engines with various nozzle-assembly versions and parameters

of interior ballistics, the factor 9 has an average value of 9 =

= 0.85-0.98.
There are other methods of calculating the magnitude of d
however, not a single one of these methods can guarantee a dimension

dkr which will not require subsequent correction.

The second important nozzle dimensions is d a . Its magnitude for
a given dkr is selected in dependence on the proposed divergence of

- 233 -
the nozzle which is adopted in the planning stage. Nozzle divergence

is the ratio of the outlet diameter of the nozzle to the diameter

of the throat (critical cross section):

e = da/dkr (less frequently aa/Okr).

This ratio is an extremely important structural characteristic
of an engine, since it determines such engine parameters as thrust

and specific impulse. With constant parameters of interior ballistics,

the thrust of a rocket engine and its specific impulse can be in-

creased only by changing the nozzle exit angle. In practice, nozzles

with great divergence are used comparatively rarely, since gasdynamic

losses in such nozzles reduce the effect of increasing R and J, with

an increase in e = da /dkr A reduction in the ballistic characteristics

of an engine can be observed in nozzles with da/dkr > 3-4, since the
increment in thrust in such nozzles sometimes fails to offset the

increased weight of the engine structure.

dg It should be borne in mind that

. some nozzle expansion (divergence) can

be achieved through nozzle length or

the flare angle of the outlet funnel
(Fig. 5.23). The condition of con-

Fig. 5.23. Diagram of nozzles tinuous gas flow through the nozzle
exhibiting a=da/dkr = const limits the permissible angle of conic
for various pairs of dimen-
sions 2Pvykh and 1. flare to the following quantity:
2uaiz-20+30"'.

In this case, the following angle is regarded as optimum:

(2 16)OM- IV,
here, however, on the basis of calculation data, with a change in

20vykh from 10 to 300, the specific impulse of the engintu changes only
by 2-3%.
-234 -
 The dimension 1 is chosen on the basis of results obtained in

a weight analysis of the various nozzle versions.

Nozzles exhibiting the following divergence are most widely used

in practice:
s-1,5+2,5.

With the selected nozzle divergence and the calculated dkr, the
diameter of the outlet section of the nozzle is defined as

d. (5.29)

in which case, generally,

d.- (1,5-2,5) dm.

Fig. 5.24. Stability (technological) of dimension

dkr as a function of the area 12 with an outlet-
cone flare-angle tolerance of t A. A) Tolerance
for magnitude of angle 21k kr c
vykh; 1cr )calculated
magnitude of critical cross section; d~r and dkr)
diameters of throat (critical cross section), cor-
responding to limit values of the angle 2Bvykh.

The third flowthrough nozzle dimension (dvkh) is not a theorpti-

cal (calculated) dimension and is selected on the basis of structual

considerations. The linear nozzle dimensions 1i and12 are also not

calculated and are selected during the design stage. Upon designation
of these dimensions, the following recommendations can be kept in mind:

1. 1l = (3-4)dkr must not be less than 10-20 mm with an inlet

cone flare angle of 4vkh = 90.

This relationship between the elements of the geometry of the

- 235-
inlet cone provides for the formation of a stream at the inlet to the
nozzle with the smallest losses, and a comparatively short length

for the inlet cone.

2. 12 dkr must not be less than 3-5 mm.

This dimension is set on the basis of two basic requirements -

the production-technological requirements and the operating require-
ments. From the standpoint of production, the need for the area 12

can be explained by the fact that only with such an area is it possible
to hold the dimension dkr to a high precision class in the case of

comparatively nonrigid tolerances for the dimensions of the inlet and

outlet cones (Fig. 5.24). Moreover, the cylindrical surface of the

critical cross section may be used as a reliable control and produc-

tion base for the processing (machining) of the profile of the inner

nozzle channel. The operational requirements with respect to the quan-

tity 12 are determined by the fact that the stability of the dimen-

sions dkr depends to some extent on the quantity 12 during engine

operation. Phenomena such as nozzle-wall erosion result in a situa-
tion in which, for small 12, substantial "erosion" of the nozzle is

observed, and this leads to a drop in pressure in the combustion

chamber, as a result of which the engine is no longer operating at

the theoretical regime.

With definite dk, and da and the selected nozzle exit angle, the
quantity 13 is determined on the basis of the following relationship:
- 2
tanp-- ,

and the calculation formula is conveniently presented in the follow-

ing form:
- .- P (5.30)

- 236 -
where 0vykh is half the flare angle of the outlet cone of the nozzle.

Selection of Grids
In almost all contemporary solid-propellant rocket engines there
is a diaphragm (grid) that is a structural part of the nozzle assembly

of the missile. The grid is designed to support reliably the powder

charge (grain) in the combustion chamber and serves simultaneously

to ensure the best possible burning conditions for the grain and the

complete combustion of its particles in the chamber without ejection

of said particles from the engine. It should be borne in mind that a

certain quantity of the powder particles are nevertheless ejected
with the stream of the products of combustion, so that the grid helps

only to reduce the number of such particles. From the standpoint of

the gasdynamic operating regime of a rocket engine, the presence of

a grid reduces engine characteristics, since the grid is a source of
additional internal resistance which throttles the stream of the pro-

ducts of combustion.

Numerous experiments with grids of various shapes have shown that

the magnitude of the free cross section Fd.sv or even the ratio

Fd.sv/(7rdr/) are inadequate characteristics of the actual role

played by the grid in the engine. To evaluate the properties of the

grid, the configuration of the component part is extremely important,

as is the relationship between the shape of the grid and the shape of
the selected powder grain, and the mutual position of the flowthrough
sections of the grid and the engine nozzles. The butt ends of powder

grains must not cover the free cross section of the grid, since other-
wise the effective free cross section of the grid is reduced and the
pressure losses increase. The gasdynamic characteristics of the grid
are noticeably improved if the grains do not rest on the plane of the
g--tan
- 237-
grid but on special protuberances of the grid, generally fashioned

in the shape of fins. The presence of such fins ensures a fixed

clearance between the butt ends of the burning grains and the sur-
face of the grid, which improves the conditions of gas flow to the

nozzle and reduces the losses due to grid resistance. The height of

the centering ribs is generally 5-10 mm (for missiles of medium cali-

ber). The shape of the grid is selected so that the nozzle orifices

of the combustion chamber are projected onto the free spaces of the
grid. Of the remaining factors whose consideration makes possible the

design of a grid with high characteristics, we should mention the

following.
1. The shape of the grid must be such as to provide for a clear-
ance of the order of 10 mm between the inner surface of the chamber
and the outer contour of the grid. From this standpoint, a ring with
a diameter equal to dvn cannot be tolerated as the outer contour.

The above-mentioned requirement pertains to the case in which

a charge (a single-grain or multigrain charge) is used in an engine,
and the charge burns both along the outer and inner surfaces. In

the case of single-grain charges burning only in a channel, the shape

of the outer contour of the grid is not'6f great significance.

2. It is desirable that the outlines of the grid elements be
streamlined in the direction of the gas flow. In order to avoid com-

plex mechanical processing, grids with streamlined elements are most

expediently produced by casting.

3. The strength calculations for the grid is a difficult problem
in practice. The fin thickness for grids is, as a rule, selected by

experimentation. In evaluating the strength characteristics of a grid,

it should be borne in mind that the deformation of this component

part during the process of engine operation is intolerable.

- 238 -
 4. The design of the grid for turbojet missiles should be

selected with consideration of the centrifugal loads produced by

$the rotation of the missile. In selecting the shape for the grid, it
becomes necessary in this case to select such shapes in which strength

and rigidity are greater in the radial direction (star, tubular, etc).

Experience shows that the improper selection of a grid or the in-

appropriate selection of the "grain-grid" unit may result in a pres-
sure pulse at the initial instant of burning, and this is of course

undesirable.

Generally speaking, a solid-propellant rocket engine can be de-

signed without a grid. The grains can be securely fixed in such an
engine by means of special devices mounted on the forward connection
plate, and the ejection of powder particles can be prevented by the
appropriate design of the nozzle cover. All other conditions being
equal, an engine without a grid is more promising, since it provides

for better operating missile parameters.

Experiments have shown that it is expedient to have a so-called

free space behind the grid in an engine, i.e., a space between the
grid and nozzle cover. The length Isv.d of this space is a function

of the features of a specific engine and, for example, for the M13

missile, is
4a.a-wOO25du (5.31)

where dvn is the inside diameter of the combustion chamber of the

engine.
The engine-operating parameters improve as the space behind the
grid increases; however, the structural weight of the missile increases

in this case, and this is intolerable.

It would be desirable for the space behind the grid to be a solid

of revolution with a smooth transition to the outlines of the nozzle

- 239-
cover; however, this is not an absolute must. Examples of grid de-

signs are presented in Fig. 5.25.

b)

a).

Fig. 5.25. Examples of grid designs employed in

solid-propellant rocket engines, a) Grids for
multigrain charges (stamped-and-welded and cast
versions); b) grid for single-grain charge.
The Concept of Variable and Demountable Nozzles and Nozzles with Con-
trolled Gas Streams*
As has already been pointed out, one of the features encountered

in the burning of rocket powders is the relationship between the

burning rate and the initial temperature of the charge:
a,=U+W c f (to),

where u+20 0C is the burning rate of the powder at a charge tempera-

ture of to = + 200C; f(t0 ) is the temperature burning-rate function,

f(t0 ) > 1 for t0 > 200 C;

f(to) < 1 for t O < 20°C.
The change in the burning rate with a change in to, at dkr = const,
causes the pressure in the combustion chamber to change as a function
of the charge-ignition conditions, and given identical structural
charge parameters, it will be low in the case of low (minus) tempera-
tures, and high in the case of high temperatures. Since the magnitude

- 240-
of pressure determines the basic characteristics of the rocket engine

(thrust, specific impulse), the scattering of the pressure for var-

ious initial charge temperatures produces instability of the char-

acteristics, substantially reducing the combat and operational char-
acteristics of the weapon. Here it should be borne in mind that the

sensitivity of pressure to changes in the burning rate is quite great

and, for example, for the case of a power burning-rate function for

the powder, it amounts to

since for present-day powders

3 4

For certain brands of powder, the burning rate at various igni-

tion temperatures varies so markedly that the corresponding range of

pressures in the combustion chamber is quite simply intolerable.

If we bear in mind that for a certain definite powder charge, the

pressure in the combustion chamber, given a fixed burning rate, is a

function only of the magnitude of the critical nozzle section (throat)

of the engine

then it is natural to undertake two means of stabilizing the pressure

in the engine for a given temperature interval of engine operation:

1) to use a powder that exhibits

a weak relationship between the burning

rate and the initial charge tempera-

.L_ 'ture and for which the magnitude of

the pressure in the combustion chamber

Fig. 5.26. Elementary diagram
of self-regulating nozzle, exhibits low sensitivity to the param-

- 241 -
eters of the charge;

2) to use special nozzles whose throat (critical cross section)

would change with a change in pressure so as to leave pressure approxi-

mately constant.

Since there are virtually no powders that are not sensitive to

the initial charge temperature, the first method is one for future

investigation. However, the second method is quite realistic and there

are many engines for which the magnitude of the critical cross section
is regulated for the purpose of pressure stabilization over the wide

temperature interval encountered in the operation of a rocket missile.

It is most efficient to employ a variable-nozzle design which

would monitor automatically the pressure in the combustion chamber

and react continuously to pressure fluctuations. Such nozzles are

referred to as autocontrollable-area nozzles. An elementary diagram
of a nozzle wivh smooth pressure control is presented in Fig. 5.26.

We can see from the diagram that the autocontrollable nozzle differs
from an uncontrollable conventional nozzle in that a special device

is mounted in the former to monitor the pressure in the combustion

chamber and to vary the flowthrough section of the nozzle in accord-

ance with the changes in this pressure.

The device consists of a floating plug 1, guide springs 2, and

supports 3; the plug is held by three supports 4 in the divergent
section of the nozzle. The floating plug is under the action of two
forces at any given instant of time; these forces are represented by

the resultant of the pressure Pk.s (in the combustion chamber) dis-
tributed over the frontal surface of the plug, and the resistance

force of the spring, causing the plug to assume a certain position

along the axis of the nozzle, depending on the relationship between

these forces.
-2142-
 The spring 2 is selected so that at the rated pressure in the

combustion chamber, the plug will assume a position on the axis of

the nozzle at which the area of the flowthrough section of the nozzle
ensures a balance of gases in the engine, i.e., at which

With an increase in Pk.s the force acting on the plug as a re-

sult of this pressure increases, and the plug shifts to the right in-
creasing the flowthrough section of the nozzle. Pressure begins to

diminish in this case, and the plug gradually returns to a position

corresponding to the rated pressure in the combustion chamber. With a

drop in pressure, the plug is moved to the left by the springs and
covers the critical cross section of the nozzle (the throat) thus pro-

ducing a rise in pressure.

For the control diagram shown in Fig. 5.26 pO = const cannot be

achieved and it is possible only to reduce substantially the magni-

tude of pressure scattering. This can be explained by the fact that

the counter force Ppr of the spring is not constant and is itself a
function of the area of the critical cross section, since
. P* - cx- chka,

since the quantity akr is determined by the coordinate x of the plug's

position on the axis of the nozzle. Here c is the rigidity of the

spring; k is some coefficient which determines the relationship between

the coordinate x of the plug's position on the axis of the nozzle
and the area of the open cross section of the nozzle.

Figure 5.27 presents curves for pO = f(akr) which are solutions

for the equation of balance for the extreme temperatures of the given

interval (± 50 °C), and the characteristic of the spring Ppr = cx. We

can see from the figure that if the rozzle is of the uncontrollable

kind (a = const = a2 ), a change in initial charge temperature in a

- 23-
range from - 50 to + 500C will cause the pressure in the engine to
vary within limits of Apo = const' corresponding to the BC ordinate

segment on the graph. The plug-regulator shifts as a result of the

introduction of the autocontrol system shown in the diagram in Fig.

5.26 in the case of a change in combustion-chamber pressure, thus

producing a corresponding change in the area of the flowthrough sec-

tion. If the spring characteristic-is represented by the straight line
AB, the maximum scattering of pressure in the temperature interval of
t 500C is detemined by the quantity Apt < Apo = const' and the

critical cross section of the engine changes from a 2 to a1 .

The regulation device shown in

Fig. 5.26 is the simplest possible.
More advanced control schemes make
4i A it possible to maintain a virtually
2 constant pressure within the combus-

0 tion chamber over the entire tempera-

ture interval encountered in missile
Fig. 5.27. Diagram characteriz-
ing drop in maximum pressure utilization. Naturally, these more ad-
scattering in combustion cham-
ber as a result of the utiliza- vanced methods are more complex.
tion of the simplest method of
controlling the magnitude of It should be borne in mind that
the critical cross section
Ukr. 1) to = + 50oc; 2) to = it is necessary to control a nozzle
0
- - 50°C" not only for the purpose of stabiliz-
ing pressure during missile operation under various temperature con-
ditions, but to provide for constancy of pressure within the combus-
tion chamber at some fixed initial charge temperature, when the con-
figuration of the grain is such that the burning surface is not con-
stant during the time in which the propellant burns.
The design and testing of a selfcontrollable-area nozzle are
connected with great difficulties. One of the basic problems en-

- 24-
countered in the design of a nozzle with a control device is the

matter of providing for the normal functioning of the design under

conditions in which a high-temperature flow of the products of com-
bustion flows past the regulation device (the plug). In this case, it
is absolutely necessary to take into consideration not only the change

occurring in the properties of the structural material situated in

the area of the high operating temperatures, but it is also necessary
to take into consideration the distortion of the working characteris-

tics of the springs used, as a rule, in the design of a plug device.

The development of nozzles with automatically controlled akr is per-

missible only in those cases in which the utilization of such nozzles
is justified by the imposition of high requirements with respect to

the objects and by the small tolerance for the magnitude of the work-
ing pressure.

It is sometimes expedient to employ step control of okr' since

this is structurally a simpler solution involving the utilization of
a complex of demountable nozzles. A diagram showing the application

of such nozzles is presented in Fig. 5.28. Let the pressure Psr be

the rated pressure at a = const = azimn, and the scattering of this
pressure at the extreme temperatures will be bp, = const" We can see
from the curves presented in Fig. 5.28 that the quantity A const

may be approximately the same as the average operating pressure, so

that the extreme pressures will diverge from psr by a factor of almost

one and a half. Such a scattering of pressures is intolerable. Let us

divide the set temperature interval of * 50°C for missile operation by:
surmmer (+ 50- +200);
interseasonal (+ 20- - 200);
winter (- 20- - 500)
and let us select three various nozzles, each of which will make it

- 245-
possible, in its own temperature range, to maintain an approximate

constancy of engine thrust with a relatively small scattering of the

operating pressure. These nozzles are conveniently designated as summer

0 letn'
interseasonal a, and winter azimn.

pA
u

interval o' o n t r -C b

Fig. 5.28. Diagram illustrating possibility of

reducing scattering of pressure p in the com-
bustion chamber of a rocket engine with a large
interval of operating temperatures t by using
demountable nozzles.
Figure 5.28 shows that for each of these nozzles the scattering

of prere e is substantially lower than n thse of a const, and

the average pressure levels are correspondingly somewhat higher

(Psr. zimn > , constp " To summarize, for the approximate constancy
sr.zimn
of the characteristics of a rocket engine, several demountable (seasonal)

nozzles may be chosen and one of these is to be used for each corre-

sponding initial charge temperature.

In the design of demountable nozzles, we proceed from the basic

requirement of R = const, which when we take into consideration

R-1poul,
yields

poak-const

or
P,1 P,6,
,.,, (5.32)

whence for the special case of t. = + 200 we will have

- 246 -
 @ ,=1 I+pk , -20' (5.33)
Os hp+,o. B,?

where k is the ratio of the coefficients of the powder burning-rate

function; Bt is the thermochemical powder constant, and it is as-

sumed that ul = u(ap + b)f(t0 ), and that all of the denotations cor-
respond to those adopted in interior ballistics.

Relationship (5.33) makes it possible to select demountable

nozzles graphically. The sequence of the selection is clear from Fig.
5.29. It is desirable that the operating range for each nozzle over-

*A).e Conio

B 'wt

• - I
i________
.,3" .so'c

Fig. 5.29. Diagram for the selection of

demountable nozzles which provide for
constancy of engine thrust (within the
limits of the given scattering of thrust).
Rmin) minimal required thrust; Rmax)
maximum required thrust; A) first nozzle;
B) second nozzle.

b) )

Fig. 5. 0. Nozzle with demountable liners.

a) Interseasonal liner (for medium initial
charge temperatures); b) summer liner;
c) winter liner; dkr, dkr, d"r) critical
cross section of interseasonal, summer and
winter liners, respectively; D(A2 /C 2 )) fit
diameter of liner assembly with nozzle frame.

laps that of the others by 5-100. In designing an engine with de-

mountable nozzles, it should be borne in mind that the number of
- 247 -
 such nozzles must be kept to a minimum. In order to eliminate the
cumbersome operation of nozzle reinstallation, particularly during

R the work at the starting position, it is expedient to employ de-

mountable central liners rather than demountable nozzles. The replace-

ment of such liners does not require subsequent tedious adjustment of

the nozzles, and thus a significant reduction is achieved in the time

spent on adjustment operations.

Figure 5.30 shows a nozzle with various demountable liners. In
the fabrication of such nozzles, the complex of liners for each nozzle

is generally put through its final processing during the assembly

stage. This makes it possible to satisfy the requirements imposed
with respect to the surface of the inner channel of the nozzle as

well as to achieve exact correspondence of dimensions during the fit-

ting stage.

Fig. 5.31. Warm-up of "Honest John"

rocket engine prior to start.

One of the methods employed to stabilize the oharacteristics of

a solid-propellant rocket engine in the temperature interval set for
this engine involves the prestart warming up of the engine. American

periodical literature has presented several photographs of the Army

(. "Honest John" rocket being preheated before launch (Fig. 5.31). The

Americans use a metallic net as the heat source for this warm-up stage
- 248-
i.e., a cover through which an electric current is passed for a speci-

fied period of time. At first glance, this method seems to be con-

venient; however, because of the low heat (temperature) conductivity

of the powder, this method may be employed only in comparatively few

cases.
In recent times engine designs have appeared with nozzles making
it possible to change the direction of the exhaust gas stream accord-
ing to a definite program or on the basis of a specific command. Such

turning of the stream results in the appearance of a lateral reaction-

force component (with respect to the axis of the engine), and this
component is generally used to guide the flight of the object Nozzles

with controllable gas streams have been developed for sustainer

rocket engines as well as for booster assemblies.

As an example we can cite the booster unit for the aircraft-

missile "Snark" (USA). The utilization of sensitive electronic de-
vices in the control system of this missile makes intolerable any
great acceleration of the object on launch. As a result, the missile
acquires velocity comparatively slowly and, since the aerodynamic

control surfaces become effective only at relatively great flight

velocities, the missile is in fact unguided during the launch phase.

This may result in pronounced deviation of the missile at the initial

instant of flight from the calculated trajectory, which in turn re-
sults in the subsequent reduction of firing accuracy. The only means
of guiding the flight of an aircraft-missile during the launching

phase involves the utilization of the effect produced by the regula-

tion (turning) of the stream of the products of combustion produced
by the missile during the launch phase; this stream must be turned so
as to offset the deviation of the object. A diagram of the "Snark"

booster assembly is shown in Fig. 5.32. The command for the turning

- 249 -
of the deflection device in the nozzle is issued from the autopilot

of the object to a servomechanism.*

Fig. 5.32. Diagram of construction of

booster assembly with controllable de-
vice to deflect the axis or the stream
[of the products of combustion] (air-
craft-missile "Snark" (USA). 6(t)) angle
of turn for special device, on command;
between axes of nozzle and engine;
t)ialetotal
ai6() angle of stream deflection;
1) hydraulic pressure accumulator; 2) pres-
sure feed pipe; 3) to autonomous control
system of object; o) operating servocylin-
der; 5) rotating ring; 6) tubing for re-
moval of powder gases.

The development of controllable

nozzles for sustainer engines would be
expedient, for example, for rocket
missiles with great operating flight
altitudes, where the rarefaction of
b) ' ) the air makes it impossible to use

Fig. 5.33. Diagrams of nozzles aerodynamic control, and where gas

with controllable gas stream.
a) Nozzle with canted controll- (jet) vanes are undesirable from a
able (turnable) outlet; b) noz-
zle with controllable deflec- structural standpoint; the use of such
tion device; c) nozzle with gas
(jet) vane. a nozzle is also advisable for certain
similar reasons. For example, it is well known that nozzles with con-

trollable deflection devices are used in the sustainer engine of one

- 250-
 of the stages of the ballistic

"Polaris" rocket.
3 rg Nozzles with a controllable ex-
haust (gas) stream may be produced in
/ a number of versions, and these are
I presented schematically in Fig. 5.33.

,? The most effective of these verions,

on the basis of data gathered in

2) "mkowwhnM
wifo DioeAMma - special investigations,* is the nozzle

Fig. 5.34. Operating character- with a telescoping controllable de-

istics for nozzles with con- flection device. However, it should
trollable gas stream. 1) Lat-
eral component of thrust; be borne in mind that the testing of
2) angle of deflection of con-
trol element, such a nozzle is associated with great

difficulties.

Figure 5.34 shows the operating characteristics of the above-

mentioned nozzle versions for purposes of comparison, and here we can

see clearly the advantages of the nozzles with telescoping deflection

fittings.
§5. SEVERAL TYPES OF ROCKET POWDER CHARGES USED IN SOLID-PROPELLANT
ROCKE ENGINES
The working charge of a solid-propellant rocket engine consists,
as a rule, of a single or several independent elements, referred to
as grains. The powder grains are made from a specially prepared initial
mixture by extrusion into long bars of given lateral cross section,
or by casting. These bars, after cooling and quality inspection, are
cut into the required lengths and then machined.
The geometric dimensions and shapes of the powder grains which
go to make up the working charge of the engine have a significant
effect on the basic characteristics and operating regime of a solid-
propellant rocket engine. The shape of the powder grains is of particu-

-251-

./I
larly great significance in terms of the burning curve p = p(t),

which determines the progressive, neutral, and regressive burning

of the charge.

The curve which corresponds to the engine operating regime at

which the pressure in the combustion chamber increases as the charge
burns is referred to as a progressive curve. By analogy, the regressive

curve is characteristic of an operating regime in which the pressure

in the combustion chamber drops monotonically during the operation

of the engine, and the neutral curve pertains to the case in which
the pressure remains constant (or approximately constant).

P l''¢ma"rn
"ve mn~ "a
Im~o . I m.
--.- zopeslis

j i 2 ),ipweOa9 " cmyneb eope'm.'

Fig. 5.35. Burning curve with two thrust stages

providing for maximum speed for entry of missile
into the controlled-flight phase. rst and rm)
pressure in combustion chamber during launch and
cruising regimes, respectively; Tst and Tm) en-
gine operating time during launch and cruising
regimes, respectively; Tpoln) total engine operat-
ing time; 1) starting stage of burning; 2) cruising
stage of burning.

For the majority of missiles employed by the field rocket

artillery, the thrust of the engine must remain constant throughout

the entire period of engine operation. This means that in the case

of uncontrollable nozzles, the configuration of the powder charge must

provide for approximate constancy of pressure magnitude in the combus-

tion chamber throughout the entire period of the burning of the powder

- 252-
However, this requirement is not a general requirement, since for

certain types of rockets it is more expedient to employ, for example,

a progressive burning characteristic which ensures low thrust at the

beginning and high thrust at the end of engine operation. In this

case, the rocket passes through the lower denser layers of the air
(atmosphere) at a relatively slow speed and accelerates primarily in

the rarefied layers of the atmosphere.

As a result, the mean effective resistance and velocity losses

produced by overcoming the resistance are substantially reduced in

comparison with those encountered when engine thrust is constant. It
is desirable in the case of other rocket missiles to achieve maximum

speed of missile entry into the controlled-flight phase, with the

missile moving at a slower speed during this phase, enabling it to

react to the commands of the control system. In this case, a regres-

sive or, perhaps even a step, burning characteristic would be prefer-
able (Fig. 5.35).

In certain cases, to attain the required velocity rapidly, the

missile is designed as a two-stage assembly, in which case the. first
stage is the booster which is Jettisoned upon completion of the burn-

ing stage.
Among all possible cross-sectional shapes of grains, of which
the most frequently employed are presented in Fig. 5.36, relative
constancy of pressure is provided by grains with specially shaped
channels (for example, star-shaped grains) and grains which burn

simultaneously along the outer surface and the surface of the inner

channels (tubular cylindrical, elliptical, and triangular, seven-

channel and three-channel three-petal grains). It is possible to
select a relationship between the geometrical elements of the cross

section for these grains at which the total burning surface will be

-253-
 C),

Fig. 5.36. Several cross-sectional shapes of

grains frequently encountered in solid-propel-
lant engines. 1) Tubular grains; b) multi-
tubular grains; c) grains without channels.

kept approximately constant throughout the entire period of engine

operation, and at ak = const determines the constancy of pressure.
As an example, lt us examine a single-channel qylindrical grain.

Let the cross-sectional dimensions of the grain at the initial in-

stant be the following: R 0 is the circumferential radius of the outer

surface; r 0 is the radius of the inside channel; L0 = const(t) is the

length of the grain (and this may be attained, for example, by armor-
ing the side ends of the grain).

The total burning surface SO for this instant will be

So=2xRg.+ 2rgL0 = 2n(R. +-r*)L4:

after t sec, a part of the grain will have burnt up, and if the burn-
ing rate during this period of time was u mm/sec, then the dimensions
of the grain will become the following:
Rt-Re---2.
Ra -92ut,

and the total burnIng surface St will be

- 42x
-
 If the grain burns both along the side surface and the end sur-

faces, the total burning surface changes somewhat; however, this

change is comparatively small, particularly in the case of grains of

great length. Let us estimate the value of ASma x . It is clear that

when the ends of the grain participate in the combustion,

So- .n(Ro+ ro) L+ 2n (R2-ro),

St-2n (R+ro) Lt+2x [(R2s-7r2,)-4ut (Ro+r)J,

where Lt, Lo-2ut.

Hence it is easy to determine AS t in the following form:

&St-So--1 2n ut(Ro+ro).

The minus sign indicates that the burning surface is diminishing

gradually. From a geometrical standpoint

(ut)..<R,
so that the maximum change in the burning surface will not exceed
IAS.I < 12w (Ro-+-ro)Ro, (5.34)
and since the length of the powder grain, as a rule, is generally

8-12 calibers of the grain, i.e.,

L

IASual < (0,5-4- 0,75) (R. + r,)L.

Comparing this quantity with the first term of the expression

determining So, we will find that ASmax will not exceed (0.25-0.35)S0
even in the case of such comparatively short grains.
In actual fact ASmax is even smaller and, therefore, the utiliza-
tion of single-channel cylindrical grains, as a rule, ensures con-

stancy of pressure in the engine, with a possible deviation of the

order of 5% toward the end of combustion.
We must point out that in certain engines it may be completely
unnecessary for the total burning surface of the charge to remain con-

- 255-
stant throughout the entire period of engine operation in order to
attain p = const. The situation here is that as the working charge
burns up, certain engine and charge characteristics and parameters

undergo change, and these quantities determine the magnitude of pres-

sure in the combustion chamber, so that in order to stabilize the pres-

sure this change in engine operating conditions must be compensated.

The most convenient method to achieve this is the control of the burn-
ing surface of the charge. For example, according to data from Wimpressj
in order to achieve a rigorous p = const in one of the engines em-
ploying JPN-powder charges, it would be necessary gradually to reduce
the burning surface, with an approximate reduction of 25% of the

burning surface toward the end of combustion.

Grains which burn only on the outer surface (cylindrical grains

without channels, cruciform, etc.) as a rule exhibit regressive burn-

ing, whereas grains burning from within exhibit progressive burning

(if the channels of such grains are not given special shapes).
In order for the powder grain to burn only along a certain limited
and predetermined surface, a restriction coating is applied. The

restriction coating applied to a grain involves the application of a

special coating to those surface areas of the grain which are not
to participate in the combustion process, and this coating is cemented
or similarly attached to the powder mass of the grain, thus eliminating

the possibility of the appearance of a flame along the surfaces. For

example, in order for the grain to burn only along the surface of the
channel, the outer and end surfaces of the grain are covered with the

restriction coating. As an example of a restriction coating we can

cite, for example, the composition of the restriction coating so widely

used in the USA, which is based on standard rubber S (USA standard)

with admixtures of gas black, a plasticizer, and special vulcanization
- 256-
additives. For the application of the restriction coating of the

charges, the above-indicated mixture is prepared in specific propor-

tions and rolled into sheets of required thickness. The grains are
rolled into these sheets and kept under high pressure in special
thermostats (t = 1O0 C) for specific periods of time. The rubber is

vulcanized in the thermostat, and as a result a reliable restriction

coating for the treated surface of the grain is formed. Various

polymerizing tars and synthetic materials may be employed as bases

for the restriction-coating composition in addition to rubber.
In selecting the composition of the restriction coating it should
be borne in mind that the basic requirements imposed here are the

following:

- the need to provide for good adhesion with the surface of the

powder grains;
- instablity to the action of the flame and the stream of the

products of combustion along the restriction coating;

- preservation of properties over the wide temperature interval

of missile operation.
If the required nature of the curve p = p(t) can be achieved by
selecting a particular cross-sectional grain shape and the partial

restriction of the charge surface, then the second basic characteris-

tic of engine operation - the burning time of the charge - is com-

pletely determined by grain dimensions and primarily by the magni-

tude of the so-called combustion cupola. The combustion cupola can
be defined as the minimum distance between the initial burning surface
and the position of the flame front at the final instant of combustion.

For example, in the case of a single-channel cylindrical grain, where

combustion is observed both along the other surface as well as in the

channel, the magnitude of the cupola e is determined by the following

- 257 -
expression:

ep
2'

since the position of the flame front at the end of the combustion
process corresponds approximately to the center of the grain surface.

If one of the surfaces of such a grain is restricted and combustion

takes place only along the surface of the inside channel (or, con-

versely, only along the outer surface), the magnitude of the cupola
will be
e -Ro-o.

We can see from this example that, all other conditions being
equal, grains burning from without and along the surface of the
channel have a thinner cupola, i.e., a shorter operating time than

do grains burning only along the channel surface or only along the
outside surface. If the burning surface is the butt-end surface of
the grain, then
e-OL

and, since generally L0 R O , the time of engine operation in this

case is at its maximum.

The detailed properties of charges of various configurations are

presented in Table 5.1.

With a reduction in the over-all dimensions of the grain, the

thickness of the cupola in terms of absolute magnitude also diminishes
and, therefore, in order to attain minimum combustion times multi-
grain charges are employed. For example, let a single-grain charge

of a single-channel cylindrical grain having the dimensions Rol, ro1 ,

and LOI for the previous missile caliber be replaced by a charge con-
sisting of seven grains and a geometrical cross section similar to

the initial grain (R0 2 , r 0 2 , and L0 2 ). Let us see how the burning time

for the charge will change in this case. In the first case, the magni-
-258-
 tude of the combustion cupola wholly determined the duration of grain

combustion, and in this case will be

2 2 rd)

and, correspondingly, in the second case it will be

Ro
- ro =&(I~

(e7 sh is the cupola of a seven-grain charge).

TABLE 5.1.
Properties of Some of the Simplest Types of Grains for
the Case of Comparable Charge Dimensions (Ro, r0 = const)

cpsm"Abloe 3) 4) 5)
O ropeR I
2) M aoe CpeAvee Han.wbmee
XopKTOP
7)
flporp'cMU&aI Wamiu c rope.
iNeN no nosepz-
6) Rocr.
AUwNHpn-
iOcnoro
KaNaAl4

WamWN. ropa. L
pmCoet DLe ,,o oaepxHo-
3-UM Wa-,.. ro-
/. MAc
IlJOoMepaMocTM
#apy-,.
UI uem I putume CTOpRa
A.auia.a
iiero CalOziy~o
mae *opuy; *,,ucu cI

11u
) no
Man napyN=ol

1) Nature of the combustion curve; 2) comparative com-

bustion time; 3) small; 4) average; 5) greatest; 6) pro-
gressive; 7) grains with combustion along the surface of
a cylindrical channel; 8) grains burning on the outside
and along the surface of the channel; 9) grains burning
along the surface of a channel of complex shape; grains
with grooves; 10) grains burning at the butt-end surfaces;
11) regressive burning; 12) grains burning along the
outside surface.

If we assume that

and that if the seven grains are tightly packed into the combustion

( chamber, having an inside diameter of dvn,

- 259 -
we will obtain the following for grains with similar cross sections

__" Rol(- Rol)

o)

i.e., in the second case the burning time for the charge diminishes

by a factor of three in comparison with the very fastest burning ver-

sion of a single-grain charge.

In making the transition to a multigrain charge, the charge den-

sity characterized by the weight of a unit of charge length, as a rule,

diminishes (see Table 5.2) and the length of the combustion chamber

increases in order to hold the earlier quantity of powder within the

engine. This results in an impairment of the weight characteristics

of the engine and, in particular, leads to a reduction in the value

of the ratio o/qp which, according to the formula of K.E. Tsiolkovskiy,

determines the magnitude of the velocity acquired by the missile as a

result of the functioning of the rocket engine.

TABLE 5.2.
Comparative Charge Density Characteristic for
Powder Rocket Charges Having Various Cross-
Sectional Shapes

epua unaspeuoro cemeas Koaxwco flaQTolOCT

1) =mamu e I

J4 ) OmaeaaausaunuApecuas mn 1 1,000
5) To.. .6 0,W4
7 0.916
6TeIscDMRKSN.~ 111"M 1 0,0S4
7) .miUUKSbUl marn YO&M I -1,000
TPsuMzba maCnMKa S ~ 71& O.W
Kpamwt6paunu T mma 7 0,67

1) Shape of grain cross section; 2) number of grains

in charge; 3) charge density; 4) single-channel cy-
lindrical grain; 5) the same; 6) telescoping grain;
7) seven-channel Walsh grain; 8) three-channel three-
petal grain; 9) cruciform grain.

- 260 -
 Let us take note of the fact that in the case of constant grain-
cupola thickness, the burning time can be changed by altering the

pressure magnitude which determines the powder burning rate; however,

in this case, the time of engine operation can be changed only within
comparatively narrow limits.

Thus the following applies with respect to a preliminary recom-

mendation on the selection of the type of powder charge for the engine

being designed.

1. If thrust must be kept at a constant level throughout the

entire period of engine operation, the grain selected should be taken
from among those burning from within and having a complex channel
configuration or burning from without and along the surface of the
channel; for extremely long periods of engine operation, we must

select a charge which burns at the butt-end surfaces.

2. For regression burning, grains burning from without should be

selected, or the engine should be designed for two thrust stages.

3. Progressive combustion is achieved by grain shapes providing

for combustion within the channel.

4. For pronounced reduction of operating time in all three cases,

multigrain charges should be employed. In this case, it may be assumed
that in first approximation burning time is reduced in direct pro-

portion to the increase in the number of grains in the charge.

Let us examine in greater detail the problem involved in the

selection of a charge for engines with medium burning time. With an
engine operating time of 20-30 seconds and higher, the basic problem

encountered in the achievement of a functioning design is the matter

of preventing the overheating of the lift components and the combus-

tion-chamber units, and primarily of the engine walls. From this stand-

point, the charge version in which burning takes place along the sur-
-261 -
 face or the inner channel is optimum,

since when densly packed into the

combustion chamber this charge re-
-_________ liably insulates the walls of the

chamber with a layer of powder mass

, which, because of its low thermal

conductivity, is almost an ideal in-

Fig. 5.37. Diagram of charge
with slit grooves, providing sulating material. The progressive-
for approximate neutrality of
the curve p = p(t) with com- burning curve (p = p(t))for a grain
bustion along the surface or
the inside channel. 1) Combus- with a simple channel (cylindrical),
tion curve for simple single-
channel grain; 2) combustion not always desirable for an engine,
curve for compensating surface.
may-be eliminated or, at least, sub-

stantially reduced by the introduction of auxiliary regressive burh-

ing surfaces in the grain or through the utilization of so-called

compensating grains.
Figure 5.37 shows a grain in which burning takes place along the

surface or the channel, and this grain has been processed in such a

fashion as to keep the burning surface approximately constant, i.e.,

the combustion characteristics of the grain may be regarded as vir-

tually neutral.

The final touches on the shape of the grain involve the intro-
duction of grooves, A mm wide, into the thickness of the grain at its
end surface. Combustion takes place not only along the surface of
the grain channel but along the surface of the grooves as well. As a

result, at the initial instant the total burning surface can be

markedly increased. As combustion progresses, the surface of the

grooves diminishes as a result of the increase in the dimension d,

since
sinceS-
(D-d) 1 n.

- 262 -
 The regressive nature of the combustion surfaces of the grooves
and the progressive nature of the basic combustion surfaces make it

possible, for a given selection of the geometrical elements of the

grain, to attain approximate neutrality of the charge-combustion

characteristic.

While in order to satisfy the tactical-technical requirements

with respect to thrust parameters, the combustion surface must be

equal to S cm2 , the relationship between the geometrical elements of

the powder grain of this type are determined in first approximation

from the following conditions:

S.,:%;wd3 n(D - )"1

(n is the number of grooves in the charge), whence

SS.

S - _ _( 5 . (535)
n(D -d)aD

where 11 is the length oz the groove; D is the outside diameter of

the grain; d is the inside diameter of the grain; Snach and Skon are,

respectively, the initial and final combustion surfaces, or if the

grooves are made symmetrical with the two ends of the grain:
S(5.35')

Compensating surfaces can be made not only in the form of grooves

at the ends of the grain. Of the other versions of such surfaces we
can cite, for example, the inverse inside cone and certain similar

versions (Fig. 5.38).

In conclusion, let us dwell in some detail on the problem of
selecting the charge for rocket engines with step characteristics of
combustion, to whose development particularly great attention has been

devoted in recent times. If we do not consider the possible versions

- 263 -
 of an engine with dual thrust, in

S-! which the programming of thrust is

.t determined by the structural features

of the engine (a design with suc-

cessively positioned chambers forming
a single structural whole, and certain
Fig. 5.38. Examples of charges
burning along the surface of similar features), the step combustion
the inside channel with re-
duced progressive-burning characteristic can be attained:
curve p = p(t). 11, 1, d, D, 1) for a limited combustion time
2p, and d') characteristic
grain dimensions. - by using conventional single-
channel cylindrical grains with intermediate restriction coating

(Fig. 5.39). In this case, the grain may be made of a powder of one
and the same brand or of two various powders. In the latter case, the

production techniques for the charge are substantially more complex

and it becomes quite difficult to obtain a reliably functioning

charge;

2) for medium combustion time

- by producing a composite grain using two powder preparations;
a fast burning preparation - for launch, and a slow burning prepara-
tion for the cruising phases of tha flight (Fig. 5.40);
- by using two various powder preparations in accordance with
the rate of combustion for the required program;

3) for long operating times

- by using two various powder preparations for butt-end combus-

tion. As an example we can cite the charge employed by the US Navy

drone XKDT-1 "Til' - [sic]", shown in Fig. 5.41. The charge is made

entirely of a powder mixture having the following composition (in %):

ammonium nitrate ........................... 80
synthetic rubber .......... .................... 10
admixtures (combustion catalysts, carbon
black a plasticizer, vulcanization addi-
tivesl .................................. 10
-264 -
 .. U

r PONUpOWkQ

a) b)
Fig. 5.39. Example of charge providing for dual
thrust for small period of engine operation.
est) grain cupola burning during first stage of
engine operation; em) grain cupola burning dur-
ing the cruising regime of engine operation; 1)
restriction coating.
A greater combustion rate for the starting portion of the charge

can be obtained by changing the composition of the catalytic admix-

tures somewhat as well as by changing the production techniques in-

volved in the fabrication of the propellant mixture.

- -
I ~
1'-1D
•~~
T
eYT

Fig. 5.40. Examples of charges which pro-

duce double thrust for medium periods of
engine operation.
Given fixed charge geometry, the characteristics of engine oper-

(" ation can be changed only through the utilization of various propel-
lant mixtures (for example, fast or slow burning powders, etc.) or by
- 265 -
 18

1Df0 pahau........5Ncl .........

Aeuf
..... 01 ...- UN

Fig. 5 .41. Diagram of charge used in guid-

ed USA Naval Drone XKDT-1 Til,-[sic]."
1) Cruising stage Starting stage
of charge of charge
Operating time 500 sec 2 -5 sec
Pressure 35 kg/cm 100 kg/cm 2
Thrust 20 kg -65 kg
altering the operating pressure.

§6. THE PROBLEM OF INJECTING THE OPTIMUM VERSION OF A SINGLE-CHAN-

NEL CYLINDRICAL GRAIN CHARGE INTO THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Almost all field-artillery missiles are bdigg designed with a

multigrain solid-propellant charge. This can be explained primarily

by the fact that with an increase in the active flight phase (i.e.,

with an increase in the burning time of the charge) the firing ac-

curacy of field rockets, as a rule, is reduced, so that for these

missiles it is desirable to have a charge which exhibits a minimum

of engine operating time. The increase in start overload in this case

does not impose any particular restrictions on the magnitude of T sec.,

since even the maximum realistically possible launch overloads, as a

rule, do not produce any dangerous stresses in the elements of the

missile structure.

In designing a multigrain charge, it is necessary first of all to

select the number of grains with which the basic requirements of the

tactical-technical requirements with respect to a rocket engine will

be satisfied in the case of rather high ballistic and structural char-

acteristics (density of charge, w/qp ratio, the length of the combus-

- 266 -
tion chamber, etc.). The problem here is to place a definite quantity

of powder (4 kg) - in the form of a charge - into the combustion

chamber, and this quantity must guarantee the normal burping of the

powder in the case of a maximum-density grain. The quantity c kg is

generally determined during the preliminary selection of structural

and weight parameters for the missile. The dimension dvn mm - the in-

side diameter of the combustion chamber - characterizes the volume

(space) in which the charge can be held, and this can be found during

the strength calculations for the chamber.

The problem of injecting into the combustion chamber the optimum

version of a multigrain charge made of single-channel cylindrical

grains can be solved in various ways - through simple empirical selec-

tion of various numbers of grains to the utilization of cumbersome

analytical calculations. In first approximation, the solution of this

problem, with a sufficient degree of accuracy (and at the same time,

with comparative simplicity of calculation), can be obtained by em-

ploying the graphical-analytical method, and the procedure is des-

bribed below.

Let us have a charge consisting of n single-channel cylindrical

grains whose butt-end surfaces are small in comparision with their

side surfaces Sbok (for purposes of generality, we can, for example,

assume that the butt-ends of the grains have been coated). For such a

charge

S-So= -x(P+d) (5.36)

or taking into consideration
d = D - 4e,

where e is the combustion cupola,

Sf-2z (D-2) a (5.36')

From this equation
- 267-
 D=2e+A.SOW
2d3

D, d, are, respectively, the outside and inside diameters, and the

length of the powder grain.

The obtained relationship establishes a link between the grain

of a multigrain charge and some parameters (e, n) which determine the

charge characteristics from the standpoint of the posed problem. However

there is little practical use for this relationship, Since it contains

the quantity Sbok which, generally speaking, has not yet been deter-

mined and is in no manner associated with the parameters of either

charge or engine. Let us express Sbok in terms of these parameters.

It is clear that

where Vzar is the volume of the solid-propellant charge.

Separating the difference between the squared diameters into the

cofactors and grouping the expression in the right-hand part of the

equation in a certain manner, we will obtain

,*w(~dlxD-dT-M1

whence

* ,$g--...

and

(5.37)

Now it is possible to break down the over-all charge (wkg) into

n grains having definite dimensions (D, d, 1) so that the burning time
corresponds to the required (e). However, we do not know whether such

-268 -
a charge can be placed into the combustion chamber of the engine, and

if it can be placed, we do not know whether the charge will burn sta-

bly there, i.e., the selection of a possible charge version is purely

formal.

In a like manner, we will rearrange the equality

to the form

.Fegpa

where Fvn = (wd2 vn/4) is the area of the lateral cross section of the

combustion chamber; Fsv is the free cross section of the chamber when

n grains of powder are placed into it.

We know that the parameter

characterizes the stability of powder burning in the engine; we will

denote this parameter by K and rewrite the latter relationship, taking

into consideration this denotation, and regrouping the remaining terms

FF..

where Ftorts is the area of the butt-end section of the charge.

We will assume that in first approximation the length of the com-

bustion chamber is equal to the length of the grains contained within

the chamber; then

- -1 -P p6 t

-269 -
 i.e.,

whence the quantity c will be determined in the following form:

-- P~j. (5.38)

Substituting this w into (5.37), we will obtain

P 8% (5.39')
2W. a
Let us introduce the dimensionless combinations

'mm-. o. (5.40)
de

Dividing both parts of Eq. (5.39') by dvn , we ean~easily obtain

d. d. 1+ 10 (5.39

which in dimensionless terms is written as follows:

8.--L a 1 1 (5.39)
a 1+4 1 a"

Now the given weight of the powder cu, kg, can be divided into n
such grains which are contained in the chamber of the engine being
designed, and will burn there in a stable manner.
Naturally, the grain version which can be placed in the combust-
tion chamber in dense packing will be the optimum version, i.e., the
version for which dvn will be the diameter of the described circumfer-
ence. Graphically, this version is most simply defined as the point of
intersection between the curve for Eq. (5.39) and the so-called curve

I -270 -
of dense-packing (Fig. 5.42). The dense-packing curve is constructed
along the points of Table 5.3 which contains the dimensionless dia-

meters of the various circumferences inserted around the given dia-

meter d.

TABLE 5.3
Dimensionless diameters of inserted circumferences
"I r.i"II1 I d a.IdP
a n
ii Ft
1 I 7 0,333 13 0,230 19 0,200 25 0,175 31 0,160
2 0,5 8 0,294 14 0,220 20 0,196 26 0,168 32 0,156
3 0,464 9 0,269 15 0,220 21 0,189 27 0,165 33 0,156
4 0,414 10 0,256 16 0,213 22 0,184 28 0,165 34 0.150
5 0,370 II 0,247 17 0,206 23 0,176 29 0,160 35 0,150
6 0,333 12 0,244 18 0,200 24 0,172 30 0,160 36 0,15

The curve of Eq. (5.39) in coordinates 6, 1/n is a straight line

which passes through point M (0, 2e)

at an angle 9 to the axis of abscissas
$ (Fig. 5.43) the tangent of which is

- - ~8
- -- -tanm"-! 1+.- 1

S-This straight line may be directed

V with respect to the dense-packing curve

in various ways. Here, if there is a

single intersect point (Fig. 5.43) there

is only one solution. However, if the
Fig. 5.42. Curve of dense
packing for dimensionless curves intersect several times, there is a
grain diameters
corresponding number of charge versions,
each of which satisfies the optimum conditionB. It is impossible to
encounter a case in which the curves will not have any common points.
In this case, if there are a pair of coordinates for which both curves
come rather close, the solution is sought in the vicinity of this par-

-271 -
 ticular pair (Fig. 5.44) and a reverse
calculation if performed, the initial
parameters for charge and engine being
SWI_ refined here. If there is no such pair

;A p arctjj. - of coordinates, it becomes necessary to

M vary the initial quantities e, c, 1,

o_ (--1 etc., attaining the required change in

the orientation of the line
Fig. 5.43. For the selec-
tion of the optimum ver- 8.2%+
sion of a multigrain 6 1'
charge made of single- In this case, the straight line can
channel cylindrical grains
either be placed along the 6 axis, so
that
8 + 1[ 1

where el = e 1/dvn, and el is the new magni-

5OT "-'tude of the combustion cupola, or the

straight line can be turned about M (Fig.

5.45):

In both cases, the position

of the
Fig. 5.44. Selection straight line is sought so as to produce at
of optimum charge ver-
sion in the absence of least a single common, or, at least, suffi-
a point of intersection
between the curves (the ciently close point.
first case)
For an analysis of the methods used
to achieve the practical change in the orientation of the straight
line, let us examine the coefficients of Eq. (5.39):

) ~2.

- 272 -
 This coefficient can be increased (at dvn = const) only by increas-

ing the thickness of a grain cupola e. In this case, in order to main-

tail the given combustion time constant, it is necessary:

either to increase the pressure p, in the engine, in order to

achieve the required degree of increase of powder-burning rate.

u@p) a u@p1 ) '(5. (5.

or to employ a different powder, exhibiting the required burning rate

at the former pressure

u(p) u,(P)

Thus the placement of the straight line along the 6 axis is as-

sociated with the need to raise the operating pressure in the engine

or to switch to a new, Blower burning, propellant composition.

The magnitude of the coefficient is a function of e, c, and 1;

since with a fixed c, the values of e and 1 are mutually related,

only two parameters can be arbitrarily changed; for example, K and e.

We can see from the formula that this coefficient increases with an

increase in K, in the limiting case tending to the magnitude deter-

mined by the following relationship:

11M
(i ' _ T.--
,7) 1 1u "_ -- (5.41)

and increases with a drop in el, in which case

11 __1M - (5.41')
.. 1+4 8.1 0.0 +I
3. ,
i " 273 ~~~-
-,.7/ .
 In actual practice, the coefficient is limited by even lower
values, since in the case of x being greater than some Kpr' phenomena

are observed in the engine which are characteristic of unstable pow-

der-burning; because of the limits in the maximum burning rate for
existing powder compositions, the quantity e cannot be lower than the

following:

With a drop in c and an increase in e, the coefficient tends to

its dinimum value, equal in both cases to zero:

4,1
m( I---1---lr( .-- 0, (5.42)

7/-

1rn , i- = lr . /,)=O. (5.42')

do I

Thus the turning of the straight line about point M (Fig. 5.45)

can be achieved by a change in the parameter a of the engine or by

selecting a new calculation thickness for the cupola of the grain. In
this case, an increase in K and a decrease in e (the use of slow-

burning powders and low operating pressures in the engine) will cause
the straight line to turn in a counterclockwise direction.

Since e is included in both coefficients of the straight-line

equation, if the straight line is placed along the 6 axis, the straight
line is additionally turned about M and with a single turn there is a

slight shift of point M on the 6 axis.

In conclusion, we would point out that the ordinates of the points

of intersection, corresponding to Eq. (5.39), with the dense-packing

curve, divide the plane into parts in which the curve either lies

above the straight line or, conversely, the straight line lies above
the curve. In the first region, for any number n grains corresponding
- 274 -
 to the dimensionless diameter 6pl can

be packed densely into a diameter dvn,

and to place a charge w, kg, into the

combustion chamber, grains having a dia-

meter 60 pi are required. Thus the charge

can be placed in dvn , but the packing will

-- 00--f -- not be dense (Fig. 5.46). In areas where

,
--- 6>6pi , the charge cannot be placed into

-the combustion chamber, since the grain

diameter must be greater than the magni-

Fig. 5.45. Selection of tude which corresponds to the maximum in-

optimum charge version
in the absence of points sertion of n circumferences in dvn*
of intersection between
the curves (second case) Let us assume that it has been possi-
ble to achieve an intersection of the curves which would determine the
sought version of an optimum multigrain charge. Before finally decid-
ing on this charge version, it is necessery, as a rule, to verify the
K for the grain channel of this charge, since a certain x, average
over the entire engine, has been introduced into the calculation. For
this verification, we can use the following relationship:

(5.43)

where d = D - 4e; /kan is the parameter of K of the grain channel;

(Sbok)kan is the burning surface of the channel; (Fsv)kan is the free

cross section of the channel, in which case it is assumed
wi,.- (14-3) ,,..,,

where Knar is the corresponding ratio of areas for the outer free cavi-
ty of the engine:

- 275 -
 =___.. WNW 4Wi, (5.44)
*~ds. - (D -d2) x

T-" -§7..PROPELLANT DESIGN OF IGNITION UNIT FOR BASIC

I CHARGE
0 - The basic charge of a rocket engine

is ignited as a result of the combustion,

01 in the combustion chamber, of an auxili-

Fig. 5.46. Determination ary charge consisting generally of black

of range of values n and powder having definite grain dimensions.
6, corresponding to-ver-
sions of nondense grain- The black powders, in a special casing
packing into the combus-
tion chamber. 6pl) dimen- or cloth (calico) sack, are kept in the
sionless diameter of
grain providing for dense forward part of the combustion chamber,
packing of charge in com-
bustion chamber; 6bal) near the forward connection plate. For
dimensionless grain dia- the transmission of the command pulse to
meter providing form
satisfaction of require- igniter, the firing installations are
ments with respect to
parameters of interior equipped with special electrical fire con-
ballistics; 1) region of
nondense packing trol systems, a typical diagram of which

is presented in Fig. 5.47. The electrical system closes on a contact

device (pyrosparkplug) of the missile. The pyrosparkplug contains a

special assembly referred to as the pyrocartridge which consists of a

weighed portion of easily ignited powder mass into which a heating

element has been inserted.(Fig. 5.48).

With the command "fire" a current appears in the circuit,,aid

this current is transmitted through the combined contacts of the fir-

ing installation and missile to the pyrosparkplug. The heating element

is actuated and the powder mass in the pyrocartridge burns up, produc-

3ing a force from the flame which is transmitted to the igniter. As a

result, the igniter receives the required command pulse. The products
- 276 -
 Fig. 5.47. Diagram of electrical sys-e,
ter for firing of BM-13 weapon. 1)
Combined contacts of missile and in-
stallation; 2) firing panels; 3) pew-
er supplies; 4) grounding of installa-
tion frame

of the combustion taking place in the igniter fill the combustion

chamber, thus producing the initial increase in combustion-chamber

pressure, and these products then stream out to the nozzle. The stream
of products of combustion, flushing the powder
~grains of the basic charge, cause them to ig-

The basic requirement imposed on an igni-

ter is the necessity to provide for conditions
Fig. 5.48. Pyrocar-
tridge (sparkplug) within the combustion chamber, which will guar-
of M-13 rocket mis-
sile antee reliable ignition and entry into a regime
of stable burning on the part of the basic charge of the engine, and

primarily to increase the pressure in the combustion chamber to a r,

point somewhat in excess of the pressure required for rated engine
operation. Since the magnitude of the specific gas formation of the
substance in the igniter is a physical constant, the pressure produced
p
in the
s engine as the result of the burning up of the igniter can be

entirely determined by the mass of consumed substance and the struc-

tural features of both charge and engine. cn
first approximation we

- 27 -
assume that the use of black powder as the igniter is necessary for

reliable ignition of the basic charge, so that each liter of free com-

bustion-chamber volume requires 1.5-2 g of the igniter, i.e.,

qv = (1.5-2.0)v sv g,

where qv is the weighed portion of the ignition composition. In this

case, the free volume can be

where 1.15 is employed to take into consideration the presence,,in*.the

engine, of the space behind the diaphragm as well as the free space
1
at the forward connection plate; sh is the length of the grain charge;

Stort s is the area of the butt-ends.

Thus to calculate the required weighed portion in the igniter, in

first approximation, we can use the following formla:

q.=(1,65-.-2,2)(91.6-ns,)l.. (5.4"5)

Under actual conditions, the ignition process is a function not

only of the magnitude of the initl&l free volume, but of the structural

featuresrf the charge and the engine. It is impossible to derive the

theoretical formula for the determination of the required qv, in terms

of charge and parameters; therefore, the final weighed portion of ig-

niter is selected on the basis of results obtained in experimental ig-

nitions.

For the selection of the igniter for multigrain charges consis-

ting of single-channel cylindrical grains, we can recommend the empir-

ical relationship, obtained in the following form:

qv= B[(dm2] akrcm 2 ]

g;

However, this formula makes no pretense at being universal, i.e., it

does not cover all of the various engines employing multigrain charges.

-278-
 FOOTNOTES

Manu-
* script
* Page
No.
201 Yu.Ya. Vayntraub Stekloplastik i Vozmozhnost' ikh Pri-
meneniya v Proizvodstve Vooruzheniya [Glass-filled Plastics
and the Possibl!lity of Their Utilization in. the Production
of Armaments] based on foreign materials], NTI [not identi-
fied in standard references], 1959
203 Yu.Ya. Vayntraub Stekloplastiki i Vozmozhnost' ikh Primene-
niya y Proizvodstve Vooruzheniva
221 G.P. Sutton, Rocket Propulsion Elements 1957
240 J. Gates and S. Tinto, ASNE Reprint, N 59 T (March-April
1959)
250 EI VINITI AN SSSR, Seriya "Raketnaya Tekhnika" [not identi-
fied in standard references, Series "Rocket Engineering"]
1959, Vol. 6, No. RT 15
251 Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, 1959, 63, No. 580
256 R.N. Wimperss, Internal Ballistics of the Solid-Fuel Rockets,
McGraw-Hill, New York 1950

- 279 -
 Chapter 6
ELEMENTS OF THE EXTERIOR BALLISTICS OF AN UNGUIDED
SOLID-PROPELLANT ROCKET MISSILE

§1. Flight Trajectory of Unguided Rocket Missile

Definitions. Coordinate Systems

Exterior ballistics study the laws governing the motion of mis-

siles and rockets through the air as well as the methods of control-

ling these laws. The application of the fundamentals of exterior-bal-

listic theory to practice makes it possible to design a rocket missile

which can satisfy the tactical-technical requirements in terms of fir-

Fig. 6.1. Flight trajectory of un-

guided rocket in ground system of
coordinates A) end of active phase;
1) position of target
ing range and accuracy.
In the general case, the flight trajectory of a rocket missile is
a spatial curve having its origin at the point of missile launch. It
is the practice to determine this curve in a so-called system of
ground coordinates (Fig. 6.1).

-280 -
 The point that coincides with the point of rocket launch is gen-

erally taken as the origin of a ground system. The coordinate axes are

positioned so that one of the axes, generally denoted 0y, is vertical.

while the two remaining axes are arbitrarily oriented in the horizon-

tal plane. If the target vector 6M is drawn through the ground coor-

dinate system, the plane defined by the Oy axis and the vector OM is

referred to as the firing plane. The firing plane is a characteristic

of the ground coordinate system.

The flight trajectory of a rocket is

completely determined if the mutual inter-

* relationship of the ground
coordinates

0 f(x, y, z) = 0 is known; in this case,

A.T .the nature of rocket motion along the tra-

jectory will be a function of the law gov-

erning the time-variance of the rocket-

Fig. 6.2. Axes of a con-
nected coordinate system position coordinates on the trajectory:

X-40.
zmz(t).

The motion of a rocket along its trajectory represents only a

transient phase of its total motion. The second part of this motion is

the relative rotation of the rocket about a point of the rocket which

lies on the trajectory line (the center of rocket gravity). This mo-

tion is generally referred to as relative and regarded as pertaining,

in this case, to a flying rocket, with the introduction of an addition-

al movable coordinate system associated with the shifting body. This

is referred to as a connected coordinate system. The origin of the

connected coordinate system coincides with the center of rocket grav-

ity; the axes of the system are so chosen as to cause the Ox' axis

-281 -
 to coincide with the longitudinal axis of the rocket, and the Oy' axis

is chosen so as to maintain the vertical position (in the absence of

7 roll) of the coordinate plane x'Oy'. With this choice of axes for the

connected coordinate system of a rocket situated, without roll, in the

firing plane, the plane x'0y' coincides with the firing plane. The axes

of the connected coordinates are oriented with respect to the rocket,

and this is presented in Fig. 6.2.

Through the introduction of the connected system of coordinates,

the relative rotation of a rocket can be studied as a change in the

relative position of the axes of both the ground and connected coordin-

ate systems. In this case, the following coordinate angles are intro-

duced: the angle of pitch e, the angle of yaw *, and the angle of roll

sCp.

The pitch angle is the angle between the Ox' axis of the connected

coordinate system and the plane xOz of the ground system. For the sake

of clarity, the angle of pitch can be presented as the angle between

the axis of the rocket and the horizontal plane. The angle of yaw is

the angle between the axis of tha rocket and the firing plane. This

angle indicates the extent to which the rocket deviates from its pos-

ition in the firing plane. And, finally, the angle of roll is the angle

between the x'Oy' plane of the connected coordinate system and the fir-

ing plane. This angle characterizes the turning of the rocket about

its longitudinal axis.

The angles e, *, and 9 are presented in Fig. 6.3. For simplicity,
the diagrams show special cases which are best demonstrated graphical-
ly.
Thus to determine the position of a rocket in space at an arbi-
*trary instant of time t, we must know the law governing the shift of
the center of gravity for a rocket along the trajectory relative to

- 282 -
 M
XI

1 '

0 0 b 9. c

Fig. 6.3. Determination of angles of e, *,

and of the rocket. e) angle of pitch for
rocket situated in firing plane; *) angle
of yaw for a rocket flying at an angle
e= 0; ) angle of roll for a rocket fly-
ing with e = 0, 0

the ground system of coordinates:

x-x(t),
yy). (6.1i)

and the nature of the relative rotation of the rocket about the center
of gravity, i.e., the position of the axes of the connected coordinate
system relative to the coordinate planes of the ground system.

O'=O(t). 1 6.'
- y (1).

Missile flight trajectories can, with a great degree of accuracy,

be regarded as plane curves situated entirely in the firing plane, with
the exception perhaps of individual phases in which the rocket shifts
from its position in the firing plane as a result of external and in-
ternal disturbing forces. The trajectories of short-range rockets -

field artillery rocket missiles - are particularly close to plane curves

If the flight trajectory is regarded as a plane curve, it is ex-

pedient to orient the ground coordinate system so that the xOy plane
coincides with the firing plane. In this case, the tra'jectory can be

examined in the xOy plane and the position of the rocket on the tra-
- 283 -
Jectory pan'be determined by means of the following coordinates:

y-y (9).
o.0oy), (6.2)

y?-4(*).
In addition to the ground and connected system of coordinates,

we must use yet another coordinate system in the study of rocket mo-

tion;.this new system takes into aonsideration the direction of the

Fig. 6.4. The axes of a flow-system

of coordinates

motion of the approaching stream of air with respect to the rocket.

This coordinate system is referred to as a flow coordinate system.

The axes of the flow coordinate system are selected so that the Ox1

axis of the system coincides with the vector representing the absolute

velocity of rocket motion (i.e., so that it coincides with the direc-

tion of the velocity of the approaching air stream and so that it is

directed against this stream); the Oy I axis is selected so that in the

case of * = 0 the x1 Oy1 plane coincides with the firing plane; the

third axis, the Oz 1 axis, is chosen to be perpendicular to the first

two axes. The flow system of coordinates is examined in greater detail

below. The axes of the flow system of coordinates are presented in

Fig. 6.4.

- 284 -
Elements of the Trajectory in the Case of Unguided Flight

The basic external feature of a rocket flight trajectory is the

presence on the trajectory of two successive phases - an active and

a passive phase.

The active phase of the trajectory is the one over which the

rocket flies with an operating engine. It is during this phase that

the rocket is accelerated to the so-called velocity at the end of the

active flight phase, and it is this velocity that is generally the

maximum velocity for the entire trajectory.

In the passive phase of the trajectory (the free-flight phase)

the engine is no longer in operation and the flight continues as a

result of inertia due to the reserve of kinetic energy acquired by

the rocket during the active phase of the flight. On the ascending

branch of the passive trajectory phase the velocity of missile motion

gradually diminishes to some minimum value which corresponds to the

instant at which the missile attains the peak of the trajectory, and

the velocity of missile motion then increases on the descending branch.

The firing of a solid-propellant rocket missile is generally

carried out by means of a special launching installation that has a

guide-rail device of a given design. The motion of the missile along

the guide-rails, to the instant at which it leaves the rails, is some-

times isolated in an independent, so-called initial, trajectory phase.

To attain the required flight range, the launching installation must

be set up at a certain angle to the horizon. This angle is referred to

as the firing angle.

A typical flight trajectory for an unguided rocket missile is

presented (for the case of motion in the xOy plane which coincides

with the firing plane) in Fig. 6.5. It should be borne in mind that if

we refer to the OM vector as the target vector, drawn from the point

-285 -
 Fig. 6.5

Fig. 6.5. Diagram of flight trajectory for

unguided rocket missile. OA) active phase of
trajectory; AM) passive phase of trajectory;
AN) ascending branch of passive phase; NM)
descending branch of passive:phase; Xmax)
ifailinum flight range; Hmax) maximum height
of trajectory; %ax ) missile velocity at
end of active phase of trajectory; CO)
angle of firing installation (firing angle);
%in) minimum rocket-missile velocities;
1) Firing point; 2) position of target.

of missile launch to the point which corresponds to the position of

the target against which the firing is being carried out, then in the
general case this vector might not coincide with the direction of the
Ox axis (even in the case of a plane trajectory).
Fig. 6.6 shows how total missile velocity changes with
its.motion along the trajectory. The curve presents a qualitative
illustration of the nature of velocity change.
The relative extent of the active trajectory phase, in comparison
with the remaining portion of the trajectory, is not too great. For
example, in the case of solid-propellant rockets having a range of
several tens of kilometers, it may amount to several hundreds of me-
ters, i.e., it has a relative extent of the order 10%. Therefore, in
tentative ballistic calculations, the active phase of the trajectory
need not be taken into consideration, and assuming that the missile
requires its %a x virtually at the point of launching, we can examine
a simplified trajectory diagram.(Fig. 6.7).
-286 -
 As an example of solid-propellant rocket missiles whose unguided

flight trajectories can be schematically presented by the curves shown

,in Figs. 6.5 or 6.7, we can cite the well-known rockets of the USA

Army: "Corporal" (exhibiting a range of 80 kin); '"Honest John" (exhibit-

ing a range of the order of 35 km);

Fum ""Lacrosse" (exhibiting a range of

the order of 30 km); "Sergeant"

(exhibiting a range of the order of

Akmua7 -- M--8- km), and many others.
"'ocw A Dt&" Nuc.0oR140A 5ET5
2ocxobaum, .
"pa-iccui
u glvacnok #pekrnopu - 4 Solid-propellant missiles can

Fig. 6.6. Nature of change in be made as guided rockets as well.

velocity during motion of rock- As an example of such a rocket, we
et along trajectory 1) active
phase of trajectory; 2) ascend-
ing branch; 3) descending branch can cite the following missiles:
4) passive phase of trajectory "Falcon" (USA an "air-to-air" sys-

tem); the "Sidewinder" (USA, an "air-to-air" system); the "Dart"

(UZA, antitank); the "Cobra" (Swltzprland, antitank); the "Firestreak"

(Great Britain, an "air-to-air" system); "SS-II" (France, antitank).

rpuouk UJLumNIHU MODWNI

grpOiernoi
y.a C..emm mpaekwosa

i " T

Fig. 6.7. Simplified diagram of a flight

trajectory for unguided rocket missile
1) curve showing change in velocity for
simplified trajectory diagram

The nature and form of the flight trajectories for these missiles

are functions of many factors and primarily of the mutual position be-

-287-
 tween the target and the launching site of the rocket at the instant

of firing, as well as of the presence and nature of the defensive

1manuvers carried out by the target; in addition, they are functions

of the tactical-technical data pertaining to the equipment and the

entire guidance system or homing system employed by the missile, etc.

The present work does not consider those problems associated with the

theory of guided flight.*

§2. FORCES AND MOMENTS ACTING ON MISSILE DURING FLIGHT

Diagram of Forces and Moments

Any shift of a body in space

is the result of the action of ex-

ternal forces and moments on that

body.

Examining the flight of a rock-

et missile, we can see easily that

Fig. 6.8. Total diagram of for- the nature of rocket motion in space
ces acting on solid-propellant
missile in flight is determined by the action of three

forces on that body: Rt is the force of rocket-engine thrust; Raerd

is the total force produced by the interaction of the rocket and the

approaching air stream which decelerates the rocket motion and deflects

the flight of the rocket from an ideal curve; mg is the mass gravita-

tional force (weight of the rocket). A diagram of these forces can be

seen in Fig. 6.8. In the case of a guided rocket, to the forces shown

in Fig. 6.8, we must add the guidance forces applied to the control

elements of rocket flight.

In the discussion of the problems relating to the interior ballis-

tics of a solid-propellant rocket engine it was stated that the thrust

of the engine is produced as a result of the action of the products of

combustion of the solid-propellant working charge being dircharged

-288-
through the nozzle of the engine. The direction of thrust coincides

with the axis of the nozzle, i.e., with coaxial positioning of the

engine in the missile, the direction of thrust coincides with the

longitudinal axis of the missile. In calculating the thrust, we should

employ Relationship (4.52) or the simplified Relationship (4.53).

The mass gravitational force (the weight of the rocket), as is

generally the case, is the resultant of the gravitational forces act-

ing on individual component parts of the solid-propellant missile. The

point at which these forces are applied is referred to as the center

of gravity. In terms of direction, the gravitational force coincides

with the direction of the vertical at the corresponding point on the

trajectory.

In the case of missile flight through the air, the approaching

stream acts on the airframe of the rocket. The result of this action

can be shown in the form of a rocket-surface distribution of excess

normal pressure and the tangential forces, with the resultant of the

Fig. 6.9. Components of the resultant of

aerodynamic force in the flow system of
coordinates. X) force of frontal resistance
(drag); Y) lift

total system referred to as the total aerodynamic resistance force.

The point at which the total aerodynamic force is applied is referred

to as the center of missile pressure. The position of the pressure

- 289 -
center is a function of the aerodynamic-force component distribution

diagrmm. It is generally assumed that the center of pressure is situ-

ated on the rocket's axis at the point being calculated in each speci-

fic example. The vector of the total aerodynamic resistance force,

in the general case, is arbitrarily oriented in space in a direction

opposite to the direction of missile motion. This vector is conven-

tionally associated with the flow system of coordinates and presented

in the form of three components that are oriented along the axis of

the system. The corresponding components are referred to as the force

of resistance, lift, and lateral forces (Fig. 6.9).

Since it was assumed that in the tentative calculations the tra-

jectory could be regarded as a plane curve, naturally the force Z

can be neglected and the velocity vector v as coinciding with the

firing plane. In this case, the true aerodynamic force Raer is re-

placed by the force R' which is sufficiently close to it in magnitude,

and it becomes therefore possible to simplify substantially the system

of aerodynamic forces, reducing it to the resistance and lift forces

lying above the plane that is coincident with the firing plane (Fig.

6.10). These components are generally examined in the investigation

of aerodynamic forces acting on the rocket in flight.

We can see from Fig. 6.8 that there are two points of application

of external forces on the rocket - the center of gravity and the center

of pressure. It is convenient to refer the forces to some single

point, such as, for example, the center of gravity at which the origins

of both the flow and connected coordinate systems coincide.

For this purpose, two mutually balancing forces are applied at

the reference point (in our case, the center of missile gravity);

these two mutually balancing forces are coincident in terms of magni-

tude and line of action with the force being referred. The equili-
-290-
 Y
Y\
X

Fig. 6.10. Simplified diagram of compon-

ents of total aerodynamic resistance
force
brium of the body or the nature of its motion, given this application

df forces, is not disturbed. Let us now examine all three forces, and
we will see easily that they can be presented in the form of the sum
of the force applied to the reference point and the moment of the
couple of two forces about this point. The magnitude and direction of

the force, upon its reference, are kept constant;

WT., the additional moment is determined by the magni-

r "tude of the force and the distance from the point

S !
Y Y* of initial application of force to the reference
point. Figure 6.11 is an example of the refer-

j. ence (reduction) of aerodynamic lift to the cen-

I ter of missile gravity for the particular case of

the position of the vector of this force.

Figure 6.12 shows the total calculation dia-
Fig. 6.11. Dia,-
gram referring gram of forces and moments referred to the cen-
force to center
of missile gravi- ter of missile gravity. This diagram of forces
ty. Y and Y_
are the conven- and moments for the simplified version of a
~tional tionalre
vectors
vectors plane trajectory, coincident with the firing
referring
Y to the center
of missile gravi- plane, is presented in Fig. 6.13. A comparison
ty of Figs. 6.12 and 6.13 shows that in the latter

- 291 -
case the lateral component of the aerodynamic force disappears,

while all the remaining forces are referred to a single plane.

With respect to the moments, the situation is the following; in the

general case, even in a plane system of forces, it is expedient to

examine all three moments Me, M., and M., in which case the deter-

mining moment of finnedmissiles is Me, whereas M,, and M, reflect

only the possibility of the rocket executing oscillatory motions in

the corresponding planes about the center of missile gravity, with

limited possible angular displacements. In the case of turbojet mis-

siles, rotating during flight, Me and M are determining.

Fig. 6.12. Calculation diagram of forces

and moments referred to the center of
missile gravity

Since all three groups of forces acting on the rocket missile

during flight were determined in various systems of coordinates, it

is necessary to link these systems with one another. For the case of

a plane trajectory, the indicated relationship is established if the

coordinates of the centers of the movable systems (the connected and

flow system) are assumed with respect to the ground coordinate system

and the angles between positive directions of the coordinate axes.

The angle between the longitudinal axis of the rocket, coinci-

- 292 -
dent with the Ox' axis of the connected coordinate system and the Ox

axis of the ground system is defined as the angle e of rocket pitch.

Fig. 6.13. Calculation diagram of refer-

red forces and moments for the case of
flight in the firing plane

In addition to this angle we generally examine the angle between

the Ox' and Ox1 axes of the connected and flow coordinate systems,res-

pectively. This angle is referred to as the angle of missile attack

which is denoted by a.

The third angle - between the Ox1 of the flow coordinate system

and the Ox axis of the ground system - is determined in terms of the

first two as follows: 0 = e - a. The angle 0 characterizes the directio]

of the tangent to the trajectory at the given point of flight, since

the vector v of total velocity is always tangentialto the trajectory:

tan 6-d'

where xk and Yk are instantaneous coordinates of the position of the

center of gravity on the trajectory.

Now it is easy to separate those active forces from the entire

system, which cause the rocket to move forward, as well as those

forces which decelerate the motion of the rocket. For this it is

enough to project all of the forces onto the Ox 1 axis which determines

the direction of motion.

- 293 -
 As a result of this projection it turns out that the only moving
force is the projection of the thrust of the rocket engine.
7Fpt,-- C"

whereas frontal resistance X and the rocket-weight component represent

forces offering resistance to this motion:

Fco*,,u X+mg sln(I-).

The second component of the force of gravity is offset by lift Y.

For

Fx,>F •.,
i.e., when
> X +,e8sIa2(-.

the resultant of these two forces

is directed so as to coincide with the motion of the rocket. Under

the action of AFdv the rocket accelerates, acquiring ever increasing

velocity.

For the passive phase of the trajectory Rt = 0 is the resultant

of the forces Fdv and Fsopr and is directed against the motion of the

rocket thus causing the rocket to be decelerated.

Strictly speaking, the following equations

FjR,Cos a F -O.
F0P.O-X+mg sIn(--a)

are valid only for the ascending branch of the trajectory.

In motion over the descending branch of the trajectory, accord-

ing to Fig. 6.14

Fxp-rg sin(-S-)

i.e., even in the absence of engine thrust there is a component di-

rected to coincide with the direction of rocket motion. The pre-

- 294 -
 Y

//

•Y

Fig. 6.14. Relationship of forces

on the descending branch of the
trajectory

sence of this force explains the nature of the change in missile vel-

ocity on the descending branch of the trajectory (Fig. 6.6).

As a result we find that the following basic forces and moments

act on a rocket in flight: Rt, the thrust of the rocket engine; mg,

the force of gravity, equal to the weight of the missile; X and Y,

the components of the aerodynamic resistance; Me, the pitch moment;

Mq), the roll moment; M., the yaw moment, and for the passive phase

of the trajectory Rt = 0
Diagrams of the active forces on the ascending and descending

branches of the trajectory are presented in Figs. 6.13 and 6.14. These

diagrams can be used if it is assumed that the rocket moves along a

trajectory lying in the firing plane.

The Force of Qravity. Calculation of Weight and Position of Center
BF Missile nravity

In the case missile flight within the limits of the terrestrial

gravitational field, among other forces, the force of terrestrial

gravitation, referred to as the force of gravity, acts on the missile.

The force of gravity P is proportional to the mass of the body. The

- 295 -
 proportionality factor is referred to as the acceleration of the
force of gravity:
P = mg

g = 9.81 m/sec 2 (at the surface of the earth)

The center of the gravitational forces acting on each indi-
vidual part of this body is called the center of gravity for a solid
(for example, a rocket missile).

The physical representation of the force of gravity is the weight

of the body. Therefore, the point of application of the resultants of

the system of vectors representing the weight of individual points in

the system is another way of describing the center of gravity. Given

this definition for the center of gravity, the action of the force of
gravity on a system of material points or on a solid can be reduced

to the total weight of the system of points or the given solid under

consideration, said force applied at the center of gravity of this

body.
As a result, in order to take into consideration the actionoof
the force of gravity on a solid-propellant rocket missile moving in

accordance with definite lawson its trajectory, it is necessary to

find the weight of the missile and the point of application of this

weight - the center of missile gravity.

The weight of a uniform solid is generally held to be proportion-

al to the volume occupied by this body:

P-Mg- PgV- I V, (6.3)

where p is the density of the substance of the given body; y is the

specific weight of the body; V is the volume of the body.

On the whole, a missile cannot be regarded as a continuous uni.

rform solid body; however, this assumption is completely valid for in-
dividual component parts of the missile. Consequently, in order to c-

-296 -
 calculate the weight of a missile, it is necessary to sum the weights
of all component parts employed in the final assembly, in which case
tthe weight of the individual component parts can be defined in terms
of their volume and the specific weight of the material employed.
In the assembly of a solid-propellant reaction-thrust (rocket)
missile we encounter component parts for which it is not difficult
to calculate volume (for example, the cylindrical frame of the com-
bustion chamber), in addition to component parts of complex configur-
ation which introduce difficulties into the required calculations. In
the latter case, it is accepted practice to separate a complex compon-
ent part, through arbitrary sectioning, into a series of simpler
shapes (cylinders, cones, etc.) and to calculate the volume of the
component part as the total volume of its individual parts.
For example, given the problem of calculating the weight of the
component parts shown in Fig. 6.15, it would seem at first glance
that it is quite difficult to calculate the volume of such component
parts; however, it is enough to divide the part arbitrarily into three
sections I-I, II-II, and III-III, in order to separate the component
part into five elements whose volumes can easily be calculated.
As a rule, complex component parts employed in the assembly of a
solid-propellant rocket missile can be split into such elementary fig-
ures as a cylinder, a truncated cone, as well as certain combinations
of these figures (Fig. 6.16), i.e., for the calculation of the volume
of any component part, it is enough to know the following formula:

where d is the diameter of the cylinder base; 1 is the length of the

cylinder generatrix,

- 297 -
 where R and r are radii of the greater and smaller bases of the trun-
cated cone; h is the height of the truncated cone.

II
I °~

Fig. 6.15. For the calculation of

the weight of the "connection
plate" component part- a) sketch
of component parts; b5 calculation
diagram I-I, II-II, and III-III)
cross-sectional planes; D and
dl) diameters; 61) linear dimen-
sions of the figure.

In fact, the volume of the connection plate (for generality, we

will assume it to be some k-thcomponent part of the assembly) is de-
fined as the sum (
v,- (6.4)

I.
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are the numbers of the elementary figures),
where

1-
;
.jDO(8-S

-298-
 4

a-i

The dimensions D, d1 , d2 , .. , 6, 61, 62, . are shown in the

drawing of the component part.
After the determination of the volume of k-th component part,
the weight Pk of this component part is defided-as:
PA- Via (6.5)

y -. 8 g/cm 2 for steel component parts; y = 16 g/cm 3 for the arming

of the warhead (when armed with explosive material), as well as for
individual elements of the solid-propellant charge for the engine.

'wuJd'L 7w~~~('R4'

Fig. 6.16. Characterisitc elementary

figures encountered in the calcula-
tion of the volume for various com-
ponents.

Knowing the weight of the individual component parts, we can find

the total weight of the missile by determining the sum

±
S(6.6)

where p1 is the weight of the fuse; P2 is the weight of the auxiliary

detonator;
.................... 299 .......-......... o .. .

-299-
Pn is the weight of the hermetic-sealing end cap of the nozzle.
It has been demonstrated that it is important from the standpoint

of exterior ballistics to know not only the magnitude of the active

forces, but the point of their application as well. It is for this

reason that the next problem is one which involves the determination

of the coordinates of the center of missile gravity.

We will refer to the product of the mass and its distance from

the plane as the static moment of the mass m concentrated at point A

relative to some arbitrary plane N. With respect to the static moments

of some material system of points the following theorem is valid: if

the entire mass of the material system were concentrated at its cen-

ter of gravity, the static moment of this mass with-respect to some

plane is equal to the sum of the static moments with respect to this

same plane for the mass of all points in the system.

If we apply this theorem to the coordinate planes, we will obtain

a system of equations which determine the coordinates of the systemls

center of gravity.

Mx (6.7)

whence *__

f(6.8)
-300-
 a
i, (6.8)

where xts.t, Yts.t and Zts.t are the coordinates of the system's
center of gravity;
a

is the total mass of all the points in the system; mi, Xj, Yi" and zi
are, respectively, the mass and the coordinates of each material point
in the system.
In calculating the coordinates of the center of gravity, it is
useful to employ the following properties of the center of gravity:
1) if the system has a center of symmetry, the center of gravity
coincides with the center of symmetry;
2) if the system has a plane of symmetry, the center of gravity
lies in this plane;
3) for a system having an axis of symmetry, the center of gravity
lies on this axis of symmetry
Since the longitudinal axis is, as a rule, the axis of symmetry
for a solid-propellant rocket missile, the center of missile gravity
must be sought on this axis. Having selected the coordinate system
so that one of its axes coincides with the longitudinal axis of the
missile, we will find that in order to find the center of missile gra-
vity it is enough to determine only a single coordinate:
a

or in terms of the weight of the component parts:

V. (6.9)

- 301 -
 where pi is the weight of the i-th component part; x i is the coordin-

ate of the center of gravity of the i-th component part;

is the weight of the missile.

We can see from the last formula that in order to determine the

position of the center of missile gravity it is absolutely necessary

to know not only the weight of the individual component parts but the

positions of their centers of gravity.

The calculation of the center of missile gravity in terms of

weight and the coordinates of the centers of gravity of individual

component parts employed in the missile is possible on the basis of

the so-called distribution properties of the centers of gravity.

This property indicates that if a system of material points hav-

ing a total mass mE is separated into parts having masses m', m"I,...,

the center of gravity of the initial system remains the center of gra-

vity of the total aggregate of m', in which case

M35 x?+ m~x3 +
where x' ts.t and x"ts.t are the coordinates of the centers of gravity

for the individual parts of the system.

Since the weight of an individual component part is generally

calculated in terms of the weights of the elementary figures making

up this component part, the coordinate of the center of gravity for

the component part is calculated through the application of the theor-

em on the static moments, said theorem applied to the elementary fig-

ures (Fig. 6.17). In this case, the coordinate of the center of gra-

Ityyfor each elementary figure is calculated on the basis of a draw-

U" ing of the component part, taking into consideration the fact that

the position of the center of gravity for each individual element is

- 302 -
 known (Fig. 6.18).
fi SHaving determined the weight of the individ-
* ual component parts and the positions of their

:centers
r of gravity for each individual unit in
the assembly of a combat rocket, the pooition of
the unit's center of gravity is calculated. How-
X.

*o*ever, if we know the coordinates of the centers

of gravity for individual units in the assembly,

Fig. 6.17. Deter- it is not difficult to calculate the coordinate

mination of posi- of the center of-gravity for the entire missile.
tion of center of
gravity for a cor- The diagram for the calculation of the cen-
plex figure.
elements of 1-5)
fig-
ure; Xl ) coordn- ter of gravity for a solid-propellant rocket mis-

ate of the center sile and its individual units (warhead) is pre-
of gravity of the
i-th component of sented in Fig. 6.19.
the figure.
The final calculation formula for the deter-

mination of the coordinates of the center of missile gravity takes the

L following form:

.
IP.-) aA. in which case, for example, for the warhead

PaIXI +PX2+WaS +Ps*

3.?.

where pl is the weight of the fuse; p2 is the

weight of the arheaycasin;tpri s theei

x" b weight of the

wegtof auxiliarycasing;
the warhead P4 is pthe
detonator; weight
3 is the

Fl.6.18. Coordinates charge.

of the explosive
of centers of gravity P6,-Pj+P+PS+ .
for elementary figures
a) cylinder b) trunca- We should turn our attention to the fact
ted cone
that when the theorem on the static moments

is employed, we must have the coordinates of the centers of gravity

- 303 -
 tV
&

'
I,

POX

Fig. 6.19. Utililzation of theorem on stat-

istical moments for the calculation of the
position of the center of gravity for a
solid-propellant rocket missile Pb.ch,

Pr.ch ) are the weights of the warhead and

rocket parts of the missile; x. ch, xts.c)
are the coordinates of the centers of grav-
ity for the rocket and warhead parts of
the missile
for the individual elements with respect to some common, although

arbitrarily selected, coordinate origin. However, preliminary cal-

culations yield the coordinate for the center of gravity for each in-

dividual element with respect to one of the characteristic points or

boundaries of this element. Therefore, before employing the theorem,
it is necessary to recalculate the coordinates of the individual ele-

ments in the given assembly to correspond with the drawing and the

selected system of coordinates.

- 3 -
 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments. Calculation of Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments and the Determination of the Position of the Center of
Tressure

Aerodynamic forces are produced as a result of the interaction

between the missile and the approaching stream of air. This interac-

tion can be reduced to the appearance at the surface of the missile

of a continuously distributed normal pressure and tangential stresses

(Fig. 6.20) and, in addition, to the development of a zone of reduced

pressure (Fig. 6.21) in the region of the nozzle outlet (primarily
when the missile engine is not in operation; in the case of an oper-

ating rocket engine, the stream of the products of combustion elimin-

ates this zone of reduced pressure behind the nozzle outlet).

Fig. 6.20. Diagram of force compon-

ents in interaction of missile with
approaching stream, said forces act-
ing on the elementary area of the
surface dl I and d12 ) dimensions of
the elementary area; T', Ti, and pn)
components of tangential and normal
forces acting on area
The tangential stresses and the rarefaction which occurs at the
rear produce forces which decelerate the motion of the rocket. These
__ are, respectively, referred to as the force

:151 of frictional resistance and the force of

_tail drag. The resultant of the normal

Fig. 6.21. Development pressure distributed over the frame of the

of zone of reduced pres-
C sure behind nozzle out- rocket is oriented with respect to the
let of rocket flying
with inoperative engine missile and the approaching stream rather
- 305 -
arbitrarily; however, having associated the resultant with the flow

system of coordinates, it is possible to derive a component of resis-

tance that is directed against the direction of motion velocity as

well as a component that is normal to it. The first is referred to as

the force of resistance (drag) due to normal pressure, and the second

is referred to as lift.

Thus the total force produced by the aerodynamic interaction be-

tween the missile and the approaching stream of air can be presented

in the form of two components; the force X of frontal resistance

(drag) and lift Y. In this case, X appears as a result of friction,

tail drag, and the components of normal pressure, directed along the

Ox1 axis of the flow coordinate system

X-X,+Xi+xP . (6.10)
and the Y force appears as a result of the normal-pressure components

directed along the Oy I axis of the flow system.

Strictly speaking, the notation

X-X+X+X.
is valid only when the effect of the forces of friction, tail drag,

and pressure are independent, whereas in actual fact these components

are interdependent.

However, since the hypothesis of the independence of the resis-

tance-force components is quite convenient in engineering practice

and since its utilization does not result in any substancial calcula-

tion errors, it is the accepted practice to use the above equation and

to calculate the total aerodynamic force of resistance in terms of the

individual components of this force.

The phenomenon of the flow of air past a body and the effect of

the interaction of forces observed in this case, are extremely com-

plex.

-306 -
 The nature of the above-mentioned interaction is determined by

a great number of various factors which are difficult and sometimes

even impossible to take into account. It is for this reason that the

forces and moments acting on the missile in-flight are determined most

exactly by experimental procedures. The experiments are carried out in

special installations - wind tunnels - where the missile, held fast by

special means, is set into an air stream; the necessary measurements

are carried out at this time, and when evaluated these measurements

make it possible to.calculate the components of the aerodynamic forces

and moments.

It has been established that the basic parameters which determine

the absolute magnitude of the aerodynamic forces are the following:

the velocity v of the approaching stream;

the density p of the gas in the approaching stream;

the geometrical dimensions of the body from which the character-

istic dimension is generally taken, i.e., the area sm of the midship

cross section of the missile,

and therefore the relationship between the forces due to the

above-enumerated parametersis presented in explicit form in the gener-

ally accepted standard form of notation for the aerodynamic forces,

whereas the rest is included in the so-called coefficient of force.

The standard form of the notation is the following:

in which case, since

and

-307-
 CZ- CX,+CXA+ C,,. (6.10')
Here
@y Cx is the coefficient of frontal drag; Cy is the coefficient
of lift; Cxf , Cxd , and C are the coefficients of the components of
total aerodynamic resistance.

The standard-form notation for aerodynamic forces is quite con-

venient. The fact that the relationship between the forces due to
missile dimensions is accounted for by the factor sm and is not con-
tained in Cx (or Cy), makes it possible to model the phenomenon and

to extend the results of the experiment to full-scale parts. For ex-

ample, let a small-scale model of a missile be tested in a wind tun-

nel and let the force Xmod acting on the model during the wind-tunnel
test be measured. In accordance with (6.11)

where Xmod is the measured force; smod is the area of the midsection;
p and v are the parameters of the flow; Cx md is the coefficient of
model resistance, i.e., of the body of a certain configuration corres-
ponding to the stream parameters p and v. After the experiment it is
easy to calculate

If we now turn to the full-scale object whose model was tested in

the wind tunnel, and if we bear in mind the total geometric similari-

ty between the model and nature (i.e., the full-scale object) it is

natural to assume that for the same stream parameters - p and v - the
force of aerodynamic resistance Xat of the "natural" object will be

(since Cx is not a function of the dimensions of the body).

- 308 -
 Thus by introducing the concept of the coefficient of aerodynamic
force it becomes possible to simplify substantially the aerodynamic

4 experiment, using data obtained in wind-tunnel tests of models for the

determination of forces and moments acting on the "natural" missile

under actual flight conditions.
The wind-tunnel testing of a missile is a complex experiment and

is carried out only in the concluding stage of work on the missile.

Tentative values for the aerodynamic forces and moments, calculated
theoretically, are employed in the preliminary calculations (designs).

The methods of approximate aerodynamic calculation, worked out to the

present time, yield results that are in rather good agreement with

the subsequent wind-tunnel tests, and the utilization of these calcu-

lations in the earlier stages of missile design is widespread practice.

Method of Calculating Aerodynamic Forces with the Utilization of a

Simplified Model of the Flow of Air Past a Missile
The approximate methods of aerodynamic calculation are based on
the conclusions reached in the so-called linearized theory of stream-

lining and the assumption as to the validity of the principle stating

that the influences of the aerodynamic forces are independent for in-
dividual missile parts. With this assumption for a finned rocket mis-

sile, we will have

X -X, + Xs.
(6.12')

or in terms of the force coefficients:

c)-ci.+c (6.12")
C7 -C, .+C,
Below, the basic calculation relationships for the determination
of the coefficients Cy k' Cy op' Cx k' and Cx op for various flight
conditions are presented without conclusion.

- 309 -
Calculation of the Lift Coefficient

Since the nature of streamlining and the mechanism responsible for

the appearance of the components of the aerodynamic forces is a func-
tion of whether or not the flight velocity is subsonic (M < 1) or sup-

ersonic (M > 1), it becomes necessary to examine these two cases separ-
ately.

ASubsonic flight velocities (M < 1)

lFinning (empennage). The coefficient of lift
for the finning of a missile is determined ac-

cording to the following formula:

C ,4+). .. (6.131)
X is the elongation of the finning; a is the

Fig. 6.22. Elements angle of attack; sop is the area of the stabil-
of fins for rocket izer fin; sm is the area of the missile midsec-
missile. 2Lop) opon
total m
span of finning;
1o span of i- Fig. 6.22 shows a diagram of the empennage
vidual fin; 1P (tail surfaces) of a rocket missile and its ele-
sweepback angle of
leading edge of ments are denoted. In the denotation shown in the
stabilizer; Pz)
sweepback angle of figure, the basic characteristics in the empen-
trailing edge of
stabilizer (in Fig. nage are defined as follows:
6.22, Pz = 0); ytef
profile thickness elongation of tail surfaces
at section of middle
chodof stabilizer; In ; (6.14)
lsk) sweepback of
tail surfaces, area of stabilizer pairs

2rn .,.= (..+ (6.15)

where bsr is the middle chord of the stabilizer; bkr is the root chord;

bkts is the tip chord;

- 310 -
 the relative profile thickness of the empennage is

Strictly speaking, Formula (6.13') was derived for velocities at

which the compressibility of the air can be neglected. However, this
relationship can be extended to the entire range of near-sonic flight

velocities with a sufficient degree of accuracy. With this, an addi-

tional term by means of which we take into consideration the effect of
compressibility is introduced into the formula, which is then written

in the following form:

_,.4_ 1 2#m, (6.13")

The frame. For subsonic flight velocities

Cy .-s. (6.16)
where a is the angle. of attack for the missile in radians.
The total coefficient of missile lift. The total coefficient :fora
rocket missile with tail surfaces is -'fined as the sum
C , t

or
2.04 / .- (6.17)

Supersonic flight velocities (M > 1)

Empennage (tail surfaces). To calculate the coefficient of lift
for the empennage in the case of supersonic flight velocities, we use

in first approximation the formula for lift in the case of a small-

elongation wing that has a rectangular shape in the in-plan view:

for stabilizers with

- 311 -
 or we use the approximate relationship

Cy.,35(..+ rnr) ! (6.18")

for stabilizers with

The frame. The lift of a misille frame, at supersonic flight vel-

ocities, amounts to
C am2,4a. (6.19)
The total coefficient of missile lift. The total coefficient of
missile lift in the case of supersonic flight velocities will:

in the range of supersonic velocities to M<I+l

Ir
c7 -[1,35(1.+ + 2,4+z] a (6.20')

and for velocities with M>1+-1.

4(6.20")

Calculation of Frontal-Resistance (Drag) Coefficient

Subsonic Flight Velocities

In calculating the coefficient of frontal resistance it is neces-
sary to bear in mind that in accordance with (6.10') the total coeffi-
cient is presented in the form of a sum of the components, each of

which is employed to take into consideration the effect on the total

resistance of one of the factors responsible for this particular res-

istance. Generally speaking, (6.10') is satisfied exactly only in the

-case of a = 0, thus for the az 0 the coefficient of resistance in-

creases markedly as a result of the appearance of the so-called induc-

ed drag and because the increase in the component Cx p.
Let us examine the physical nature of this increase in drag durA

ing flight at some angle of attack. The primary feature of flight at

- 312 -
an angle of attack is the disturbance of the symmetry with which the

approaching stream of air flows past the missile. As a result of this

asymmetry in streamlining, downwash takes place from zones of elevated

pressure to a zone of lower pressure. The losses produced by this

downwash are taken into consideration by the induced drag (Fig. 6.23)

The second component - AC x - reflects the fact that during flight at

an angle of attack the true midsection differs from the one according

to which the calculation was carried out, so that the flow is deceler-

ated over a greater area and as a result additional forces arise. The

above-mentioned increase in the coefficient of drag is taken into con-

sideration in the following form:

Cx4OCxo+Cx1+ACx, (6.21)

where Cxo Cxf + Cxd + C is the drag coefficient for a = 0; C is

X0Xf Xd xp x
the coefficient of induced drag; AC X is the coefficient by means of

which we take into consideration the additional resistance due to pres-

sure as a result of the nonsymmetrical flow past the missile, for -

a =.

In the tentative calculation it turns out that it is enough to

calculate the coefficient of frontal resistance without taking into

consideration the effect of the angle of attack, i.e., the calculati'n

can be done only on the basis of the elements CXp, CXf , and CXd.

The relationships for the calculation of individual components

of the total coefficient of resistance for various flight conditions

are presented below. As in the case in which the coefficient of lift

was calculated, the validity of the principle of independent action is

assumed for the aerodynamic forces on the airframe and tail surfaces

of the missile.
The empennage. For the empennage it is natural to maintain that

- 313 -
 CX d = 0, so that

CX CX+ Z/Cx,+C M+AX. (6.21')

S In practical calculations, the components of pressure and fric-

tion are combined for the empennage into the so-called profile resis-

tance; in this case, Notation (6.21') is rearranged into the follow

ing form

CX.jCx.,+Cx,+ACx (6. 21")

or for the negligibly small angles

of attack

if we take into consideration that

a
C X pr represents the resistance of a

single pair of stabilizers, and a

__ rocket missile generally has two

b pairs, it is more convenient to write

Fig. 6.23. Appearance of down- (6.21") in the following form:

wash in missile flight at
some angle of attack. C .,2Cxp+Cxj+AC x . (6.21
a) a = 0; b) 0 / 0. and correspondingly for a s 0

For the calculation of Cx pr[sic] we can use the expression

C. p,=(0,00 O+,031A + O ).! (6.22)

where A is the relative thickness of the profile in the section of the

middle chord; cu is the relative curvature of the profile (for rocket-

missile stabilizers, generally w = 0).

The calculation of induced drag, if taken into consideration,

is best carried out in terms of a calculation for the coefficient of

empennage lift, using

CX," aMN• (6.23)

- 3 14 -
 As a result, the coefficient of resistance for an empennage with

zero curvature, in the case of subsonic velocities, is derived in the

following form:

C..(0,0t+ 0 + Cit (6.24)

Airframe. The concept of profile resistance is conveniently in-

troduced for the calculation of CXka when

CX . = Cx., + Cx, + CX,+ ACx

or, neglecting the influence of the angle of attack,
CX.-CX.,+ CX.A

In the case of subsonic flight velocities, a substantial portion

of the profile resistance is made up of frictional resistance; there-

fore, in rough calculations we can hold that

Cx-P ~CX/.
More exact results are obtained when the following calculation

relationship is employed;

cx,-ForM' (6.25)
where CXf is the coefficient of frictional resistance; A s is the coef-

ficient by means of which we take into consideration the influence on

CX pr exerted by the component due to the distribution of pressure.

For the calculation of CXf we use

Cx=0,0315Re-O.N 4, (6.26)

where Re is the Reynolds number of the approaching stream; sbok is the

lateral surface of the missile airframe; sm is the area of the midsec-

tioni, and the correction factor A s is determined on the basis of the

following empirical formula

A- I,865OI-- .ATi'Z'MT+ O1(1 --

M'), (6.27)

- 315 -
I:
where ;k stands for the elongation of the rocket airframe:

1k is the length of the airframe; d is the caliber of the missile.

The airframe-resistance component, due to rarefaction, can be

determined in accordance to the following formula:

CxA-(o,05+ o,25M) L. (6.28)

where sdn is the area of rear outlet of the missile; sm is the midsec-

tion area.

Thus, if we neglect the influence on resistance of the angle of

attact, the total coefficient of aerodynamic resistance for the air-

frame of a rocket missile will be

cx,.= AX +(o5+o,2M,)a,-

or if we take into consideration (6.26)

°A.R9-0"
_3 "6-+(OO5+O,25M') e (6.29)

The total coefficient of missill resistance (drag). Thus, at sub-

sonic velocities.
cy,-(o0o + 0,062A y- 2%_+

-.O " l
e l*'65 +(O,O5+O,25M) M (6.30)

or after substituting the value of Cy OP

C 1[001- r ___
0,Y'. _ (1,, , +=
o,01A,-16 (6.30")
+ 45 + (0,05 + o,25MI)',-

For the active phase of the flight, when C x d = 0,

- 316 -
 + 0,0315 A,.e- 4614

4The calculation data indicate that in the case of large missiles

and rockets, approximately 95% of the total resistance can be attribu-

ted to the airframe.

The effect of the angle of attack on drag is a function of flight

velocity and the magnitude of the angle. As an example we can cite the

following data. For the M13 missile, during test launchings, with a

flight velocity of -275 m/sec (M = 0.8) the component due to the an-

gle of attack did not exceed, in the over-all balance, a resistance

of 8% at a= 0.1 (-60), and 27% at a = 0.2 (-120) and with a reduction

in flight velocity the relative value of the component due to the an-
gle of attack diminished.
Supersonic flight velocities.
In the case of a flight at supersonic velocities, the nature of
resistance changes somewhat. While in the case of subsonic flight vel-
ocities the resistance occurs primarily as a result of the frictional
forces, at velocities corresponding to M > 1 the basic role is played
by resistance due to pressure distribution over the surface of the
missile and in the stream about the missile. The very nature of this
pressure distribution differs radically from the case of subsonic vel-
ocities; a system of so-called compression waves form about the mis-
sile; this system of compression waves involves shock waves of varioup
a
intensities. The existence of shock waves in the stream is a charac-
teristic feature of flight at velocities in excess of the speed of
sound. This feature determines entirely the nature of the forces that
are active at such flight velocities. The streamline pattern for the
missile in the case of supersonic flow is presented in Fig. 6.24.
The coefficient of missile resistance in tqe case of supersonic
- 317 -
 1

0a;

Fig. 6.24. System of compression

waves formed during missile flight
at supersonic velocity. 1) Tail
shock wave; 2) local compression
waves; 3) forward shock wave

flight velocities is presented in the form of the sum of the follow-

ing components:

Cx-Cx.+Cx +Cx,+CX 1 +ACx=Cxo+Cx,+ACX,

where Cx v is the coefficient of resistance due to the forces of normal

pressure, said coefficient in the case of supersonic velocities, refer-

red to as the coefficient of wave resistance. The remaining denotations

are the same as in (6.21).

The coefficient C of the missile for supersonic flight velocities

is determined, as before, on the basis of missile elements.

Tail surface. The coefficient of wave resistance for the tail sur-

faces is calculated in accordance with the following formula:

Cz. jL2 (6.31)

where y = y(x) is the equation for the contour of the tail-surface

profile.

For a profile formed by parabolic arcs (Fig. 6.25),

I '(y')'dtm--LA'.

-318 -
where A is the relative thickness of the profile, so that for such a

profile
3 2a. 6
CxsI -' 8-

i.e., the total wave resistance of the tail surfaces, taking into con-

- ,sideration that the missile has two pairs

yz- of stabilizers, will be

X CX ¢"'-U=2 .2%w(6.32)

The rear resistance for a symmetric

Fig. 6.25. Profile ele- profile is equal to zero, whereas in the
ments formed by para-
bolic arcs. Xm) Cross- case of stabilizers having a truncated
sectional coordinates
with maximum profile rear edge, this iesistance is negligibly
thickness my small. In view of this, it is maintained

that in the case of tail surfaces CXd = 0.

The quantity CXf for supersonic velocities is determined in ac-

.* cordance with following formula:

f
Cx. 0O,O315Re- 0- , (6.33)

bc, -where the Re number for the tail surfaces is

Fig. 6.26. Geometric as follows:

elements of a rhomboid Meb.
profile Re-- _

where a is the speed of sound propagation in air (a = 340 m/sec);

v is the flight velocity; v is the coefficient of kinematic air vis-

cosity, whose value for the conditions of flight close to the earth

can be assumed to be v = 1.45.1075 m 2 /sec.

The components of the resistance which appear as a result of the

angle of attack are most expediently evaluated in complex form. For

this, we can employ the following formula:

- 319 -
 "(1-
1'I 1
2 4.7 -Ta.8
) (6.34)

In conclusion, the total resistance of the tail surfaces in the

case of supersonic flight velocities amounts to
Cx"--r 3W '"{+-'['
4"00315 Re-"
04
+
(6.35)

+ - ( , , .S]o,,.

This formula was derived in the assumption that the cross-section

of the stabilizer is a symmetric contour formed by parabolic arcs. In
the general case, the formula is written as before, with the exception
of the first term which must be determined in accordance with Formula
(6.31).
In the practice of empennage design, in addition to the profile
formed by parabolic arcs, widespread use is made of symmetric rhom-
boid profiles (Fig. 6.26). For such a profile

or in the case of a symmetric rhomboid profile (bI = (b/2), 01 =132 )

The airframe. In calculating the coefficient of airframe resis-

ance, we generally take into consideration only the components of wave
resistance, frictional resistance, and rear drag; the effect of the
components due to the presence of an angle of attack (CX, ACX) on the
magnitude of this coefficient can be neglected.
The component due to wave resistance can be estimated in accor-
dance with the following formula:

-320 -
 Cx.-O,415i 0 -O,667 (0,327Po+!'3)(1--.), (6.36) (6.36)

where go is the so-called pressure coefficiant on the cone at the tip

of the missile (the conic angle is equal to the corresponding angle

indicated on the drawing). The quantity 50 can be determined in ac-

cordance to the following empirical formula:

-C - 083/ (6.37)

00 is the cone angle at the tip of the missile;* V0 is the pressure-

recovery factor; this factor is the ratio between the deceleration

pressure of the stream after and prior to the pressure jump which

appears in the case of a missile flying at supersonic velocities:

Detailed tables for V0 = f(M, A.) can be found in the above-men-

tioned work by M.F. Krasnov.

CIS In approximate terms, the magnitude of

C can be estimated in accordance with the

2following formula:
12 j S V 7M

cZaIo (638)
Fig. 6.27. Effect of
angle of attack on
magnitude of C X v of where Xm = (Xm/dm) is the elongation of the

the missile airframe missile; x is the coordinate of the section

in the case of vari- m
ous M(ach) numbers in which the missile diameter attains its max-

imum value of dm .

Calculations show that with low flight velocities corresponding to

M = 3-4, the changes in the magnitude of CX v as a result of the ap-

pearance of an angle of attack need not be taken into consideration.

At greater velocities, the increment ACX becomes substantial even in

-321-
 the case of a and it must be taken into con-
CXA
0,Z sideration (Fig. 6.27).
0, The coefficient of rear resistance is

1 2,. ~calculated in accordance with the following

formulas:
Fig. 6.28. Nature of 1,43 for
change in coefficient CzJ77- (,-u0uJO!r numbers M<6 (639
CX d for the airframe M M2 (6
of the missile with and
Sdn/Sm = 1.0 for var-
for
ious Mach) numbers Cz-- numbers M>8. (6.39")
The nature of the change in CX d with respect to M(ach) numbers
is shown in Fig. 6.28.

The coefficient CX f is defined as

Cx=O,O315Re-.' I-. (6.40)
. $a
In calculating CXf it should be borne in mind that the Re number
is a function of the altitude of missile flight, since the density of
the air and the speed of sound propagation in the air changes with al-
titude. Comparative values of the coefficient CXf for two various al-
titudes are shown in Fig. 6.29.
In conclusion, the total coefficient of frontal drag for the air-
frame is determined by the sum

c 3 r~+'IT.IO.113)AMS (6.41')
+0,015Re-4'1 f

for a flight at velocities corresponding to M < 6, or

2 1 1,43 (6.41")

for M > 8, where in the case of need for more exact calculations, the
coefficient of wave resistance must be presented in the following form:

-322-
 . 0, ..
__,o, _Cx.=0,415jo-_0,667 (0327jo+., (le

0- S5 5
Minstead 6 7, of Cx.=22 1

Fig. 6.29. CXf of the

missile airframe as a The total coefficient of missile resis-
function of altitude
for varous M(ach) rium- tance. The coefficient of the frontal drag
bers
of a finned missile, in the case of super-

sonic velocities, is found as the sum of the resistance components due

to the tail surfaces of the missile and the missile airframe.

C- For a more extensive range of velocities,

04.2 not exceeding M = 6, the calculation formula

/.
-will be:
/•C -2 L + 1,43 0, 772(|1-O,OIIM')3'. sa
+}

fZ)(+ + O. (6.42)
• 15e-V,'4 3 321 O,126Re-0.J5

7P2 /I 2 A.Ir1i - ..

Fig. 6.30. Ny of For the active flight phase, the calcu-

of solid-propellant lation formula can be simplified somewhat:

rocket missile for
small angles of at- 2 1±
tack x d3
+[32&2 0 45
+ '2' + O 126Re- " +

" -2
-1 2 AoR - 1 SM

(for the case in which the missile has a tail surface whose section is
formed (profiled) by parabolic arcs).
Thus Formulas (6.16) and (6.19) make it possible to calculate the
coefficient of missile lift in the case of sub- and super-sonic velo-
cities, and Formulas (6.30) and (6.42) make it possible to calculate

- 323 -
the coefficient of frontal drag. We can see from the sormulas that
for a missile of some definite design, the coefficients are completely
determined by the flight Mach number and the. angle of missile attack.

Figs. 6.30 and 6.31 show tentative

- relationships C Cx(a) and C. = Cy(a), con-
structed for the case of M = const. A compar-
ison of these curves leads one easily to the

I - conclusion that given small angles of attack

I Ij Ii I(below 3-50) CX > Cy, where for a close
- 0.005
-. 0 0.05 0,10
to zero Cy- 0, whereas as CX even with a
Fig. 6.31. Nature of zero angle of attack has a certain definite
change in C = Cx (a)
of solid-propellant value. Since the possible angles of attack
rocket missile for as a rule,are limited, we frequently examine
small angles of at-
tack only the coefficient C of the missile. The

nature of the change in this missile with respect to the Mach numbers
and the angles a is an important characteristic of the missile being
designed. The tentative form of the family of corresponding curves is

presented in Fig. 6.32.

For exterior-ballistic calculations it is important to know not

only the magnitude of the active aerodynamic forces, but the position

-
*, ,.i IIII
" #f 2 j ! $,

Fig. 6.32. Summary curves CX = CX(M) of the

finned solid-propellant rocket missile for
various angles of attack a (for the case of
flight during the passive phase)

-"324-.
 of the point of application of the resultant of these forces, called

the center of missile pressure, since as will be shown below, the

mutual position of the center of pressure and the center of missile

gravity determines the degree of missile stability on its trajectory.

It is general practice to regard the center of pressure as being sit-

utated on the axis of the missile at a distance of Xts.d from its nose,

and it is for this reason that the calculation of the center-of-pres-

sure coordinates can be reduced to the determination of the coordinate

Xes.d.

In aerodynamics, we generally use the dimensionless coordinate

X"

where xk is the total length of the body being considered.

This coordinate is referred to as the coefficient of the center

of missile pressure and is denoted as follows:

C4-A= Z" .(6.43)

It can be demonstrated that at supersonic velocities for a solid

of revolution, consisting of an ogive curve and a cylindrical part,

(for the airframe of the missile),

X." !.67 CISA 0,73+0W.60-1)(6.44)

+ !, 6 (ir-io '

where a is the angle of attack;X m = (Xm/d) is the elongation of the

- forward part of the missile; Xk = (xk/d) is the elongation of the en-

tire airframe; & = (xk/xm) is the dimensionless airframe length

(Xk/Xm)•

The basic denotations adopted in (6.44) are illustrated in Fig.

6.33.
In practical calculations we can assume that for airframes of

rockets having an elongation of the order 7-10, the coefficient of the

-325-
 center of pressure is equal to 0.5.

Since in the transition from subsonic flight velocities to super-

sonic flight velocities the rocket stability margin diminishes some-

what, Cts.d for M < 1, need not be calculated, since the rocket that
is stable at supersonic velocities will obviously be stable at subsonic'

velocities.

A _With respect to the tail surfaces

of the missile, it is assumed that the
-X
AMI center of tail-pressure lies in the'mld-
_'
xdle.ef the central fin chord (Fig.
Fig. 6.33. Geometric ele- 6.34). This makes it possible, given a
ments of airframe of rock-
et Xm-(Xm/d)
missile, is the elon- certain missile assembly and tail-sur-

gation of the forward part face geometry (Fig. 6.35), to calculate

of missile;missil
= xk/d is
m e
missile airframe a aio;
elongation; the coordinate of the center of tail-
iS the dimension- pressure xts.d.o and to find Cts.d.o:
less missile length
xa.-vx+m-b

For the calculation of the center-gressure coordinates for

the entire missile, we employ the theorem on the static moments for
a system of parallel forces applied at the center of airframe and
tail-surface pressure. The component Yk and Yop for the forces of mis-
sile lift are convenient y employed as such a system. Employing the
theorem on static moments and assuming that for small angles of attack
(a - 0.05), the vectors of the forces Yk and Yop are perpendicular to

the axis of the missile, we will obtain (Fig. 6.36).

Cr X.z+Cy M.xaio- C, Zup..

where Cy is the force of missile lift, equal to the sum of the air-
f frame and tail-surface components; Xtsdk and Xts.d.o are, respect-
ively, the coordinates of the center of pressure for the airframe and

- 326 -
the tail surfaces of the missile; xts.d is the coordinate of the cen-
ter of missile pressure.
From this equation

C7 ItU.L~u + C,' OuZ..0

Cr (6.45)
i.e., the coefficient of the center of missile

pressure will be

L_________
(6.46)
Cr
UA& In addition to the above-discussed method

L of an approximate calculation of the aerodynamic

lbi- forces acting on a finned rocket missile in
Fig. 6.34. Posi- flight, we sometimes employ the relationships
tion of center of
pressure (ts.d.o.
prentue oftail- that come into play in rocket engineering from
- center of tail-
surface pressure) the theory of conventional artillery. These re-
for certain types
of stabilizers la ionships make it possible, as a rule, to

evaluate more rapidly, although with a lower degree of accuracy, the

parameters of the stress-bearing interaction of the missile with the

__ approaching air stream and may be

useful for preliminary calculations.

Method of estimating the aerodyna-

mic forces in terms of the coeffi-
cient of missile shape

It is easy to derive the for-

Fig. 6.35. Calculation diagram
of missile for determination mula for the calculation of the
pres-
of center of tail-surface
sure in system of coordinates force of frontal missile resistance
connected to missile
(drag) in terms of the shape coef-

ficiant from the standard fornk of denotation for the aerodynamic force:

In this denotation, the term v 2 characterizes the relationship be-

-327-
tween aerodynamic forces and the flight velocity, assuming this re-

lationship to be squared. This quadratic function is valid only for a

cC31 certain definite range of velocities.

ICv In the more general form, for any

gU flight velocities, instead of v 2 , it
_ . is expedient to introduce simply some

velocity function F(v). This function

Fig. 6.36. Calculation dia- is referred to as the resistance (drag)

gram of missile for applica- function. The factor p is employed to
tion of theorem on static
moments on determination of take into consideration the effect on
position of missile center
of pressure the magnitude tf the aerodynamic forces

exerted by the density of the approaching air stream. Since the density

of the air is afunction of the altitude of the given air layer above
sealevel, the factor p may, in the general case, be replaced by some
missile flight-altitude function H(y). Final-
-I ly, Cx and sm reflect the relationship between

aerodynamic forces and the shape and dimensions

-- 'I- - . of the body. In artillery, this relationship

4 49 is generally taken into account by the ballis-

Fig. 6.37. Laws gov- tic missile coefficient C 0 . Thus the denota-
erning resistance of tion
standard missiles 1)
The Siachchi (sic] X CXS'1_
law; 2) The law of 2
the year "1930"; 3)
The law of the year is modified to the following equivalent form
"1943." X= cOH y),~) (6.47)
where C0 is the ballistic missile coefficient; A(y) is the altitude
function; F(v) is the resistance function.
The ballistic missile coefficient is associated with the basis
design parameters of the missile by the following relationship:

-328 -
 cm.
110 (6.48)
q

where i is the coefficient of missile shape; d is the calibre of the

7

missile, in inches; _ is the weight of the missile, in kg.

Let us introduce the ratio q/d3 , generally referred to as the

lateral load on the missile, and denoted by

if we take into consideration Cq, (6.48) will be

CO low (6.48')

The quantity Cq amounts to, for example, Cq = 15 kg/dm 3 for the

finned rocket missiles of the USSR M-8 system, and for the USSR M-13
system, Cq = 19 kg/dm 3 .

The established practice of preliminary ballistics calculations

reduces the calculation of the coefficient C O to a comparison of this
coefficient with the ballistic missile coefficient adopted as the stan-
dard, so that

ce-ic.a. (6.49)
where C0 et is the ballistic coefficient of a standard missile; i is
the shape factor of the given missile.
The quantity CO et for various velocities is determined experi-

mentally. Frequently, the curve first derived by Siachchi [sic] is

chosen as the standard curve C0 et (M). However, generally speaking,
other curves taken for missiles of definite configurations can be
selected as the stqndard. In addition to the Siachchi [sic] curve, the

curves which are conventionally referred to as the curves of the "1930

law" and the "1943 law" (Fig. 6.37) have also found widespread appli-
cation.
- 329 -
 Experience in the design of rocket missiles shows that for the
preliminary calculations of the coefficient of shape for finned mis-

tsiles employed in the field artillery can be assumed to be equal to

is = 0.8 is accordance with the Siachchi resistance law; it can be

assumed to be equal to i3 0 = 1.35 in accordance with the "1930 law";

and in accordance with the "1943 law," it can be assumed to be equal

to 1 4 3 = 1.45, so that the ballistic coefficient of the missile can be

estimated as follows:
CO- 0 , (Co,), . (6.9
C o= 1,35 (Co
0 ,,),. (6.491)

where the value of C of the standard missiles is taken from the cor-

responding curves, and in first approximation the curves shown in

Fig. 6.37 can be employed.
If we compare the c~irve Co(M) of a true finned rocket missile

against the standard curves (Fig. 6.38), it is easy to show that

C--=-t(M),

i.e., the shape factor, strictly speaking, cannot be assumed to be

constant for the various flight velocities. For example, for a missile
whose resistance-function curve is shown in Fig. 6.38, the magnitude
of the ratio changes as shown in Fig. 6.39.
I . We can see from this figure that while with
J fly -respect to the "1930 resistance function" we
4 -FTI~ - Ican examine some average value of the coeffi-
cient of i in terms of flight Mach numbers,

Fig. 6.38. Compar- such averaging in the case of the Siachchi

ison of law govern-
ing resistance of a [sic] law (function) such an averaging may poo-
finned solid-propel-
lant rocket missile sibly produce serious calculation errors. There-
with standard curves
fore, in the case of refined calculations as a
- 330 -
 rule, the relationship between the shape factor of the missile and

velocity is taken into consideration.

I The relationship i = f(M) can be taken

_1 into consideration with an adequate degree

-of accuracy if the values of the shape fac-

tor presented in Table 6.1 are employed in

the calculations.
Fig. 6.39. Shape fac-
tor i of finned rock- Thus a calculation of the force of
et missile as function
of the flight Mach ") frontal missile drag in the second case can
number 1) the "1930
law"i 2) the Siachchi be reduced'to a determination of the shape
(sici law.
factor of this missile with respect to one

of the standard resistance functions. However, if we know the shape

factor i, it is easy to find the required calculation magnitudes, us-

ing the above-presented relationship. It is clear that this method is

applicable only for an evaluation of the active forces in the case of

rough preliminary calculations.

TABLE 6.1.
Recommended Calculation Values of Shape
Factor for Finned Rocket Missile for
Various Laws of Resistance
Ko" mut
tM M ,,..I

0.1 oglo 1,350 1.00

0.5 .0,75 1.350 1.00
1,0 0,80 1.230 I'm

1.paua5puuaeuou auaoum cuoI

O01 ,1 0,'7M, T I4

1) Shape factor; 2) for the Siachchi [sic]

law; 3) for the 1930 law; 4) for the 194 3
law; 5) mean value of the shape factor ir.
- the velocilty range being examined.
Calculation of Aerodynamic Moments Acting on Missile in Flight
It has been shown that in referring the aerodynamic forces to the
-331-
 center of gravity, there appear moments whose magnitude is determined
by the magnitudes of the aerodynamic forces X and Y and the distance

1 between the center of gravity and the center of missile pressure. De-
noting this distance by

we will obtain (Fig. 6.40)

M==Ye cos .a+Xe sin a. (6.50)

The standard form of writing out the aerodynamic moment M is given
by the following expression:

- s- (6.51)

where CM is the moment coefficient; sm is the area of the rocket's mid-

section; xk is the characteristic linear dimension of the rocket which
is generally assumed to be the length of the missile airframe.
Taking into consideration (6.51) and the standard form of denot-

ing aerodynamic forces, we will derive Eq.(6.50) in the following

form:
sir
CMsx.-- Cs. - e Cos a + CXS.xPte is.
2 2 MI 2 2

whence for the moment coefficient CM we obtain the following relation-

ship

Cm .- 5 (CYcosa+CxSInfs) (6.52)

or for the case of small angles of attack, when we can assume

cos a 1.0, sin a - a.

Cj. (Cr +ICA'." (6.52")

It is evident that given a zero angle of attack, the aerodynamic

moment will vanish.

The components of the total aerodynamic moment with respect to

the Ox', Oy', and Od' axes of the connected coordinate system are re-
- 332 -
- ferred to, respectively, as the moments of roll M , yaw M , and

pitch M e . These are generally expressed in terms of the correspond-

ing coefficients, in standard form:

M -C, .X. (6.511)

where CMe , CO., and CM are standard coefficients.

A shift of the missile in space as a result of the action of mo-

ments Me, M*, and Mc hinders the forces of viscous friction and those

Fig. 6.40. Calculation of aerodynamic

moment in terms of the forces wbich
produce appearance
the c)
hy = e cos arm of liftof this
force moment.
with

respect to center of missile gravity

hix = e sin c&) arm of force of frontal
resistance with respect to center of
missile gravity
forces which appear as a result of certain secondary phenomena which
can be observed in the case of the missile turning about the center
of gravity. This counteraction is generally taken into consideration

misl rvt
through the introduction of the concept of the damping moment by which

we mean the moment which is proportional to the total counteraction of

- 333 -
 the medium. Each of the moments Me, M*, and M9 is assigned a damping
moment of the same designation:

Mg is the damping moment of pitch;

M' is the damping moment of yaw;
M' is the damping moment of roll.

To distinguish them from the damping moment, the moments Me, M,

- and M are sometimes referred to as the stabilizing moments.

Thus there is always some effective moment AMef , acting on the

missile, said moment determined by the following equation

where Mst is the stabilizing moment; M dempfis the damping moment.

The calculation of the coefficients CMe, CM, CM9 and C'me , C'M,

-/ and C' is the comparitively complex. In first approximation, the

damping moments need not be taken into consideration, and CMe, CM@, and

CM*, can be taken into consideration in terms of Cy, Cx and the geo-
metric characteristics of the missile.*

§3. GENERAL SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS OF MISSILE MOTION IN AIR IN A SPATIAL

SYSTEM OF COORDINATES
In the general case, in accordance with the basic principles of

mechanics, the complex motion of a missile with respect to a ground

system of coordinates can be presented as the sum of the forward
(translational) and relative motions. In this case, the forward (trans-

lational) motion will be the translation of the center of missile

gravity, the nature of which is determined by the well-known relation-

ships for translational motion:

(6.53')

- 3-3--
 The rotation of the missile about the center of gravity, in ac-

cordance with the following equations, is referred to as relative mo-

tion:
1.6

-I- (6.53")

In the systems of equations (6.53') and (6.53") the following de-

notations have been adopted: m is the mass of the rocket missile, at
some arbitrary instant of time; R, Y, and 2 are the second derivatives
with respect to time of the coordinates of the center of missile gra-
vity in a ground coordinate system (the components of acceleration
along the axes of the ground system of coordinates); (li)x, (Fi)y and
(Fi) z are projections of the i-th components from the system of forces
acting on the missile during flight onto the Ox, Oy, and Oz axes; m1
is the number of forces acting on the missile; Je is the moment of
missile inertia with respect to one of the lateral axes of the connect-
ed system of coordinates (Oy' or Oz'), referred to as the equatorial
moment of inertia; J is the moment of missile inertia with respect to
the Ox' axis of the connected coordinate system, referred to in the
established terminology as the polar moment of inertia; , j, and
are the second derivatives with respect to time of the angular coor-
dinates of the two moving coordinate systems with respect to the ground
coordinate system (the components of conditional acceleration with res-
pect to the corresponding axes); Mej, MqPj, and M are the magnitudes
of the J-th moment with respect to the corresponding angles from the

-335-
 total system of moments acting on the missile; n 2 is the number of mo-

ments acting on the missile in flight.

Bearing in mind what was said earlier about the system of forces

and moments acting on an unguided rocket missile in flight, we will

obtain a general system of differential equations of missile motion

having the following form:

mx-I -X 2g -Y-Z,,

mz-R,-Xa-Y,-Z,. (6.54)

I'i= M
-A

where Rx, R7, and R z are the components of the force of thrust from a

rocket engine, along the axes of a ground system of coordinates; mg is

-- the force of gravity (the weight of the missile); if we assume the

* earth is flat, this force is projected only on Oy'; Xx , Yy, and

X are the components of the force of frontal resistance along the

coordinate axes; Yx,, Yy, and Yz are the corresponding components of

lift; Zx, Zy, and Z z are components of lateral force; Me, M *, and M

are the stabilizing aerodynamic moments with respect to the coordin-

ate angles of pitch, yaw, and roll; MI, M1, and are the correspond-

ing damping moments.

Generally speaking, the Coriolis force which takes into consi-

deration the rotation of the earth about its own axis should be added

to the above-enumerated forces. However, for solid-propellant rocket

missiles having a flight range of 50 to 80 kyn, the Coriolis effect

need not be taken into consideration and the system of forces can be

considered in the form in which it is presented in Eqs. (6.54).

*C'System (6.54) is somewhat too complex in order to solve it in its

general form. In fact, the mass m of the missile changes with respect

-336-
 to time, at least during the active phase of the flight, i.e., m =

= m(t).
The thrust R of a solid-propellant rocket engine also changes

with respect to time because, first of all, it can be programmed in

some way, and, secondly, because it changes with flight altitude as a

result of the drop in the pressure of the surrounding medium. Thus, in

the general case

R-RQ W.,
).

where tpr is the instantaneous instant of time of programmed flight.

Finally, the aerodynamic forces and moments also change with res-

pect to time, and these are functions of altitude and flight velocity:

X-X(, u.
x, Y, .

Me-Aft
.,.. . . (Y..X,.Y,. Z'..

Taking these remarks with respect to the active forces into con-

sideration, we can write the system of equations (6.54) in expanded

form:
m (t)x-R(t.,,y)-X,(y, .,Jt, )- Y, (y, ., ,, it)-
- z. (Y,., i, n,

-) (y , , -, (, 1)(Y y , +t),

J3(O) u.M (y,.x,y, , )-M (, .x, ,,,

J. ) fM,
(y. ;c, ,t)-M(y, kj',;, ,

This system consists of six conventio.nal linear differential

equations with variable coefficients, a portion of which (for example,

7the aerodynamic forces) cannot even be presented in analytical form,

as formulas which relate the variables Y, x, Y, ...t.

- 337--
 The cited general system of equations for missile motion is gen-

erally simplified for practical application. In this case, the most

substantial simplifications are associated with the property of mis-

sile stability on the trajectory.

§4. THE CONCEPT OF MISSILE STABILITY ON THE TRAJECTORY
The motion of a missile on its trajectory is regarded as stable

if in the case of chance deflection of the missile from the trajectory

there arise forces and moments which act to return the missile to its

initial trajectory.

In the design of a missile, special measures are taken to provide

for missile stability in flight. The flight of a missile on its tra-

jectory can stabilized through the use of tail surfaces (empennage)
or rotation (or the combined effect of tail surfaces and rotation).

Empennage stabilization is attained as a result of the fact that addi-

tional aerodynamic forces act on the tail surfaces, and these forces

can return the missile to its initial trajectory in the case of missile
deflection. Stabilization by means of rotation is based on the so-cal-

led property of gyroscopic stability that is inherent in bodies of cer-

tain shape (including the shape of a missile) rotating at a great an-
gle of velocity about its longitudinal axis.
Without dwelling in too great detail at the moment on the problem

the stabilizatlon of solid-propellant missiles, we will say only that

it would be impossible to fire at some target if chance disturbances

(wind gusts, local drops in air density, etc.) could move the missile
from its trajectory and cause the missile to continue in its deflected
course from the initial flight heading, i.e., if the missile were un-

stable on its trajectory (Fig. 6.41).

For a stabilized missile trajectory, the latter is an almost

-338 -
 The cited general system of equations for missile motion is gen-

erally simplified for practical application. In this case, the most

substantial simplifications are associated with the property of mis-

sile stability on the trajectory.

§4. THE CONCEPT OF MISSILE STABILITY ON THE TRAJECTORY

The motion of a missile on its trajectory is regarded as stable

if in the case of chance deflection of the missile from the trajectory

there arise forces and moments which act to return the missile to its

initial trajectory.

In the design of a missile, special measures are taken to provide

for missile stability in flight. The flight of a missile on its tra-

jectory can stabilized through the use of tail surfaces (empennage)

or rotation (or the combined effect of tail surfaces and rotation).

Empennage stabilization is attained as a result of the fact that addi-

tional aerodynamic forces act on the tail surfaces, and these forces

can return the missile to its initial trajectory in the case of missile

deflection. Stabilization by means of rotation is based on the so-cal-

led property of gyroscopic stability that is inherent in bodies of cer-

tain shape (including the shape of a missile) rotating at a great an-

gle of velocity about its longitudinal axis.

Without dwelling in too great detail at the moment on the problem

the stabilization of solid-propellant missiles, we will say only that

it would be impossible to fire at some target if chance disturbances

(wind gusts, local drops in air density, etc.) could move the missile

from its trajectory and cause the missile to continue in its deflected

course from the initial flight heading, i.e., if the missile were un-

3stable on its trajectory (Fig. 6.41).

For a stabilized missile trajectory, the latter is an almost

- 338 -
 ideally flat curve situated in the firing plane. Consequently, if for
purposes of studying the motion of such a missile the plane xOy of
the ground system of coordinates were made to coincide with the fir-
ing plane, the lateral coordinate of the position of the center of
missile gravity would be constant and equal to zero, i.e., the third
equation in System (6.54) could be eliminated.
Moreover, the property of missile flight stability assumes that
the oscillatory motion of a missile about the center of gravity is
limited and is damped after the disturbance has been removed. This
allows us in certain cases to neglect the equations of rotational mo-
tion in System (6.54). As a result, for known stable flight System
(6.54) is substantially simplified.

y y

a)a J)b
Fig. 6.41. Unstable and stable missile
motion on the trajectory a) Unstable
motion;b) stable motion; M) the point
on the trajectory at which a certain
disturbance is applied on the missile
by external forces
§5. SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS FOR MISSILE MOTION STABILIZED BOTH ALONG THE
TRAJECTORY AND IN THE FIRING PLANE
Having taken into consideratinn the above with respect to the
features encountered in the stabilized flight of missiles, we obtain
the system of equations of missile motion in the firing plane in the

following form

S--(6.55')

for missiles stabilized with tail surfaces, or

-R.~a" -4(6.55")
myR-mg-x,+ , - Z,..
Jj=MA, - M;

i -339-
 for turbojet missiles, stabilized by rotation.

In the preliminary calculations, the forces Y and Z and Eqs.

(6.55') and (6.55") may be assumed to be equal to zero, so that

and the system will be

mxR,- X,,
mj=R,-mg-Xy, (6.55)

System (6.55) can be presented in another somewhat more conven-

ient form, by examining the translational motion of the center of mis-

sile gravity in a system whose axes coincide at each and every instant

of time with the direction of the normal and the tangent to the tra4

jectory (a special case of the connected system of coordinates) rather

than in a ground system of coordinates.

The equations of translational motion in projections onto the

normal and the tangent take the following form:

I '
(6.56')

The total system of equations for this case, assuming flight

stability, will be:

Mem 'y- Mg Ci|, (6.56)

The systems of equations (6.55) and (6.56) have been simplified

only in a formal fashion in comparison with a general system of equa-

tion of missile motion (6.54); the number of equations has been re-

duced and the components of the forces Y and Z have been dropped from

the equations of translational motion. For all intents and purposes,

Showever, these systems are as complex to solve as is System (6.54).

-340 -
 §6. SIMPLIFIED SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS FOR THE MOTION OF THE CENTER OF
MISSILE GRAVITY IN AIRLESS SPACE
Let us imagine a missile in the form a material point having a
4

mass m and let us examine the motion of this point in airless space.
Since the missile is being regarded as a point, there is no sense
in considering the rotational motion of the missile, i.e., the system
of equations describing the motion of such a missile is reduced to
two equations of translational motion (for the case of stabilized

flight in the firing plane).

In view of the fact that the missile motion is assumed to be tak-

ing place in airless space, the aerodynamic forces of missile inter-

action with the surrounding medium are naturally assumed to be equal

to zero, so that the corresponding equations are simplified to the

following form:

mia=R.,
ny=R,-mfg.
The force of thrust R (Rx, Ry) acts on the missile only during the

active phase of the flight. The magnitude of the active phase, in com-
parison with the entire trajectory, is relatively small, and in approx-
imate terms it may be held that the missile acquires a certain velocity

virtually at the launch site as a result of the action of engine

thrust.
Taking these comments and assumptions into consideration, we can
present the motion of a missile along its trajectory in the form of

the following system of equations:

ni- (6.57)
my--mg!

with the initial condition that v = va (the velocity at the end of the
active phase of the trajectory, calculated in accordance with the K.E.
i - 341-
I
Tsiolkovskiy formula) at t = 0.
System (6.57) is referred to as a simplified system of equations
for the motion of the center of missile gravity in airless space. This
system can be integrated in quadratures.

§7. CALCULATION OF MISSILE TRAJECTORY ELEMENTS

In calculating the trajectory of a missile, we are primarily in-
terested in missile flight range (for a certain initial flight velo-

city) or we want to know the required initial velocity in order to

enable the missile to attain a certain given flight range. Of secon-

dary importance, as a rule, are questions relating to the laws govern-

ing missile motion along a trajectory, i.e., relating to the time se-
quence in which the missile will pass individual points on the trajec-
tory, and how missile flight velocity will change in this case, etc.

In first approximation, the answer to all these questions can be

attained by integrating System (6.57). Since in the derivation of this

system we employed such gross assumptions as to neglect the forces of
aerodynamic interaction between the missile and the approaching air-

stream and the elimination of the active phase from our consideration,
etc., the corresponding calculation results will be somewhat limited in

nature.
Estimate of limit trajectory elements by integrating the simplified
system of equations
Let us examine System (6.57):

Since the missile mass m in the equation of this system is con-

stant and not equal to zero, it is possible to present this system in

the following form:

- 3 42 -
 The integration of the last equations can be reduced to the fol-

lowing.
The equation

dx Ad 7 (..)

indicates that

x - Coast-- C1.
Equation

after separation of the variables leads to the equation

d() -gdI.
which, after integration

Jdj) i-gdI

yields

Y g+C,
The integration constants C1 and C 2 are determined from the ini-
tial conditions:
at t =0, v = va (the velocity at the end of the active phase),
i.e., at t = 0

yarnV'. - V.~f 1C0 6.

Thus, we will obtain

y=gIC
I~.10 --
Repeated integration yields:

whence after the separation of the variables and integrating

XMC11+CS

- 343 -
I
and correspondingly

yaL-gi+Co.
di
gig
y--+CV+C 4.

Bearing in mind that the coordinate origin coincides with the

point of missile launch, we define the integration constants C 3 and C4,
as being equal to zero. In conclusion, we will obtain

x 0 V.Cos
CO S X = t Cos * 10 (6.58)
-p~snO.-g y -%iinf*0.-L

where the equalities

(6.58')
x=0,}

show how the acceleration components of missile motion change with

time; the equations

; = 'VCos, }(6.58")

show how the velocity components of missile motion change; and finally,
the equations

x.Vicoso. }
Y- Vi~lsin-g (6.58t")

show how the coordinates of missile position on the trajectory change

in time with respect to altitude and range.
The last relationships make it possible to estimate the maximum
flight range of the missile. The formula for maximum range is most sim-
ply derived by employing the following conditions: at x = ax y = 0.
From the following equation

we will find that y = 0 is valid in the following case:

-344-
 t, Soo
2Usinh%

The case ti = 0 corresponds to the position of the missile at the

point of missile launch and, consequently, the value of time t2 corres-

ponds to the position of the missile at point M on the trajectory (Fig.
6.42). Consequently,

1 X(12)=a
X. = 0s"o cos= sin 29,. (6.59)
9I

We see that Xmax = f(va' 90 ), i.e., given the same velocity at

the end of the active flight phase, the maximum range will be a func-
tion of the initial e . In this case, the greatest value of Xmax will

correspond to the following case:

and amounts to
(X..jm .*(6.60)

Solving Formula (6.59) for va, we find that in order to achieve

a range of Xma x the missile must attain a velocity no less than

Va M . Vg~_._"(6.6.1)

if the initial launch angle (the setting angle of the weapon launch
installation) amounts to e0 degrees to the horizon.
We will now determine the maximum altitude Hma x of missile ascent

along the trajectory. This quantity can be determined, for example,

from the maximum of the function y = f(x). In our case, y = f(x) is
presented in the form of two equations:

and it is therefore necessary at the beginning to eliminate the para-

- 345 -
meter t and express y directly in terms of x. The appropriate trans-
formations will result in a relationship of the following form:

_g_ X,+ O'n

_0 X.
c(6.62)-%
Cs

Equation (6.62) is the equation of the missile's flight trajec-

tory. If we examine the nature of the curve corresponding to this

equation, we can demonstrate that the

P curve is a parabola shifted with res-
pect to the coordinate origin and we
" 0 #60can show that this curve has an axis

44. -of symmetry that is parallel to the

Fig. 6.42. Trajectory dia- Oy axis (Fig. 6.43).

gram for calculation of max- The maximum of Function (6.62)
imum missile flight range in
airless space has the following form:

dX

24COSX % COS %dx

whence the value of x at which y attains its maximum value of Hmax is
determined in the following form:

XffI W " M2---m , (6.63)

and the value of Hmax itself will be

Hm. -Y (Xff 2 co% a@S+

82 Cias.

or after reducing and canceling

H- , . (6.64)

It is clear that the greatest value of Hmax will be found in the

case of sin 80 = 1, i.e., for Oo = 900 (vertical ascent)

(H,,,imi--.~ (6.65)

. 346 -
 We can see from (6.65) that the min-
imum velocity required to attain an alti-
4 tude of Hmax in vertical flight will be

va min 2 Li(6.66)
Relationship (6.58"1 makes it possi-
ble to estimate the time in which the
Fig. 6.43. Parabola of
missile trajectory in rocket missile will attain a certain alti-
airless space.yO) alti-
tude coordinate of tude y* or will reach a distance x* from
point of missile launch; the launch site. These time respectively,
01) trajectory peak
will be:

to -
(6.67)
- --
ty !-
sln -- sin
l O.i~2.
2)
--rg2 9 1

By the way, the total flight time for the missile can be deter-
mined from Eq. (6.67) in the following form

or, M '(from condition

or: -6.0300 (6.68)
6*.68)o,)

.. ga--
• (from condition Y*-O.

It is easy to see that both of these relationships are equivalent.

The cited calculation relationships yield results that are sub-
stantially different from those observed in practice. This is not sur-
prising, since in the derivation of these relationships excessively
gross assumptions were employed, and the most important of these being
the failure to take into consideration the aerodynamic forces. This
method is employed only for tentative calculations in the preliminary
design of a rocket missile.
Substantially more exact results are obtained if Systems (6.55)
or (6.56) are integrated in the place of the simplfied system; however,

-347 -
it is impossible to carry out the calculation in the general form and
it becomes necessary to resort to approximate numerical integration me-
thods. The integration results are obtained not in the form of formu-
las but in the form of tables in which the basic elements of the tra-

jectory are determined for various values of flight time. The method

of the numerical integration of the equations of motion for a solid-

propellant rocket missile is presented below.

Calculation of Trajectory Elements by the Method of the Numerical In-
tegration of the Equations of Missile Motion in the Firing Plane
It basically makes no difference which systems of equations -

(6.55) or (6.56)-isused to calculate the trajectory elements by the

method of numerical integration. However, it is held that System (6.56)

is, nevertheless, more convenient, and it is this system, written in

the following form, that is most frequently used:
in(1) . R(t) -m(f) sf n (t)- X (t), (6.69)
m ((t)V ( m (-) g coo (t),
dt

dX
d__ COS (0,
"V (t)

where the last two equations are clear from the definition of the con-
cept of flight velocity.
From (6.69) we obtain the following system of calculation equa-

tions: 'R n
AM;-(Z-giffiet
I+&I -1 -+ AVU,
as- -X", Ai, (6.70)
*,+a-',+ £,
Ay-(, sin 6 At,
1Yo +A-yj + AY,
Ax- (t', os 6,) At.
X#$- X A.

-348 -
 To solve this system, the initial parameters of motion must be

given: v 0 is the initial velocity of missile motion, equal to zero or

the velocity vsk h which the missile attains as it leaves the guide

rails of the launch installation as a function of the selection of the

coordinate origin; e0 is the initial angle of trajectory rise, equal

to the setting angle of the launch installation; x0 and yo are the co-

ordinates of the point selected as the coordinate origin (the begin-

ning or the end of the weapon launch installation). We can maintain,

with sufficient accuracy, that

X-O,' -O.

Moreover, the missile characteristics X = X(M) and the rocket-engine

characteristics R = R(t) and m = m(t) must be given. The calculation

sequence can, in this case, be presented in the following form:

1. Let us assume the integration interval At, i.e., the time in-

terval in which the values of the trajectory elements will be derived

by calculation. In selecting At it is necessary to bear in mind that

with an increase in At the accuracy of the calculation diminishes, and

if somewhat too low values of At are selected the calculation3 become

extremely cumbersome. Generally, for the active phase of the trajectory

At is assumed to be equal to

At = 0.001 - 0.01 sec.,

and for the passive phase of the trajectory

At = 0.1 - 1.0 sec.

2. For sake of simplicity, let x 0 = YO = 0 and v0 = Vskh; the ini-

tial setting angle is e0. Further, let the engine be operating at a

constant thrust R = const, so that the mass of the missile changes in

accordance with the following function:

where mO is the initial mass of the missile; msek is the per-second

- 349 -
 propellant flow rate, and the force of resistance is given in the

form of some flight velocity function X = X(M) such as, for example,
t in the form of a graph or a table.

Given these initial conditions and missile and engine character-

istics, after At the missile will have the following velocity:
v.-vo+Av -vz+1,

in which case

where

a.

a 0 is the speed of sound corresponding to a flight altitude of yo.

The angle e after At changes by

and amounts to

The missile will be at a point having the following coordinates

XZ-Xo+AX,-A,

we-Yo+AYVA,
where Ax,- (ve cos o) M.
Ay,-(vex sin Q. .

3. In the subsequent time interval, the missile velocity will in-

crease to

where AR,-( *--,..X(

gjn

a I is the speed of sound corresponding to a flight altitude of yI.

-350 -
 The angle e of the trajectooy will change by

m1

and will amount to

0- II+A ,.
The missile will shift to the point having the following coordin-
ates:

where A4 =(v cos#',) At;

Ay=(O, sin g.) A&.

4. As a result, we will obtain a series of successive points 1,

2, 3... in space with known parameters of missile motion at each point

(Fig. 6.44), determined in their totality by the trajectory of the mis-

sile flight.
During the calculation process, there

will be an instant in which the engine

3 ceases to function. The corresponding

. point A determines the end of the active

2flight phase and establishes the missile

81 .parameters for the end of the active phase.

It is interesting to point out that
To
- A if prior to point A the nature of the tra-

Fig. 6.44. Calculation of jectory was a strong function of the para-

trajectory by means of
numerical integration of meters and features of the missile engine,
equations of missile mo-
tion beyond this point - throughout the entire
passive phase of the trajectory - the nature of motion is determined
only by the parameters of missile motion at A and the ballistic co-
efficient of the missile. This makes it possible to calculate in ad-

- 351 -
vance the trajectory elements for various values of v a , ea , and CO re-
ducing the calculation result into a ballistic table, as is the wide-
spread practice in design procedures.

Y1

I Ja

X& T&aonx( asti~)

Fig. 6.45. Calculation diagram for tra-

jectory to determine trajectory elements
through utilization of ballistic tables.
XaYa) coordinates of the end of the ac-
tive trajectory phase; Va) velocity at
the end of the active trajectory phase;
ea) the angle of inclination of the tan-
gent to the trajectory at the end of the
active phase.
It should be stipulated that the tables should be employed for
the calculation not of the entire passive phase of the trajectory
but only of arc AB of this segment (Fig. 6.45), otherwise it being im-
possible to generalize the calculation results for missiles having
various active phases.

The segment BM should be calculated separately for each individ-

ual case. However, as a rule, this is not done and in first .approxi-

mation the following assumptions are made

where vB is the velocity at point B; vM is the velocity at point M.

In conclusion, the total missile flight range is defined as the
sum

while taking into consideration

- 352 -
 XM&hxna+1,667 X., (6.71)
where xa is obtained as a result of the numerical integration of the

active trajectory phase; Xtabl is taken from tables.

The maximum trajectory height is defined as

Hm'aeGA.Va. (6.72)
The results of the trajectory calculation by the method of numeri-

cal integration differ subtantially from the case in which the sim-
plified system of equations of motion was employed, where the effect

of aerodynamic forces was neglected. For example, the flight range

may amount to only 0.5 - 0.6, the trajectory altitude may amount to
only 0.7 - 0.8, the distance to the peak of the trajectory may amount

to only 0.7 - 0.8, and the velocity at the target may amount to only
0.3 - 0.4 of the values for the corresponding quantities (Xmax, Hmax,
Xmax/2,... ) calculated according to the formulas for flight in airless
space.
For contemporary rocket artillery , requiring increased firing
accuracy, it is necessary to make extensive use of the method of num-
erical integration of the equations of motion which make it possible
to carry out calculations with high accuracy. In this case, the dif-
ficulty in carrying out these calculations can be substantially re-
duced through the use of computer equipment.
§8. STABILIZATION OF MISSILE ON TRAJECTORY
As has already been indicated, in order to provide for firing ac-
curacy against the target the missile must be stabilized along its
trajectory. This means that measures must be implemented in order to
restrict the possible deviations of the missile axis from the direc-

- 353 -
tion of the tangent to the trajectory.

It has been established that a missile can be stabilized on its

trajectory either by the introduction of special stabilization ele-

ments into the design of the missile - tail surfaces (stabilizers) -

or by using the effect of gyroscopic stability (stabilization through

rotation). Both stabilization methods are used successfully in the

practical design of various types of rocket missiles

Selection of Tail Surfaces which will provide for Stabilization with

the Given Stability Margin

The idea of stabilizing rockets by means of tail surfaces is

based on the following property of bodies moving in a resisting medium;

it turns out that such a body moves stably, i.e., its seeks to pre-

serve its initlal orientation during its motion only in the case in

which the center of the body's gravity is situated in front of the

center of pressure. And conversely, if the center of gravity is sit-

uated behind the center of pressure, the position of the body on the

trajectory becomes unstable and upon the interference of random dis-

turbances, and this interference can result in a change in position.

Let the center of gravity of a missile flying along a certain trajec-

tory be situated in front of the center of pressure (Fig. 6.46), and

let the axis of the missile be deflected through an angle a (+ a)

from the direction of the tangent to the trajectory at some instant

of time under the action of a random disturbance. We can see from

Fig. 6.46 that in this case there will appear a moment of aerodynamic

forces directed against the direction of the increasing angle a, i.e.,

seeking to return the missile to its initial position. The initial

position of the missile is stable on the trajectory.

Let us now examine the motion of a missile whose center of pres-

sure is situated in front of the center of gravity (Fig. 6.47). From

-354 -
 the diagrams presented in this figure we can see that in this case,

*given the random appearance of a positive or negative angle of at-

4
tack, there will appear a moment which seeks to increase the angle a,

i.e., to deflect the missile even fur-

ther from its initial position. In this

RAWX
case, the missile is unstable on its tra-
a)a jectory.

Thus a nonrotating missile is stable

(Y
..- on its trajectory only in the case in

which the center of missile gravity lies

X .T in front of the center of pressure. The

6) b (RO) degree of stability is a function of the

Fig. 6.46. Diagram of mu- distance e between the above-mentioned
tual position of center
of gravity and center of two points. The quantitative measure of
pressure which provide
for missile stability stability is generally evaluated in
(the forward position of
the center of gravity terms of the stability margin-by which
with respect to the cen-
ter of pressure). a) in- we mean the ratio
itial position of mis-
sile on trajectory; b) (6.73)
disturbed position of ta--L i0(7
missile on trajectory
Maerd) aerodynamic mo- where e = Xts.d - Xts.t is the eccen-
ment; 1) case a > 0. tricity of the missile; xk is the length

is the length of the missile airframe.

The center of gravity for a solid-propellant rocket missile with-

out tail surfaces and consisting of a warhead and a rocket part will

be situated at a point shifted somewhat forward of the geometric cen-

- ter of the missile. However, the center of missile pressure lies some-

where in the vicinity of missile-warhead gravity. Thus the mutual pos-

itions ofthe center of gravity and the center of pressure coincide ex-

actly with the case in which there are no stability properties on the

- 355 -
 trajectory, so that a rocket missile

without tail surfaces, as a rule, is

unstable in flight.
For the stabilization of such a

a)a missile, it is necessary markedly to

Raw CRY.'" 09>0 shift the center of pressure to the
(Y>D) rear, behind the center of
gravity.

In this case, if the missile has to

Uhave a stability margin of J%, the

"CA-a" (<O0 center of:pressure must be shifted to
(Y<rO)
6) b a point having the following coordin-

Fig. 6.47. Diagram of mutual ate:

position of center of gravi- IM
ty and center of pressure XamA.,+-j,. (6.74)
resulting in missile insta-
bility (rear position of We know from mechanics that if
center of gravity with re-
spect to center of pressure there is a system of parallel forecs
a) initial positon of mis-
sile on trajectory; b) dis- referred to some resultant force,
turbed position of missile
on trajectory; 1) case then with the addition of an addition-
a > 0.
al force to the systemthe point of

application of this new resultant shifts toward the point of applica-

tion of this force by a certain definite magnitude proportional to

the value of the newly applied force. In accordance with this, to

shift the center of missile pressure backward behind the center of

gravity it is necessary for additional aerodynamic forces to appear

in the tail portion of the missile.

It is well known that in terms of their physical nature the aero-

dynamic forces represent the result of the interaction between the

approaching stream and those surfaces or bodies situated in this

stream. Therefore, to shift the center of missile pressure backward

-356 -
 to the tail portion, stabilizers are employed here as sources for

this additional force.

4" Stabilizers are made, as a rule, in the form of thin plates and

installed parallel to the axes of the missile in order to reduce the

drag component to its absolute minimum in the interaction of the sta-

bilizers with the stream, i.e., so that the introduction of the sta-

bilizers into the design of the missile shifts the center of missile

pressure in the required direction by the necessary magnitude, and

if possible without increasing the total resistance of the missile.

In accordance with (6.45)

Cr Kxix + CY oxR.A
CYN + Cy on
On the other hand, in order to provide for missile stabilization

with a stability margin of st % ,

it is necessary for the center of

pressure to be situated at a point having the following coordinate:

- X 0 X9.

Hence, for the stabilization of the given solid-propellant mis-

sile (xts.t, Xk, Xts.d.k ' CY k,...) it is necessary to select such
tail surfaces for the missile as to yield

lX. +Cy K.X., +CY.fXj (6.75)

x 0+0w C" it+ c."
The derived equation contains, generally speaking, two unknowns

- CY op and x ts.d.o ; however, bearing in mind that the tail surfaces

are situated in the rear part of the missile and the position of the

center of pressure for the basic types of stabilizers is approximately

known (see Fig. 6.34), the magnitude of Xts.d.o can be assumed quite

accurately, so that (6.75) will, in its capacity as an unknown, con-

tain only the parameter Cy op"

Taking the above into consideration, we will have

- 357 -
 Cy-=C .XaZX + j

Xgj.-0-X&T--

In first approximation, it is expedient to assume xts.d.o = xk

and the above-mentioned relationship lends itself to solution and

the quantity CY op is easily determined:

CYou=CYK
X-XA.+.
Aro 0 XK (6.76)
IYCT
A-XU T - i OX

where CY k is calculated in accordance with (6.16) or (6.19) as a fun-

ction of missile flight velocity; x ts.t is the coordinate of the cen-
ter of missile gravity, determined in the weight calculation; xk is

the length of the missile airframe; Xts.d.k is the coordinate of the

center of pressure for the airframe of the missile, assumed to be

equal to 0.5 x k for M < 1 and calculated with (6.44), if the missile

exhibits supersonic velocity; Ust % is the given stability margin.

Thus in order to stabilize the missile with a stability margin of

Ust % ,' it is necessary to select tail surfaces for which the coeffi-
cient of lift would coincide with (6.76). The geometric dimensions
1 -C
of such tail surfaces can be determined for various flight velocities

through the utilization of (6.131), (6.181), and (6.18"). In first

approximation calculations we can assume an elongation Xop = 2.0 and

for sake of simplicity we can examine stabilizers that are rectangu-

lar in shape in the in-plan view. After a rough estimate of the re-

quired tail-surface dimensions, the initial parameters are corrected

and the final calculations are carried out with selection of the op-

~timum shape for the stabilizer fin under the given conditions.
i If the calculation shows that the required tail surfaces are
.! somewhat too large with respect to dimensions and therefore unaccept-

- 358-
 Fig. 6.48. Comparative dimensions
of tail surfaces required for the
stabilization of a missile for
cases of various position distances
from coordinate origin.
able, it becomes necessary either to move the tail surfaces further
back along the tail (or even behind the tail, as is shown in Fig.
6.48), or to increase the number of stabilizer fins, or to undertake
even more radical means, including the entire redesigning of the mis-
sile.
On the other hand, cases are possible in which the designed tail
surfaces for the version in which the stabilizers are positioned at
the rear have intolerably small dimensions. In these cases, the tail
surfaces must be moved forward (Fig. 6.49). The final solution to
the problem of selecting the shape, dimensions, and position of the
tail surfaces depends on the results obtained in wind-tunnel tests of
a missile with theoretically calculated tail surfaces. In recent times,
wind-tunnel experimentation has given way, in a number of countries,
to free-flight tests or tests on rock-
et sleds.
9 Calculation of an angle for nozzle
outlet to provide for stability in
the case of turbojet missile
A missile with a rear center of
Fig. 6.49. Missile with tail
surfaces shifted forward gravity can be stabilized on its tra-
-359 -
 jectory not only by means of tail surfaces, thus shifting the center

of pressure behind the center of gravity but also by causing the mis-

sile to rotate about its longitudinal axis with a certain definite

angular velocity.

Stabilization by means of rotation is based on the application

of the so-called gyroscopic effect. Let us examine this effect on the

well-known example of its appearance in the case of a spinning top.

We know that for bodies having a small-support-base area, the position

of vertical equilibrium is unstable. Such a body need be deflected on-

ly through an angle a at which the resultant of the gravity forces

no longer intersects the support-base area, when a toppling moment

arises, thus forcing the body out of its equilibrium position; the

body will fall as a result.

The vertical position of the top, in the general case, is also

unstable. However, if the top is forced to spin at a great angular

velocity about its longitudinal axes, forces will appear to prevent

the top from falling as it moves from its position of vertical equil-

ibrium. The vertical position of a spinning top thus seems to become

stable. The random disturbances which deflect the axis of the top

from the vertical only produce the additional motion of the top's

axis about the initial direction (Fig. 6.50). In gyroscope theory,

this motion is referred to as the precession of the gyroscope axis.

The conic angle a of the precession and the angular velocity apr of

the precession are determined by the magnitude of the active disturb-

ance (P or Mvneshn), the angular velocity co0 of rotation, and the

geometric characteristics of the spinning body. All other conditions

being equal, the greater wo, the smaller the angle a, i.e., the more

4. stable the vertical position of the top.

Let us now compare a top with a missile moving alorg its trajec-

-360 -
tory and rotating at a velocity wO about its longitudinal axis. If

the center of pressure is in a forward position, a missile of this

type is much like the top, fixed to its trajectory at point 0 which
coincides with the center of missile gravity (Fig. 6.51). In analogy

with the example of the top, in the case of random deflections of the
missile axis from its original zero position, the missile seeks not
to move further away from its initial position, but rather it seeks
to keep that position constant. In this case, missile axis precession
appears, and the angular amplitude is given by the magnitude of W0"
the geometric characteristics of the missile, and the magnitude of
the external disturbing moment.

The property of gyroscopic stability appears only in the case of

sufficiently great angular velocity of rotation. In first approxima-

tion it may be maintained that stability will be guaranteed if

S> 2V (6.77)

where n is the number of revolutions of the rotating body; R is the

active disturbing force; e is the eccentricity
wo 0 of the missile; J and J are, respectively, the
polar and equatorial moments of inertia.
Taki,,g (6.77) into consideration we find that

N' the problem of missile flight stabilization by

'P.Mn means of rotation consists in providing for the

Fig. 6.50. Iagram rotation of the missile over the entire trajec-
of gyroscopic stab-
ility of top. tory, and an angular velocity not lower than the
X1 ) longitudinal
axis of top; 0) corresponding number of revolutions:
support point;
01) point of ap- s.o-
plication of dis-
turbirig external
force.

- 361 -
 The rotation of the missile about its longitudinal axis is des-
cribed by the following equation:

where the active stabilizing moment and the damping momenf of resis-
tance enter into Z MP.
If the missile is caused to rotate by means of nozzle-turbines,

the stabilizing moment acts on the missile only during the active

phase of the trajectory, for which

'(6.78)
- man

since the moment of resistance is generally small in comparison with

Mst. During the passive phase, Mst = 0 and the equation of rotational

motion for the missile is written in the following form:

Jy=---M. (6.79)

We can see that during the passive phase of the trajectory the
angular velocity of rotation gradually dimenishes to some 9k which

corresponds to the following number of revolutions

Hence, to provide for stability over the entire flight trajectory

it is necessary to turn the missile so during the active phase that
it exhibits the following to the end of the flight:

,2VR.. (6.80)
JAR

The co&ax required for this at the end of the active phase is

easily found from (6.79):

32
-M;.

- 362-
whence, separating the variables, we will obtain

Sdo=- M,'
di.

which yields IL
max 7- ",,dt.
.(6.81')
" ,

The relationship between M'( and time, not expressed explicitly,

makes it necessary to calculate the second integral numerically:

- z (M;), (6.81")
JV a

where the summing is carried out over the entire At into which the

time interval ta -tk has been divided. If we take (6.80) into consi-

deration, the required amax at the end of the active phase is deter-

mined in the following form:

_'i- 2 Ir +1 (6.82)*
30 J, (6.82

Assuming that we can employ the

following approximate equation for the

active phase of the flight:

S -we will find the required moment Mst:

Fig. 6.51. Diagram of gy- J - f .

roscopic missile stability AV

o A

The quantity M st may be regarded as constant for the entire ac-

tive phase of the trajectory. However, the value of J changes as a

p
result of the consumption of propellant. Taking this into considera-

- 363 -
tion,

(6 .83 ')
di

or in a form convenient for numerical calculation,

-A (6.83")
where (jo), is computed over all m intervals of ZAt into which the
flight time for the active trajectory phase has been divided.

From (6.83") the required stabilizing moment is determined in

the following form:
=wool

which with consideration of (6.82) yields

2 J + 1 (6.84)
Af= 30J" /

Here Jp and Je characterize the properties of the missile during

the passive phase of the trajectory, and M'P is regarded as a given

aerodynamic characteristic of the missile, so that the values of (M')t

for any instant of time can be found from a graph or table; (Jp)t is
calculated for various points of the active phase of the flight, tak-
ing into consideration the gradual burning up of the propellant.
The stabilizing moment is developed as a result of the engine-
thrust component which is directed perpendicular to the axis of the
missile and which appears when the nozzle outlet is slanted at an an-

gle * to the axis of the missile (Fig. 6.52). The magnitude of this

moment M.-R, sin t. 5,-

(6.85)
.R, I 6 -

364-
where Rtl is the magnitude of thrust referred to a single nozzle;

n is the number of nozzles; d'/2 is the arm of nozzle position with

respect to the longitudinal axis of the missile; Rt is the total

thrust developed by the engine.

*" From (6.85) the required angle of

nozzle outlet is defined as

af 'if .=acslnAn~(6.86)

where Mst is calculated in accordance

with (6.84); d' is the diameter of the

circle around which the nozzle turbines

* have been positioned.

A1 With this nozzle outlet angle, the

- -- turbine develops a moment Mst adequate

Fig. 6.52. Diagram of the to maintain the missile stable over the
appearance of the stabil-
ity moment in the case of entire flight trajectory.
a turbojet missile
The proposed method of calculating

the required nozzle outlet angle in the case of turboject missiles is

extremely tentative, since the reduction of mLssile motion to the ele-

mentary diagram of a top is a rather gross approximation.

§9. SCATTERING OF UNGUIDED MISSILES OVER TARGET AREA. CONCEPT OF FIR-

ING ACCURACY

The flight trajectory of an actual missile is always somewhat

different from a theoretical trajectory.

A missile is made industrially with definite dimensional and

weight allowances; in conclusion, the ballistic coefficients of in-

dividual missiles
CJ= I000fds

-365-
 D ' =

. I . om

8.. ti-. Ceuaau C"U&•

. E

Fig. 6.53. Regional elements of target

area over which unguided rocket missiles
are scattered. M)ix)Probability of mis-
sile striking i-th point alog x axis
of scattering region; t (Mix)) Tunction
of probability distribution of missile
striking i-th point along x axis of
scattering region; Mit) probability of
missile striking i-th point along t
axis of scattering region; (D (Mit)7
function of probability distribution of
missiles striking i-th point along t
axis of scattering region; 1) missile
scattering function with respect to
range; 2) lateral missile scattering
function

differ somewhat from one another and amount to

c,-c.M,+AC,

where Ci is the true ballistic coefficient of the missile; Cteor is

the theoretical value of the ballistic coefficient; ACi is the differ-
ence in magnitude between the ballistic coefficient and its theoreti-
cal value.
The scattering of the interior ballistic parameters for each in-
dividual engine and the difference in weight between various missiles
leads to a situation in which the missile velocity at the end of the

-366-
active phase of the flight is not identical for the various missiles:
(AV&=)-(AV=Z)Top+A (Avian)f,

where (Avmax)teor '8 calculated in accordance with the K.E. Tsiolkov-

skiy formula.
Finally, the possible eccentricity or distortion of the reaction-

force vector with respect to the longitudinal axis of the nozzle and
the defects in the mounting of the stabilizers on the missile may serve

as sources resulting in the additional deflection of a true missile

from its theoretical curve.
An important consequence of the deflection of missile flight tra-

jectories from the theoretical trajectories is the fact that the

points of missile incidence do not coincide with one another and the

calculated point M. The distribution of the points Mi over the target

area about point M is generally referred to as the scattering of mis-
siles. It has been established that the scattering of unguided missiles

is subject to a number of quantitative relationships: all of the points

are located within the limits of the so-called scattering ellipse (Fig.
6.53), and in this case it becomes possible to construct a curve which

characterizes, for example, the distribution of the number of points

of incidence along the given direction of the scattering ellipse. This
curve coincides with the classical curve from the theory of probability,

said curve describing the normal probability-distribution function for

the occurence of some random event (for example, the missiles striking

the given point within the given area). The points A, B, C, and D

which coincide with the ends of the semiaxes of the scattering ellipse
characterize the magnitude of the maximum probable deviation of the

points of missile incidence from the polnt M with respect to range and
lateral direction. It is the general practice to denote the correspond-
ing distances as follows:
-367-
 AM =8"' ; BM=B,',K

and to employ the range and lateral direction points of missile in-
I cidence as the maximum deflection.

We can discern a ractangular region within the scattering ellipse

within which limits - 50% of all strikes are distributed. In evaluating

the effectiveness of the firing, generally not the entire scattering

ellipse is taken into consideration, but precisely this region, the co-

ordinates of whose boundaries are, respectively, referred to as the

probable deviation of the missile from the target in terms of range

B d and in terms of lateral direction Bb.

The probable deflection is an inadequate characteristic of scat-
tering. A more general evaluation of scattering is offered by the di-

mensionless parameter

referred to as the combat or firing accuracy of missiles with respect

to range (or with respect to side direction).
To calculate the firing accuracy, it is necessary to determine
the probable deflection with respect to range and lateral direction
for a missile of any given design and known firing conditions.
In first approximation, for this purpose we can use the simplified

calculation of relationships in which it is assumed that the individual

factors responsible for deflecting a missile from the target are in-
depent in their effect on said deflection of the missile.

Since the deviation from the calculated values of the ballistic

coefficient, the velocity at the end of the active phase, the angle of
pitch 0 at the end of the active phase, the eccentricity of the dis-

tortion of the reaction-force vector, and the defects in the mounting

F
of stabilizers on the missile can be regarded as the primary factors

- 368 -
 responsible for the scattering of
I range in the case of rocket missiles
ShjCOmvR Kg'lotmh UJT Vpu
M14i

with tail surfaces, the formula for

""4 the evaluation of Bd of a missile
Vt with tail surfaces can be presented

in the following form:

Be, '+(x..)', (6.87
where Bd is the probable deviation of

r "the missile from the calculated point

__.__._of impact, with respect to range; Ax

Fig. 6.54. Illustration of is the deviation with respect to range

concept of firing accuracy
and grouping 1) Close group- resulting from the fact that the bal-
ing; 2) scattered grouping listic coefficient for the missile

does not coincide with the calculated coefficient:

C,-C,.,+AC,.

The quantity Axs is generally calculated in the following manner

AX! AC',

where 6x/ZC characterizes the degree to which the magnitude of the

ballistic coefficient exerts influence on the flight range; Axv is
the deviation, with respect to range, resulting from the inconstancy
of velocity at the end of the active phase:
Ax., Av,
Ax0 , AxR, Axop are, respectively, the deviations with respect to range

resulting from the remaining factors which affect range.

To calculate the individual components of Axk for various cases,

we can employ a number of various relationships. These relationships,

as a rule, are derived through the generalization of data from a great

number of monitoring missile launchings and these relationships are

comparatively simple calculation formulas that have been completed by

- 369 -
 means of experimental graphs and tables.

An estimate of the mean-probable deviation of a missile with tail

I surfaces in the lateral direction (along the OZ axis) can be carried

out in accordance with the following formula:

B6 = "(az+)s + (zl)'T (Az), (6.88)

since the lateral deviation occurs primarily because of the deviation

of the missile in the firing plane from the direction of A* and the
errors that are associated with the direction of the reaction-force

vector, as well as with the fact that the stabilizers have not been

mounted in an ideal fashion on the missile.

For the specific calculation of Az,, A1, and Azst, we employ the
empirical calculation relationships and the statistical data from ex-

perimental launching.
Turbojet missiles do not have any tail surfaces and are charac-
terized by the fact that because of the great number of nozzles the
total eccentricity of the nozzle assembly, and consequently, the ec-

centricity of the thrust vector t, are virtually equal to zero.

In this connection, for such missiles
= y(Ax)' + (a), + (4. (6.89)

where AX's, Ax'v, and A'xv, despite the similar notation, are calcu-

lated in accordance with formulas that are different from the formulas

for the case of missiles with tail surfaces, although even these may

be identical in form.
The cited relationships make it possible, in first approximation,
to estimate the probable deflections and firing accuracy (grouping) of

the reaction-thrust missiles stabilized by means of tail surfaces or

rotation for the given firing conditions. Finally, the scattering and

firing-accuracy (grouping) parameters are verified through firing-range

tests of experimental missile models.

-370-
 In conclusion, we should turn our attention to the difference
between the concept of firing accuracy (grouping) and accuracy (pre-
cision). The difference between these concepts is clearly shown in

the diagrams presented in Fig. 6.54.

[Footnotes]

Manu-
script
Page
No.
228 A detailed discussion of these can be found, for example,
in the following books: A. Lokk, Upravleniye smaryadami.
IL [Control of Missiles. Foreign Literature Press], 1958.
V.I. Feodos'yev and G.B. Sinyarev. Vvedeniye v raketnuyu
tekhniku, Oborongiz [Introduction into Rocket Engineering,
State Defense Industry Press], 1956 etc.
321 Detailed tables for To = To (/p0) are presented, for
example, in the book by N.F. Krasnov "Aerodinamika"
[Aerodynamics," Part 2. Certain Problems in Applied Aero-
dynamics. MVTU Press of the Moscow Bauman AIgher Technical
School], 1954.
334 The problems dealing with the calculation of instantaneous
missile characteristics are discussed in greater detail,
for example, in the book by N.F. Krasnov entitled "Aero-
dinamika" [Part 2. Certain Problems in Applied Aerodynamics.
MVTU Press], 1954.

[Transliterated Symbols]
288 = ts.d = tsentr davleniya = center of pressure
288 9 = ts.d = tsentr tyazhesti = center of gravity

293 tg = tan
294 FAB = Fdv = Fdvizheniye = Fmotion

294 Fconp F sopr Fsoprotivleniye Fresistance

297 v Vt sil Vtsilindr Vcylinder

- 371 -
Manu-
script (List of Transliterated Symbols (Continued)]
Page
No.

27vYC.KoH - u~o usechennyy konus - truncated cone

299 CH sn snaryad missile
303 x6 X,
b.ch = boyeveya chast' xwarhead

30 't, r.ch Xraketnya chast? xrocket part

310 x01 op = Xopereniye = Xtail surfaces

30bcp bs srednyaya khordda =bmiddle chord

310 PI Pp = perednaya (kronika) Oleading (edge)
310 P= =z zadnaya (kromka) = Ptrailing (edge)
310 y t = tolshchina = thickness
310 1c~ 1k =1 skos
C= sweepback angle
310 b = bk, = bkornevaya (khorda) = broot (chord)
310 KU bkts bkontsevaya, (khorda) = btip (chord)
315 SO 5 bo Bbokovaya (poverkhnost') 2--side (surface)
5
315 M= m = 8midell = s idsection
316 K =I k= 1korpus = airframe
334 30 =%f =Meffektivnyy 'ffective
e
334M cT =Mst =Mstabiliziruy..sachiy = stabilizing

334 Mr deinpf '- dempriruyushchiy "' damping

=
337 t~ =ptpr t programmiruyenyy (polet) tprogranmed (flight)

-371a -
I

Chapter 7
TESTS OF EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF ROCKET MISSILES

The testing of experimental models of rocket missiles is car-

ried out by each planning organization in accordance with its own

program; it is therefore impossible to speak of a uniform method for

the carrying out of such tests; moreover, the range of problems asso-

ciated with the testing of rocket missiles is so extensive that a

separate book would be required for their elucidation. The present

chapter gives only some general considevations involved in the test-

ing of rocket missiles.

The approximate natu e of the theoretical calculations into which

it becomes necessary to introduce various simplifications as well as

to employ the experimental data taken from similar classes of missiles

and the present inability to use theoretical calculations and the

fact that the required data can be obtained only experimentally makes

it necessary for the missile to be tested and checked through test-

stand firings and firing-range launchings.

§1. STATIC TESTS OF A ROCKET ENGINE

The design of a missile and its engine are adjusted during the

static tests in accordance with the requirements imposed by the tact-

ical-technical designation of the missile, and during these tests the

igniter and powder grains are selected and checked.

The successful solution of these problems depends primarily on

the coincidence of the interior-ballistic characterisiics of an actual

engine and those of the engine being designed. Therefore, the following

- 372,-
missile characteristics are taken during the static tests:
1) the pressure curve;

2) the reaction-force curve;

3) the total reaction-force impulse.

Before the hot-firing tests are carried out, any engine (we have
reference here to the shell) must of necessity be checked for strength

and hermetic sealing, and this is, as a rule, carried out in a special-
ly equipped shop of the production plant. The engine is set into a de-
vice, the outlet orifice is closed, all of the other openings are
sealed, and then water under pressure greater than the maximum theo-
retical pressure produced by the combustion gases from the chamber is

fed through the engine. The engine is kept under this pressure for a

certain period of time in order to enable all of the destructive pro-

cesses which may possibly be attributed to the effect of pressure to

make themselves felt.

After the pressure is reduced, the engine is carefully checked
and if no failures of the structure are observed, the hermetic seal-
ing of the engine is checked, and this is generally carried out by
employing the same device as was used for strength tests. The method
used to test hermetic sealing were somewhat different. It is not water
that is fed into the chamber, but air or kerosene. It is impossible to

test an engine for strength with air, since in the case of engine fail-

ure the effect would be similar to that of an explosion, whereas a li-

quid can burst only a portion of a weak structure, or penetrate a weak
spot, which of course is very much safer.
With the use of air (in the case of small volumes) hermetic seal-

ing is checked by immersing the engine in water or covering its outer

surface with a soapy solution. In either case, the air bubbles which
form indicate the degree of the hermetic sealing of the structure.

- 373 -
Hermetic-sealing tests are generally carried out under a pressure

equal to the maximum magnitude of the theoretical pressure to be pro-

duced in the combustion chamber.

An engine having passed the above-described production tests can

be used for the subsequent static operations.

The pressure curve is generally taken by means of sensing elements

and oscillographs of various designs. The records can be obtained, for

example, by means of an aneroid sensing element and a tensometric os-

cillograph (Fig. 7.1). An installation assembled in this manner func-
tions as follows. The pressure of the exhaust gases is transmitted to

the sensing element 3 through the tubing 2. Here a change in pressure

is recorded by the sensing element 4 - an aneroid chamber - (Fig. 7.2),

which is connected to the potentiometer 5 which changes the resistance
of the electric circuit. This change in resistance produces a pulse

that is transmitted to the oscillograph where the change in pressure

with time is recorded on a special paper tape. The tape with its re-
cording is processed in a photography dark room and the pressure curve
is obtained (Fig. 7.3), and the beginning of engine operation (the
point at which the curve rises above the zero level) and the end of

engine operation are noted on this curve.

On the basis of these extreme points and the calibrated graph it
is possible to carry out an analysis of engine operation. For example,

the time of engine operation is calculated from the line of time mark-

ing 1. In proceeding from point A on the pressure curve of interest to

us to the origin we count 20 peaks, and we know (from the oscillograph
scale) that each peak is equal to 1/20 sec; consequently, the time is

1/20 x 20 = 1 sec.
The magnitude of pressure at, for example, this same point A is

determined as simply. For this, the distance from the zero level to
-374 -
 point A on the pressure curve is measured on the oscillogram and the
magnitude of the pressure at point A is determined by carrying out
tmeasurements further along the calibrated graph.

The calibrated graph is constructed in the following manner. In the

installation employed for the measuring of pressure, instead of the
engine, a press is connected to the sensing element. Then the sensing

element is subjected to step-wise pressure increases such as 10, 20

and 30 atm, etc., and each pressure inc-ease is recorded by the oscil-

lograph on paper. Subsequently a graph is constructed with the distance

between the zero line and the pressure line plotted along one axis and

the magnitude of pressure plotted along the other axis. The pressure

curve can, of course, be obtained in such other ways as, for example,
by means of a loop oscillograph and the sensing unit of a deformation

measuring device.

* The thrust characteristics of the

I JJ engine are obtained on specially e-

quipped test stands. Here the engine

is fastened onto a moving cradle (Fig.
Fig. 7.1. Diagram of instal- 7.4) from which the force developed
lation for determination of
pressure curve. 1) Engine by the engine is transmitted to a re-
being tested; 2) tubing
through which gas is fed from ceiving device. A dynamometer (Fig. 7..
engine to sensing element; .)
aneroid sensing elements; 4) can serve as such a receiving device.
cable; 5) attachment; 6) os-
cillograph. The operating principle of such
a unit is quite simple. The force
from the engine is transmitted from the cradle of the test-stand in-

stallation through the coupling rod to the dynamometer where it is

transformed into pressure whose magnitude is indicated by the mano-
meter that is connected to the dynamometer. The dynamometer is cali-
brated prior to the test, i.e., regularly increasing loads are applied

-375 -
 to the coupling rod: 500, 1000 kg, etc., and the
--- --- corresponding manometer readings are marked. In

' - accordance with the derived data it becomes pos-

sible to construct a calibrated graph - the loads
__COMM on the coupling rod, in kilograms, are plotted

along one axis, and the manometer readings, in

- atmospheres, are plotted along the other axis.

Fig. 7.2. Basic

circuit of sens-
sing element. 1)
uper rod; 2) re- In addition to test-stand installations e-
turn spring; 3)
transmission-in- quipped with dynamometers, engine thrust is also
strument multi-
plier; 4) sensing
mechanism; 5) Po- measured on test-stand installations equipped
tentiometer. with round scales to which the thrust developed

by the engine is transmitted from the cradle by means of a special le-

ver system.

AA

Fig. 7.3. Pressure curve recorded on

paper tape by means of oscillograph.
1) Time mark; 2) zero level; 31)pres-
sure curve; A) beginning of operation
B) end of operation

To derive the magnitude of the total reaction-force impulse, we

frequently employ the graph for the change in thrust developed by the
engine with respect to time.
In the case of engines that are in operation for long periods of
time, this graph can be constructed on the basis of the points measured

376
 at definite intervals of engine-
operating time, and the construc-
_I tion of this graph can be carried

methods described above. However,

Fig. 7.4. Simplified diagram of this method for obtaining the re-
testing installation. 1) Rock-
ing cradle 2) dynamometer; 3) action-force curve yields extremely
dynamometer coupling rod;
4) engine being tested. approximate results. It is prefer-
able to write this curve automatically. For this purpose we can use a
test-stand installation equipped with a dynamometer.

Instead of manometers, the sensing element employed to detect the

pressure is connected to the dynamometer and the operation is then

carried out in the same manner as the derivation of the pressure curve.
The only difference here is in the calibration of the sensing element.

In this case, the calibration is carried out by applying step-wise

loads such as, for example, 500, 1000 kg, etc., to the dynamometer,
and each increase is marked by means of
an oscillograph. Thus the calibrated graph
is constructed in the following coordinates:
the distance of the reaction-force curve
- B from zero level, i.e., force in kg.

The total impulse can be obtained by

integrating the reaction-force curves that
Fig. 7.5. Diagram of dy- have been derived by means of the oscillo-
namometer 1) Frame of
dynamometer; 2) flexible graph, with this curve scaled down to mil-
adding; 3) frame lid;
B oilg A to manoter; limeter graph paper; then the area beneath
B) coupling rod to stand
this curve is calculated either by means
(" a planimeter or by means of counting the boxes on this millimeter graph
paper contained within the reaction-force curve.
- 377 -
 To obtain the magnitude of impulse directly, it is necessary to
multiply the computed area by a scale. For example, the area calcula-
ted according to boxes is equal to 2000 mm 2 , and we know that 1 mm
along the axis of ordinates corresponds to 5 kg of thrust, and 1 mm
along the axis of abcissas relates to 2 seconds of engine opera-

tion. Then the magnitude of the impulse will be equal to

J = 2000 (1/5.2) = 200 kg. sec.

In certain cases, if necessary, additional cests of the missile's
combustion chamber are carried out, and the following determinations,

for example, are made:

1) the powder burning rate in various sections of the chamber;

2) the heat losses in the combustion chamber;

3) the eccentricity of the reaction force, etc.

We will dwell in some detail on the most interesting tests - the

determination of the powder burning rate. For this purpose a combus-
tion chamber made of special transparent material is fabricated, and
this chamber has an inside profile that is identical to the combustion
chamber being designed. Powder grains selected for the engine being

designed are burned in this chamber. The process of burning the grains
is recorded on film by means of a motion-picture camera. Since the

filming rate is Mnown, the film can be used to determine the burning
rate for the powder.

In the case of an engine in operation for long periods of time,

the powder burning rate can be determined in a simpler manner, i.e.,
by burning the powder and interrupting the burning. Of course, here
as well as in the previous case, it is necessary to have a special
chamber. However, this chamber differs-from a conventional chamber

only in that a device to eject the charge from combustion chamber is

installed in the engines used for the measurement of the burning rate.
- 378-
 The rate is measured directly in the following manner. A second-timer
is connected and synchronized with the engine start. Upon completion

of an earlier set time, this device is actuated and the powder charge
is ejected from the combustion chamber into some space (a barrel, a

tank, etc.) filled with water. The extinguished powder grains are

measured.
This operation is repeated several times, increasing the time in-
tervals for the burning each time, and each time the extinguished
grain is measured. The obtained results are evaluated and the powder-

burning rate is thus determined.

Thorough experimental investigations of the operation of a solid-

propellant engine make it possible to coordinate the theory of solid-

propellant rocket missiles with experiment and to refine the basic

parameters required for the remaining calculations.

It should be pointed out that combustion chambers from regular
rocket missiles can sometimes be employed as the experimental chambers

in static tests, and holes can be drilled and connection pipes welded
to the walls of such chambers. But as a rule, special thick-walled
chambers are used for these tasks, since such chambers make it possi-
ble to undertake repeated starts. Such chambers are equipped with dia-
phragms of various designs, as well as with an assembly of nozzles
having various throat diameters and various outlet shapes; here,

if only the pressure in the chamber is being investigated (rather than

the reaction force), it is possible to use a nozzle without a diverg-
ing outlet section - the so-called eyelet nozzle.

The combustion chamber is prepared for the test in the follming

manner. A nozzle with a definite dkr corresponding to the given charg-

Cing conditions and the anticipated calculated pressure is selected.

Then, a weighed specimen of an igniter is selected and charged into

- 379 -
 the combustion chamber; all of the instruments are mounted and the
final completed assembly is installed on the test stand. After a check
Iof the readiness of the system, the engine is started on the stand

and the appropriate readings for the subsequent evaluation are taken.

Up to this point we have described static tests for elements of

interior ballistics, but the test-stand conditions can also be employed
to carry out tests for elements of the exterior ballistics.

The most common method of deriving the aerodynamic characteristics

is the testing of missile models or actual missiles in wind tunnels.
In essence, this is a structure that consists of a tube through which
a blower accelerates air. The object being tested (or a model of this
object) -depending on the dimensions of the tube - is mounted

in the tube in such a fashion as to become immobile, and thus the

wind tunnel reflects a situation that is opposite to that actually en-

countered in the flight of a missile through the air, but which, of

course, produces no change whatsoever in the aerodynamic characteris-

tics.
At the same time, the fact that the object being tested is im-
mobile is convenient from the standpoint of employing measuring de-

vices whose measurement accuracy is substantially higher than it

would be in the case of instruments used with a body moving with res-
pect to a fixed medium (for example, air).
Moreover, the possibility of creating an artificial stream of

air makes it possible to select the conditions for the experiment so

as to more closely approximate the actual conditions of missile
flight. Since missile flight under actual conditions takes place in a
fixed undisturbed medium such as air, it is necessary to create simi-
lar conditions in the wind tunnel. If the missile is simply mounted
on a support that is not fixed in place, and with a blower to di-

- 380 -
t

Fig. 7.6. Diagram of wind tunnel

rect a stream of air against the missile, the stream in this case

would develop considerable turbulence beyond the blower and exhibit a

variable velocity both in terms of magnitude as well as in terms of

direction. In addition, the stream would also be subject to strong

pulsations. All of these shortcomings have gradually been eliminated

in the design of wind tunnels and at the present time a wind tunnel is

a complex and highly refined mechanism which can reproduce extremely

accurately the disposition and magnitude of aerodynamic forces on a

body flying through the air.

Figure 7.6 shows the diagram of a wind tunnel. Structurally, this

wind tunnel is a closed circuit with an open working section. The air

passes from the working section - the narrowest portion of the tunnel
to an expanding receiver attachment. Beyond the receiver fitting (dif-
fuser), there is a cylindrical liner which contains the blower. Beyond
the blower, the stream of air changes its direction of motion through an
angle of 900 and flows through the so-called first bend in the tube.
Subsequently, the air passes through the second and third bends of the
tube, each of which involves a 900 turn, and the air then enters into
the forward chamber - the widest portion of the tube (tunnel). Here

we have a rectification grid and a fitting which compress the stream and

accelerate it. In order to reduce losses, special shaped blades have

been installed in each of the turns.

- 381 -
 By testing a missile in a wind tunnel it is possible to determine
the coefficient Cx of frontal resistance, the position of the center

of pressure, the coefficient Cy of lift, etc.

§2. FIRING-RANGE TESTS OF ROCKET MISSILES

After completion of the static tests of the missile, firing-range
tests are carried out. Here, as a rule, the flight of a missile over
the initial section of the trajectory is first checked, i.e., the cor-

rectness of the manner in which the missile is made to leave its

launching installation and its entry into the given trajectory, as
well as the correspondence between the magnitudes of calculated and

actual initial velocity of missile motion over the trajectory. Then

the over-all flight range of the missile is checked, and finally, the

effectiveness of the missile is investigated in the following manner.

Firing-Accuracy Tests of Rocket Missiles

Firing-accuracy (grouping) tests are carried out with individual

shots into the target area or Rccording to a screen, over the entire

effective range of the launching installation, both in the vertical

and horizontal planes.

The coordinates-of the points of incidence (explosion) of the

missile at the target area can be determined in two ways:
directly, by measuring with a measuring tape and by marking the
direction; the accuracy of the measurement must not be lower than 1 mm;
by a triangulation method involving the use of optical instru-
ments.

In fire against a shell-hole screen, the shell-hole coordin-

ates (1, 2, 3, etc.) are taken from a coordinate grid plotted onto
the screen before the firing (Fig. 7.7).

The results obtained in the firing are evaluated in accordance

with following formulas:

- 382 -
 ItI.
I where x 0 and z0 are the coordinates of the

.--- -rcentral point of incidence; xi and zi are

coordinates of the points, of incidence for

I individual missiles; n is the number of

shots counted.

The coordinates of the points of mis-

sile explosions obtained in the control

Fig. 7.7. Appearance of group of shots makes it possible to evalu-

shell-hole screen after ate the probable deviation of the missile
evaluation
in terms of lateral direction and range, and these are calculated as

follows:

0, . o'

-/A674
b&- --

where bb is the probable lateral deviation; bd is the probable devia-

tion with respect to range.
With known firing range x, missile firing accuracy in terms of
lateral direction and range will, respectively, be equal to (bb/x) and
(bd/x).
The obtained firing accuracy must correspond to that set in the

tactical-technical requirements.

With great divergenceof a missile from the group with respect to

range and lateral direction, if it is established that the factor res-

ponsible for this divergence is unsatisfactory quality of stabilizer

fabrication or nonnormal engine operation, the shot is not counted.

- 383 -
 The scattering magnitude should be determined only from results
Iof valid measurements, and here only a single shot may be classified
as valid. An invalid measurement is generally one which deviates from
the arithematic mean by more than four mean-probable deviations cal-

culated from the given group of measurements.

The above-cited sequence of calculating firing accuracy is use-
ful for firing both at a target area as well as firing against
a screen, but in the latter case the calculation is simplified some-

what because here the coordinates x 0 and z 0 are the coordinates of the
sighting points indicated in the center of the screen.

The shell-hole coordinates are measured from the sighting point

after each shot by means of a unique surveying rod or by means of an

optical viewing device.

Determination of Demolition Effect of Rocket Missiles by Means of
Underground Explosions and Firing at Target Area
The demolition effect of a missile is tested on a firing range,
as a rule, in two stages. The first stage involves the static explos-

ion of the weapon beneath the soil at various depths; the second stage
involves the actual firing of the missile against obstacles in the
target area.
In accordance with their tactical-technical designation, demoli-
tion missiles are generally intended for action against structures

and enemy fortifications; however, it has been demonstrated in prac-

tice that the effectiveness of their force can be evaluated on the
basis of the dimensions of the craters produced by a demolition missile

in the soil, regardless of the nature and strength of the target.

Therefore, the demolition effect is estimated on the basis of

r the missile's action in the ground, thus substantially simplifying

the analysis of the demolition effect, the systematization of the ex-

-384-
 perimental material, and the methods employed for the verification

tests.
I Test involving the underground explosions can be reduced to the
following :a verticallypositionedmissile is exploded beneath the groun
at various depths and the crater formed in this case is measured. As

a result of soil nonuniformites and the asymmetries of the missile and

the explosive charge, the craters as a rule exhibit rather irregular

shapes..
In firing-range practice a crater is generally assumed to have the
shape of a simple truncated cone whose larger base is flush with the

surface of the ground.

The demolition effect of missiles is measured by the absolute vol-
ume of the crater or by the volume of the explosive charge, referred to
its weight; in this case, it is clear that the volume and shape of the
crater produced in the explosion are single-valued functions of the
weight and quality of the explosive charge on the one hand, and unique

functions of missile geometry, depth of explosion, and soil properties

on the other hand. One of the goals in these static explosions of weapo:
is the determination of the optimum depth of warhead explosion. During
static tests, the weapons are exploded by means of a special electric

detonating machine housed in a reinforced bunker situated in a safety

area. The crater produced by the explosion is measured by means of

special surveying and marker rods.

In the second stage of the firing-range test of the combat effecti

ness of a demolition missile, the effect of the missile against the

ground and structures is tested; in this case, one of the most importan,
tasks in these firings is the verification of the agreement between th
fuse time lag for the optimum depth of missile explosion determined

during the static tests.

- 385-
 The shortcomings in missile designs, engine operation, etc.,

brought out during the firing-range tests, are eliminated during the

t subsequent adjustment of the weapon.

Determination of Fragmentation Effect of Rocket Missiles

The combat effectiveness of a fragmentation mibsile is determined

by two parameters: the number and weight characteristics of the frag-

ments and the range over which the effectiveness of these fragments
is preserved.
The number of fragments formed in the explosion of a weapon, and
the distribution of these fragments in terms of weight, can be deter-

mined by the method of static explosions in a protected pit which is

a structure made of reinforced-concrete walls filled with sand. There
is a well in the central part of this pit into which the specimen to
be exploded is inserted. The entire structure is covered with a mas-

sive covering plate. This protected pit is situated in a special ditch

or in an underground labyrinth.

DO9
On0

Fig. 7.8. Complex of industrial (technical)

structures at Holloman. 1) Shelter; 2) hous-
ing for adjustment and preparation of rocket
engines; 3) information-gatherir point; 4t)
assembly shop; 5) repair shop; 61 test stand;
7launching pad; 8) 35 distributor panels;
9 70 supports for mounting of equipment; 10)
photography intallation; 11) photomonitoring
installation; 12) track.

- 386 -
 The model of the weapon to be tested is lowered into the well of
the test pit and exploded. The fragments that are formed as a result
of the explosion scatter into the surrounding sand, and here the

strength of the pit walls is such as to prevent even a single frag-

ment from flying out beyond the pit. After the explosion, the walls
of the pit are dismantled, and lhe sand is sifted. The collected frag-

ments are weighed and sorted in weight groups. The data of the explo-

sion are recorded.

The second stage of the static firing-range test of fragmentation
missiles involves the explosion of the weapon in a circle of divided

screens. These divided screens are positioned in a circle, each screen

a definite distance from the other, so that the entire scattering
range is covered. The missile is exploded in the very center. The

fragments formed in the explosion scatter in various directions,

striking the screens and marking these with holes. After the explo-
sion, the screens are examined and the number of holes in each screen

are counted. The data from these tests make it possible to evaluate
the nature of fragment scattering after the explosion as well as to
find the radius of continuous damage, i.e., the radius of the zone

in which the density of the flying fragments is adequate in order to

have at least two fragments strike the target.
After the static explosion tests, the fragmentation missiles are
checked through control firings. Here firing is conducted in single
shots or in salvos along specially prepared corridors, against tow
targets, etc.
The basic purpose of firing rocket missiles to determine the

fragmentation is to verify the radius of continuous damage for a mis-

3 sile carrying a given fuse and the agreement of the parameters for this
fuse with the design of the weapon.

- 387 -
 In recent times, in order to derive the aerodynamic characteris-
tics, it has become the practice to employ closed tracks and rocket

sleds. As a rule, models are employed for the track tests. The basic
advantages of the use of tracks are the following:
the possibility of obtaining identical meteorological conditions
for each shot (an aeroballistic track), since over a closed track the

model is not subject to the effects of rain, snow, wind, etc.;

the possibility of obtaining various densities, temperatures, as

well as the possibility of modeling missile flight at various altitudes

(hermetically sealed barometric and thermobaric tracks).

In comparison with wind tunnels, tracks exhibit the advantage that

there are, in this case, no errors attributable to the effect of hold-

ers and walls in the testing of models, as is the case with wind tunnels

With tracks it is comparatively simple to note changes in M(ach)

and Re(ynolds) numbers over wide ranges.

With respect to track shortcomings, we can cite the fact that mo-
dels can be used only once, and we can also mention the fact that it
is impossible to obtain the aerodynamic characteristics by direct mea-
surements. In processing the experimental results, calculations must be
employed.
Abroad, aeroballistic tracks are structuraly made in the form of

closed stuctures some 150 - 200 m long. The models are fired from a
weapon having a caliber of up to 300 mm. The flight velocity of the
model is determined by means of an obturator and a chronograph. During
the flight, the model is photographed continuously. The coefficients

of longitudinal and lateral stability are frequently calculated by

means of cardboard screens set up along the track.
The thermobaric and barometric tracks are made almost identically

from a structural standpoint, and as a rule they are made in the form of

-388 -
 a metallic tube having a diameter of 1000 m and a length of 100 - 150 m
These tubes are also fitted out with a special photography installa-

tion and such other measuring equipment as may be necessary.

Tests with rocket sleds have recently become a more common prac-
tice, since they have proved to be the most promising. In this case,

particularly in the case of tests conducted on actual objects, the

test conditions more closely approximate the actual conditions to be

encountered.
For example, in the USA rocket sleds are employed to test fuses,
to determine the effectiveness of warheads, and a variety of ballistic
problems are solved with these devices; in addition, many of the other

experiments associated with rocket and aviation engineering are car-

ried out in this manner.
As an example, below we present the description of a rocket-sled
track employed at the Holloman Missile Developement Center (USA).

The track (Fig. 7.8) is a set of rails installed on a reinforced

concrete base that is 2.9 m wide, 1.5 m in height, and sloped at a
ratio of 1:1000.

The entire track is 10,670 m long, and the gauge of the track is
2.13 m. The sleds are capable of developing velocities of 900 m/sec,

and they are capable of developing up to 100 g during acceleration

and 150 g during deceleration.
In order to decelerate the sled, a water channel 0.355 m deep

and 1.525 m wide has been constructed into the base of the track.
A wedge-like blade is mounted on the sled, and this blade is employed

to decelerate the sled. The various sled designs make possible the
installation of from 1 to 18 engines, the largest of which is capable

3 of developing a thrust of 27 tons.

The information-gathering center receives data from two telemetry

- 389 -
 systems: a frequency-modulation system and a pulse-code modulation
system. The incoming data are processed through computers.
C The firing range has been fitted out with a variety of equipment,

including an optical system of obturation photography.

The velocity of the rocket sleds on this track is calculated as

follows.
First the maximuam possible velocity of the sled is determined:

where Rt is the thrust developed by the power plant; Cx is the coef-

ficient of the frontal resistence of the sled, with the influence of
the surface having been taken into consideration; p is the air density;

sm is the area of the sled midsection.

But since the actual velocity of the sled, after consumption of

the propellant, is a function of the mass ratio

ma

and the specific impulse Jud'

where M 0 is the mass of the sled prior to launch; mk is the mass of

the sled after the consumption of the propellant;

Other Tests of Rocket Missiles

In addition to the described group of basic firing-range tests,

both fragmentation and demolition missiles are subject to a number

of additional tests, including the following:

1) control tests for normal functioning within the given temper-

ature intervals;
2) control tests for transportability and conservation of all

combat properties during transpcrtation, etc.

- 390 -
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FTD-TT-62-114 2/1+2
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-393-

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