Kumaran and Babu JPP

JOURNAL OF PROPULSION AND POWER
Vol. 25, No. 3, May–June 2009
Mixing and Combustion Characteristics of Kerosene

in a Model Supersonic Combustor
K. Kumaran∗ and V. Babu†

Indian Institute of Technology, Madras 600 036, India
DOI: 10.2514/1.40140
In this numerical study, supersonic combustion of kerosene in three model combustor configurations is
investigated. To this end, 3-D, compressible, turbulent, nonreacting, and reacting flow calculations with a single step
chemistry model have been carried out. For the nonreacting flow calculations, the droplet diameter distribution at
different axial locations, variation of the Sauter mean diameter, and the mixing efficiency for three injection
pressures are presented and discussed. In addition, the effect of turbulent dispersion on the mixing efficiency is
studied using a stochastic model in conjunction with the two-equation shear stress transport k-! turbulence model.
For the reacting flow calculations, contours of heat release and axial velocity at several axial locations are used to
identify regions of heat release inside the combustor. Combustion efficiency predicted by the present results is
compared with earlier predictions for all the combustor models. Furthermore, the predicted variation of static
pressure along the combustor top wall is compared with experimental data reported in the literature. Calculations
show that the penetration and spreading of the fuel increases with an increase in the injection pressure. Predicted
values of the combustion efficiency are more realistic when the spray model is used for modelling the injection of the
fuel. The importance of the mixing process, especially for a liquid fuel such as kerosene, on the prediction of heat
release is discussed in detail.
I. Introduction scramjet engines. The total pressure loss associated with recessed
ENEWED interest in hypersonic flights has motivated research cavities is less than that of other flame holders that obstruct the
R efforts toward developing a supersonic combustion ramjet
(scramjet) engine. Supersonic combustion is the key enabling
flowfield. They are also attractive from a functional perspective
because they can serve as integrated fuel-injection and flame-holding
technology for sustained hypersonic flights. In scramjet engines, the devices, which can hold stable flames over a wide range of operating
combustor length is typically of the order of 1 m and the residence conditions, as encountered in dual-mode scramjets. Cavities can be
classified broadly as being acoustically open or closed, of which
time of the fuel–air mixture is of the order of a millisecond (for
open-type cavities have been shown to have moderate drag penalty as
flight Mach numbers M 6 to 8). Beyond M 10, fuel has to be
compared with closed cavities [1]. In combustor systems, cavities
injected in the mainstream direction as the momentum of the fuel
have been shown to substantially increase the mixing rate and, in
jet considerably augments the overall thrust. However, at lower
turn, the volumetric heat release [1]. Further, cavities with an inclined
hypersonic regimes (M < 8), transverse fuel injection has proven to
aft wall and cavities in tandem were shown to have efficient
have a higher penetration into the core flow. Nevertheless, because
volumetric heat release [1,2]. In addition, direct cavity fuelling has
the fuel is injected into a supersonic flow, the mixing process is
proven to be more efficient than passive injection schemes in the
highly inefficient, especially in the case of a liquid fuel such as recent past [3]. However, the direct fuelling technique may further
kerosene, which has to atomize and evaporate before mixing. This, complicate the process of controlling the cavity entrainment and may
in turn, demands longer residence times for better mixing at higher be undesirable from that perspective.
velocities and, hence, a longer combustor. However, a short com- Numerous experiments have been carried out to study the effect of
bustor is desirable from the consideration of the thrust-to-drag ratio cavity geometric parameters, namely cavity length-to-depth ratio,
of an engine, because it is approximately proportionate to the ratio of offset ratio, and aft-wall angle and other parameters, such as injection
the combustor diameter to the length [1]. Moreover, in compact pressure, injection location, passive and direct fuelling, and back
engines, the combustor diameter is usually small, and so the length pressure on the mixing and combustion characteristics of gaseous
has to be scaled accordingly. All these constraints demand a better fuels like ethylene and hydrogen. In general, gaseous fuels, espe-
mixing strategy at supersonic speeds within a short combustor cially hydrogen, are preferred over liquid hydrocarbon fuels because
length. evaporation of the fuel is not necessary and, in addition, their
Over the years several fuel-injection strategies, such as strut, wall, diffusivity is higher. However, for lower hypersonic flight regime
and ramp, and several flame-holding strategies, such as rearward- (M < 8), which is of current interest, a liquid hydrocarbon fuel such
facing step and cavities of different configurations, have been as aviation kerosene is desirable owing to its high volumetric energy
proposed and extensively studied. Though efficient mixing is the content and ease of handling. However, there are very few studies
objective in all these injection strategies, the total pressure loss and devoted to the understanding of fuel-air mixing and combustion
drag (resulting in overall thrust loss) associated with these devices phenomena of kerosene fuel. A brief review of the studies on the
must be within acceptable limits before they can be implemented in mixing and combustion characteristics of kerosene in the presence of
cavities is presented next.
Received 30 July 2008; revision received 4 November 2008; accepted for In a supersonic airstream, the effect of three different mixing
publication 4 November 2008. Copyright © 2008 by the American Institute of schemes, namely rearward-facing step (baseline), modified rearward
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved. Copies of this paper step with bevelled edges, and rearward-facing step along with a
may be made for personal or internal use, on condition that the copier pay the
wedge placed downstream, on kerosene combustion was studied
$10.00 per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; include the code 0748-4658/09 $10.00 in
experimentally by Owens et al. [4]. Kerosene was injected down-
correspondence with the CCC. stream of the step in all the experiments, and the wedge was shown to
∗
Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering. enhance the mixing process. The rearward-facing step with bevelled
† edges yielded the maximum combustion efficiency due to vortex-
Associate Professor; Department of Mechanical Engineering; vbabu@
iitm.ac.in. enhanced mixing. Later, in the same configurations, the effect of air
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JOURNAL OF PROPULSION AND POWER

Vol. 25, No. 3, May–June 2009

Mixing and Combustion Characteristics of Kerosene

K. Kumaran∗ and V. Babu†

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