Environmental Anthropology Engaging

Permaculture: Moving Theory and Practice

Toward Sustainability

James R. Veteto, and Joshua Lockyer slopes of the southern Appalachians. Breaking
through the rustle of wind in the trees are the
James R. Veteto and Joshua Lockyer are with the sounds of human activity, of people building their
Department of Anthropology, University of Georgia, common future together, of children at play. In
Athens, GA. the distance you can hear the Earthaven Forestry
Cooperative’s portable sawmill cutting lumber
from trees felled on the land. This is the sound of
Abstract liberation. The Co-op’s sawmill is allowing villagers
and neighbors to create shelter, freeing themselves
Using a variety of theoretical rubrics, recent work in from the clutches of banks and clear-cutting timber
ecological and environmental anthropology has revealed that barons while keeping materials and money within
human–environment interactions within the context of global the village economy. These are radical acts. Should
capitalism are complex and have increasingly unjust and these and other permaculture-based strategies
unsustainable outcomes. As globalization proceeds and asso- take hold in the larger society, corporate control
ciated socio-environmental problems become clear, it is impor- might someday yield to an empowered, responsi-
tant that ecological and environmental anthropologists use ble, ecologically literate citizenry. We can hope it
empirical research to develop both theoretical and practical will be in time to pull humanity back from the brink
approaches to addressing the sustainability challenge. We sug- of disaster brought on by our own folly.
gest that an anthropological engagement with permaculture A major first-generation challenge for the Perma-
represents an especially timely opportunity for anthropologists culture movement and one of the main reasons for
to move toward sustainability in ways that complement and the creation of Earthaven is to get enough working
enable us to extend our traditional areas of theoretical and systems on the grounds that we can make in-
practical expertise. Permaculture is a development strategy formed choices based on actual experience and
that has a history of grassroots application, but it has been begin to model bioregionally appropriate culture
largely ignored by mainstream development practitioners and for our time and place. Creating and integrating
anthropologists alike. We argue that permaculture deserves a ecologically responsible forestry and agriculture
closer look. In this article, we trace the historical development while developing natural building systems that
of permaculture, provide examples of permaculture in practice conserve forest health, create jobs and generate re-
in an ecovillage context, identify compatible areas of research newable energy through good design has proved
within environmental anthropology, and make suggestions to be quite an ambitious undertaking. That we are
for engagement. [Keywords: permaculture, sustainabil- doing all these things while feeling our way toward
ity, agriculture, community, ecovillages, sustainable just and sustaining social and economic relations
development, environmental anthropology] and maintaining democratic self-governance within
a new village context still seems nearly miraculous,
Permaculture in Practice: One the more so the longer we persist. [Marsh 2002:44]
Anthropologist’s Introduction
In the fall of 2004, Lockyer initiated field research
It’s a cool, blustery day at Earthaven, a young in an intentional community in the Appalachian
ecovillage settlement nestled into the eastern Mountains of western North Carolina called Eartha-

Culture & Agriculture Vol. 30, Numbers 1 & 2 pp. 47–58, ISSN 1048-4876, eISSN 1556-486X. r 2008 by the American Anthropological Association.
All rights reserved. DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-486X.2008.00007.x.
ven Ecovillage. Earthaven was founded in 1994 by a ment in which human activities are harmlessly inte-
dozen people who started with a basic but ambitious grated into the natural world? How does one create
goal of ‘‘creating a holistic, sustainable culture.’’ They communities that can support healthy human devel-
bought 320 acres of land and decided to form a com- opment that can be maintained into the indefinite
munity where they could support each other in future? As is true of any sustainability movement,
creating a different way of life, one that is more so- achieving such goals will require significant fore-
cially intimate and less dependent on an integrated thought, risk-taking, and expertise. As many anthro-
unsustainable system of production and consumption. pologists would likely agree, achieving sustainability
Today, Earthaven has grown to over 60 members, 45 of entails actions grounded in detailed knowledge of
whom live ‘‘on the land,’’ gradually implementing so- local ecological, political–economic, and socio-cultural
cial, cultural, political, economic, and technological systems combined with a global awareness and scien-
experiments in sustainability. Compared with most tific acumen. But how is one to bring all of these
Americans, Earthaven’s members live more commu- components together in a way that makes sense and
nally and much closer to the economic resources that can lead to practical action?
sustain them. They own, steward, and govern their
land collectively using unique forms of land tenure Permaculture is a holistic system of DESIGN,
and consensus decision making. Although some of based on direct observation of nature, learning
them live in individual residential dwellings, they from traditional knowledge and the findings
come together to eat, socialize, and govern themselves of modern science. Embodying a philosophy of
in common buildings and spaces. Members share positive action and grassroots education, Perma-
common waste processing and water distribution sys- culture aims to restructure society by returning
tems, which they construct and maintain themselves, control of resources for living: food, water, shelter
in addition to producing as much of their own food, and the means of livelihood, to ordinary people in
energy, and material goods as they can. Although the their communities, as the only antidote to central-
specific form of Earthaven’s experiments in sustain- ized power. [Permaculture Activist 2004:3]
able living might be unique, the concept of an
ecovillage is not. The Global Ecovillage Network The above quotation is on the inside cover of every
(GEN) is today tracking over 400 ecovillage projects edition of Permaculture Activist magazine, a publica-
around the world (GEN 2008). A description of this tion that was edited by one of Earthaven’s members
movement is beyond the scope of this paper and has during the time of Lockyer’s fieldwork. As initial
been provided by Lockyer elsewhere (2007a and 2007b). participant observation at Earthaven Ecovillage pro-
However, the most commonly quoted definition of the gressed, it became apparent that the permaculture
term ecovillage is indicative of the lofty goals that paradigm provided a practical foundation for mem-
motivate the people and communities that comprise bers to reach their goal of developing a holistic,
the movement: ‘‘Ecovillages are human-scale, full- sustainable culture. Indeed, permaculture’s ethical
featured settlements in which human activities are philosophy and material design principles provided
harmlessly integrated into the natural world in a way the tools for translating the ecovillage concept from
that is supportive of healthy human development, and idealism into practice. At Earthaven Ecovillage, per-
which can be successfully continued into the indefinite maculture has been used as one of the main tools for
future’’ (Dawson 2006:13). building bridges between global social and environ-
By aligning itself with the global ecovillage move- mental awareness and concern and the development
ment, the founders of Earthaven made it clear that of local, sustainable practices.
they were committing themselves to exploring an According to their website:
alternative paradigm of development, an approach
that takes responsibility for the effects of people’s One of our first tasks was to create a permacul-
lifestyles and livelihoods on ecosystem function, and ture-based site plan for developing our mountain
human health and well-being. However, this defini- forest property. We identified sacred sites; land
tion of ecovillage provides only an abstract outline of to remain forested; areas for gardening, farming,
what Earthaven and other ecovillages like it are. How and orchards; locations for ponds and hydro-power
does one go about developing a full-featured settle- stations; locations for roads, paths, and common

Culture & Agriculture 48 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

 community buildings; and locations for residential knowledge transfer across diverse areas and cultural
neighborhoods. We agreed to build homes only on traditions, and is fundamentally based on empirical
slopes and save flat bottom land for agriculture; observation and experimentation.
retain as much water on the land as possible These foundations came into being in the 1970s
through roof water catchments, swales, and ponds; when it became increasingly clear that the prevailing
regenerate our soil with layers of organic biomass; model of development was not creating ecologically
protect our sacred sites; and not build on ridge sound, economically prosperous communities and was,
tops. We build passive-solar heated buildings to the contrary, actively destroying such communities.
of natural Earth-friendly materials and generate The conceptual and practical rubric for permaculture
our own off-grid power. We practice sustainable was initially developed in Australia by Bill Mollison
forestry and preserve many of our wilderness and David Holmgren beginning in 1974. In Mollison’s
areas. We are not yet growing and raising most of words, they ‘‘jointly evolved a framework for a
our own food; however, this is important to us and sustainable agricultural system based on a multi-crop
is one of our next steps. [Earthaven Ecovillage 2008] of perennial trees, shrubs, herbs..., fungi, and root
systems, for which I coined the word ‘permaculture.’
Although Earthaven is by no means a purist ren- We spent a lot of time working out the principles
dering of permacultural thought in action, time spent of permaculture and building a species-rich garden’’
there does make it clear that the permaculture para- (1991:preface). The result was the publication in 1978
digm provides a holistic and common-sense approach of a detailed volume entitled Permaculture One (Molli-
that recognizes humans as an integrated part of son and Holmgren 1978), a work that still stands as a
ecosystems. Permaculture challenges humans to take permaculturalist’s bible.
responsibility for themselves and the economy that The academic response to Mollison and Holm-
sustains them by designing and practicing permanent, gren’s work was mixed, but largely negative; the
sustainable cultural and agricultural systems created disciplinary specialization of the academy was not
in accordance with environmental knowledge. prepared for the holistic approach that they offered,
even in the face of the emerging and increasingly ac-
A Historical and Conceptual Overview of the knowledged socio-environmental crisis. The academic
Permaculture Paradigm world would have to wait some 20 years before
interdisciplinary work became a dominant research
Permaculture is a global grassroots development1 paradigm—permaculture was way ahead of its time.
philosophy and sustainability movement that encom- Mollison’s words again: ‘‘The professional community
passes a set of ethical principles and design guidelines was outraged, because we were combining architec-
and techniques for creating sustainable, permanent ture with biology, agriculture with forestry, and
culture and agriculture. Indeed, permaculture is an forestry with animal husbandry, so that almost every-
agglomeration of these three words: permanent, cul- body who considered themselves to be a specialist
ture, and agriculture. Permaculture models its designs felt a bit offended’’ (Mollison 1991:preface). Similarly,
for agroecosystems, buildings, and communities on Holmgren notes that ‘‘permaculture was conceived
patterns observed in nature, but perhaps more impor- within academia. Many who are involved in large-
tantly, permaculture views humans and their creations scale agriculture and land use policy saw it as theo-
and activities as part of the natural world. Rather than retical, utopian and impractical because it was difficult
focusing on human creations—agroecosystems, build- to apply within the prevailing social, market and
ings, and communities—permaculture emphasizes policy environment’’ (Holmgren 2002:xxii). Although
the interconnections among these creations, humans, permaculture has been taken seriously by some aca-
and the natural world. Permaculturists believe that demics, resulting in occasional sporadic publications
this focus on interconnections is the best way to create over the years (e.g., Jungt 1985; Kennedy 1991; Strange
systems that function in a sustainable manner. Perma- 1984a, b), it has largely been ignored. This is par-
culture is an eclectic and adaptive approach that ticularly the case in anthropology, where little or no
emphasizes local and bioregional perspective and literature exists.
practice. At the same time, it is informed by a global However, the public reaction was quite different;
view, maintains a strong tradition of technology and small-scale agriculturalists especially gravitated toward

Culture & Agriculture 49 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

Mollison and Holmgren’s ideas as they sought a more Consciously designed landscapes which mimic
ecologically sound approach to food production. In the patterns and relationships found in nature,
the late 1970s, Mollison resigned from his university while yielding an abundance of food, fibre and
post and committed himself full time to experimenting energy for the provision of local needs. People,
with teaching and promoting permaculture design. By their buildings and the ways they organise them-
1981, Mollison had garnered a Right Livelihood selves are central to permaculture . . . It draws
Award (Alternative Nobel Prize) and had graduated together the diverse ideas, skills and ways of liv-
an initial group of people from a standardized per- ing which need to be rediscovered and developed
maculture design course that he taught in Australia. in order to empower us to move from being
These graduates moved on to teach others, initiating a dependent consumers to becoming responsible
pattern that continues to this day that has resulted in and productive citizens. [Holmgren 2002:xix]
at least 100,000 trained permaculture practitioners
throughout the world (Holmgren 2002). Holmgren’s book emphasizes both the ethical
The permaculture movement today is represented philosophy and the design principles that together
by an eclectic network of local practitioners and comprise the permaculture rubric.
demonstration centers and by a number of publica- Permaculture begins with a set of ethical princi-
tions such as Permaculture Activist magazine. Semi- ples that are based on some fundamental assumptions.
structured permaculture design certification courses ‘‘The environmental crisis is real and of a magnitude
are offered throughout the world based on a curric- that will certainly transform modern global industrial
ulum that was codified in 1984 (Holmgren 2002). society beyond recognition. In the process, the well-
These courses are often hands-on events that take being and even survival of the world’s expanding
place at permaculture experimentation and demon- population is directly threatened’’ (Holmgren 2002:
stration sites such as Earthaven Ecovillage, sites xv). In addition, ‘‘the inevitable depletion of fossil
created by people who can often trace their perma- fuels within a few generations will see a return to the
culture genealogy back to Bill Mollison and David general patterns observable in nature and preindus-
Holmgren. People who participate in these courses trial societies dependent on renewable energy and
often find them ‘‘life-changing’’ and go on to establish resources’’ (Holmgren 2002:xvi). With these assump-
their own permaculture experiments and demon- tions in mind, permaculture seeks to enable people to
stration centers. The semi-formalized structure of become more self-reliant and, in the process, to relieve
permaculture certification has created some concerns the social injustices and ecological degradation created
regarding lack of standardization. However, the flex- by the global political economy. In this aim, perma-
ibility inherent in this horizontal approach is valued culture’s critique of the modern, Western, indus-
because it allows the core of the permaculture rubric to trialized political economy and culture is clear.
be adapted to widely varying cultural and ecological
contexts. According to Holmgren, permaculture is The fact is that our own comfort is based on the
represented by ‘‘a worldwide network and movement rape of planetary wealth, depriving other people
of individuals and groups who are working in both (and future generations) of their own local re-
rich and poor countries on all continents to demon- sources. Our own ‘‘hard work’’ and the so-called
strate and spread permaculture design solutions. ‘‘creativity’’ of our economy and ‘‘fairness’’ of our
Largely unsupported by government or business, system of government are all secondary factors
these people are contributing to a more sustainable in creating our privilege. Once we understand the
future by reorganizing their lives and work around massive structural inequities between rich and
permaculture design principles’’ (Holmgren 2002:xx). poor nations, urban and rural communities and
While Mollison, now in his eighties, has become less human resources and natural resources, the em-
active in the movement, Holmgren continues to promote phasis on providing for one’s own needs is seen in
permaculture as a powerful, common-sense approach to a different light. As we reduce our dependence on the
sustainability and an antidote to ‘‘the prevailing indus- global economy and replace it with household and local
trial culture’’ (Holmgren 2002). In his recent book, economies, we reduce the demand that drives current
Permaculture: Principles and Pathways Beyond Sustainabil- inequities. Thus ‘‘look after yourself first’’ is not an
ity, Holmgren defines permaculture as follows: invitation to greed but a challenge to grow up through

Culture & Agriculture 50 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

 self-reliance and personal responsibility. [Holmgren leading to the creation of an increasingly self-reliant
2002:7, emphasis added] ecovillage.

At a fundamental level, permaculture holds that Permaculture Principles and Practice at Earthhaven
‘‘the process of providing for people’s needs within
ecological limits requires a cultural revolution’’ (1) Observe and Interact: Earthaven’s founders
(Holmgren 2002:xxv). spent over a year observing their property,
Based on this cultural critique and utopian vision, becoming familiar with the flows of energy—
permaculture combines insights gleaned from tradi- wind, solar, and water—across the landscape,
tional ecological knowledge and modern scientific before they began developing the ecovillage.
knowledge into designs for sustainable human settle- This process continues to this day as they
ments and production systems. As mentioned before, recognize and learn from their mistakes and
the core of the permaculture paradigm consists of a seek to more fully integrate their human
basic ethical philosophy and a set of design principles community into the natural community of
or guidelines. Permaculture’s three ethical principles their property and bioregion.
are basic and fundamental: (1) care for the earth, (2) (2) Catch and Store Energy: Renewable energy
care for people, and (3) set limits to consumption systems are the most obvious example of this
and reproduction and redistribute surplus (Holmgren principle in practice at Earthaven. From pho-
2002). These ethical principles are grounded in the tovoltaic solar arrays to their micro-hydro
assumptions discussed above and provide a perma- generating station, Earthaven’s members
cultural foundation for designing and enacting a more capture and store readily available energy.
just, equitable, and sustainable world. The same could also be said of the gravity-
Permaculture’s design principles, initially presented fed water distribution system that uses the
in Mollison (1991) and recapitulated in Holmgren force of gravity rather than fossil fuel-pow-
(2002), are grounded in the science of ecology, and ered pumps to deliver water to households
more particularly in systems ecology, landscape geog- and other facilities throughout the ecovillage.
raphy, and ethnobiology (Holmgren 2002). The overall (3) Obtain a Yield: Earthaven manifests this prin-
aim of these design principles is to develop closed-loop, ciple on a very local scale. They have a long-
symbiotic, self-sustaining human habitats and produc- term, ecologically sensitive forest manage-
tion systems that do not result in ecological degradation ment plan for their property under which
or social injustice. Although the design of such systems they harvest wood and use it in the con-
is necessarily dependent on the particular local context, struction of their own houses. A variety of agro-
the permaculture rubric provides general guidelines for ecological production systems are also being
considering environmental variables and patterns in developed so that Earthaven’s members can
designing buildings, home gardens, orchards, farms, begin to provide for their own food needs.
livestock operations, aquaculture systems and commu- (4) Apply Self-Regulation and Accept Feedback: Re-
nity, and urban areas (Mollison 1991). ferring back to principle one above, Eartha-
While we do not have space here for an extensive ven’s members are constantly involved in
discussion of all 12 permaculture design principles, reevaluating what they have done in terms
we provide an example of each principle in action of the physical development of their land.
at Earthaven and refer the reader to publications Regular meetings of the strategic planning
such as Permaculture Activist and to the published committee provide opportunities to change
work of Mollison and Holmgren (Holmgren 1996, course or choose another development strat-
2002; Mollison 1988, 1991; Mollison and Holmgren egy that seems more appropriate based on
1978;) for further elaboration. Permaculturalists recent experience. For instance, Earthaven
believe that these principles provide a framework has chosen to stop allowing the development
for situating humans in nature as we seek a sus- of outlying neighborhoods until the center
tainable development strategy. This framework is a of their community has become more fully
foundation for experimentation in places like Eartha- functional, recognizing that this pattern
ven, where an adaptive management approach is had led to the fragmentation of their social

Culture & Agriculture 51 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

 community because they had subconsciously (9) Use Small and Slow Solutions: Earthaven itself
copied the unsustainable suburban model in is a small and slow solution. It has taken
which most of them were raised. 15 years to put in basic, minimal infrastruc-
(5) Use and Value Renewable Resources and Services: ture, establish a system of communal self-
Again, the obvious manifestation of this governance, build a few dozen buildings,
principle is Earthaven’s renewable energy and begin small-scale food production. This
systems, primarily photovoltaic solar and stands in contrast to the rapidity of suburban
micro-hydro. However, this principle is also construction, suggesting that small and slow
apparent in Earthaven’s emphasis on com- approaches are inherently more sustainable
posting food scraps and human waste for use and more fulfilling.
as future fertilizers, completing a more (10) Use and Value Diversity: Many of Earthaven’s
closed-loop nutrient cycle. members know their landscape intimately.
(6) Produce No Waste: The emphasis on compost During Lockyer’s fieldwork at Earthaven,
in principle five above is an excellent illus- there was a group of young men who would
tration of this principle in action at Eartha- regularly go out for ‘‘plant walks’’ during
ven. However, Earthaven has taken this a which they would identify as many different
step further in terms of putting society’s species as they could. On one particular
waste to good use. For example, a large occasion, they returned with specimens of
house at Earthaven that often serves as a bed over 20 types of edible mushrooms. This
and breakfast for visitors was constructed reflects a wider pattern at Earthaven whereby
using parts from a dismantled bridge and ecovillage members know how to identify
frozen fruit juice concentrate shipping pallets and use the biological diversity that exists on
that were destined for the local landfill. their property.
(7) Design from Patterns to Details: A pattern that (11) Use Edges and Value the Marginal: Many
is evident anywhere on Earth is the sun’s cy- of Earthaven’s buildings are built on slopes
cle throughout the year and many cultures that mainstream builders would consider
have oriented their architecture around this marginally appropriate. However, Earth-
cycle. Earthaven requires all of its buildings aveners have chosen to turn this problem
to be built using a passive solar orientation; into an opportunity, taking advantage of nat-
that is they are designed to absorb the sun’s ural features such as south-facing slopes
rays when it is low in the southern sky dur- to build passive solar-oriented houses. With
ing the winter, providing natural renewable regard to edges, many of Earthaven’s farmers
heat for the home, and to reflect sunlight use the edges of their fields (where there are
during the hotter months. However, this has defined fields) to plant flowers that
not led to an orthodoxy of building style; are simultaneously esthetically pleasing and
rather each building, while being oriented for act as a form of pest control or edible plants
passive solar gain, is designed uniquely for and trees such as wineberries (Rubus phoeni-
its particular site in the landscape and its colasius) or hazelnuts (Corylus avellana).
particular occupants. (12) Creatively Use and Respond to Change: One of
(8) Integrate Rather Than Segregate: Industrial the biggest changes that has taken place at
agricultural systems are characterized by Earthaven is an influx of younger members
large-scale fields of monocrops. Earthaven’s of little financial means. Earthaven’s foun-
approach is to use a variety of inter- and ders were mostly older and many of them
multi-cropping methods to enhance pest con- had significant financial resources. Under
trol and soil regeneration. Beyond that, the original membership process, buying into
Earthaven has moved toward a reintegration the community required a significant finan-
of natural and agricultural systems through cial investment. When these younger, poorer
the creation of a ‘‘forest garden’’ where food people began arriving in higher numbers,
crops are interspersed with existing, partially Earthaven’s members made a consensus
harvested forest. decision to open up a ‘‘sweat equity track’’

Culture & Agriculture 52 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

 to membership and landholding. This enabled Engaging Permaculture: Areas of Theoretical
people of lesser financial means to pay their and Applied Compatibility
membership and site lease fees by contribut-
ing labor to community agricultural projects, There are numerous promising theoretical and ap-
thus enabling a larger, more diverse member- plied perspectives within environmental anthropology
ship and simultaneously moving Earthaven’s that present potential cross-fertilization opportunities
much desired agro-ecosystems forward. with permaculture. We identify those perspectives and
give some preliminary suggestions for collaboration
Permaculture Elsewhere before concluding with suggestions for how this sort
As a result of the growth of the permaculture net- of collaboration can provide a direction for anthropol-
work, permaculture principles are increasingly being ogy. Examples and discussion are also presented that
employed by individuals, communities—intentional make a case for narrowing the gap between sustain-
and otherwise—and even local and national govern- ability practices and academic ideals.
ments (Cuba, Vietnam, Brazil) in the development Several research programs in environmental anthro-
of more just, equitable, and sustainable human habi- pology offer excellent opportunities for permaculture-
tations, communities, and agricultural production based scholarship and practice. Although certainly not
systems. The permaculture paradigm represents one limited to these approaches alone, this section will focus
path among many that should be explored as society on cultural ecology, agricultural anthropology, historical
seeks to address impending socio-environmental cri- ecology, ethnoecology, and political ecology as particu-
ses. As environmental anthropologists, we recognize larly fruitful avenues for engaging permaculture.
that current models of development are on an unsus- Cultural ecologists have focused their research on
tainable trajectory and we advocate for more socially three fundamental questions: (1) How does [a certain
just and ecologically sustainable forms of develop- cultural group] make a living? (2) How do they
ment. However, too often our critiques of current organize themselves to make that living? and (3) How
approaches to development are unaccompanied by do they rationalize the way they make that living?
viable solutions, especially solutions that recognize Although cultural ecology is no longer a dominant
that we in the Global North must take responsibility approach within anthropology (it is still a major
for our contributions to contemporary socio-environ- research strategy in geography), its focus on environ-
mental problems. One reason for this is that sug- mental adaptations of different groups of people in
gesting such solutions entails a political agenda that different places of the globe from the 1950s to the
clashes with our role as supposedly dispassionate sci- 1980s produced an impressive amount of empirical
entific researchers. One way around this conundrum is data (e.g., Bennett 1969; Netting 1968, 1981, 1993).
the strategic choice of research foci. As social scientists Ethnographic data, particularly with respect to small-
we can choose to focus our methods and theoretical holder agriculture, are exactly the type of empirical
frameworks on people who have taken the politically information that permaculturalists can use in their
active step of saying ‘‘no’’ to current development applied approach to bioregionally sustainable adapta-
hegemonies and experimenting with alternative de- tions. Whether it be Chinese smallholder agricultural
velopment strategies. strategies spanning thousands of years (Netting 1993),
We hold that the permaculture movement acts as Andean, Alpine, and Himalayan adaptations to alpine
a sort of a natural laboratory wherein potentially mountainous areas of vertical zonation (Rhoades and
sustainable solutions are experimented with. Further, Thompson 1975), or the complex adaptive strategies of
we believe that by engaging with this movement, we different social groups to the Canadian Plains (Bennett
can create a powerful dialectic between anthropolog- 1969), cultural ecologists have outlined in substantial
ical theory and practice on the one hand and cultural detail how people have managed to survive in ways
critique in action for sustainability on the other. that inform us about sustainability. A cultural ecology
Engaging in this dialectic, we seek to help construct database made available for anthropologists engaged
an anthropology that can productively contribute to an in permaculture research and application as well as to
understanding not only of how the world is and how permaculture practitioners would be of immense prac-
it got that way but also of how the world could be and tical value. This database has the potential to ground
how we can get there. permaculture projects and can give cultural ecologists

Culture & Agriculture 53 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

a productive new framework in which to apply and time, by human intervention in specific landscapes, is
interpret their research. consistent with permaculture design principles, which
Agricultural anthropology, a relevant subdisci- seek to maximize species diversity and stability
pline that has drawn on cultural ecology, has to provide for basic human needs (Mollison 1988).
excellent potential for contributing to the understand- Permaculturalists can take information gleaned from
ing and improvement of permaculture and vice versa. historical ecology to weigh their design options,
It has been prominent in international agriculture and particularly when deciding whether or not certain
development circles and has contributed to the emer- architectural plans, agroecological designs, or plant
gence of horizontal and participatory development species are contextually appropriate. In short, historical
approaches such as ‘‘farmer back to farmer’’ (Rhoades ecology offers data that can help applied permacultura-
and Booth 1982) and ‘‘farmer first’’ (Chambers et al. lists learn from the past, while permaculturalists can
1989). Long-term experimentation in agricultural an- provide historical ecologists unique and diverse natural
thropology with more egalitarian research relation- laboratory settings to see how their findings are applied
ships provides methodologies that can be applied in to landscape design.
permaculture settings (Rhoades, 1984). Sustainable and Ethnoecology is another subfield that offers op-
alternative agriculture is also a current major research portunity for collaboration with permaculture. In the
focus for agricultural anthropologists. Permaculture, past 60 years, ethnoecological research has produced
with its emphasis on designing sustainable agroeco- a wealth of studies featuring indigenous ecological
systems, has been understudied but has much to knowledge systems. This diverse variety of ethnoeco-
add to the knowledge and practice of agricultural logical studies can help permaculturalists to garner
anthropology, particularly with regard to creating a ideas about the application of their own and borrowed
multilayered perennial polyculture agriculture. technologies and practices. Furthermore, the study
The merging of historical ecology with permacul- of indigenous classification systems and behaviors
ture can provide practitioners with long-term data (Berlin 1992; Ellen 2005, 1993) can help permaculture
on how human–environment interactions have taken practitioners challenge their own conceptualizations
place in specific places. A central concept used to of the biological world from perspectives outside of
organize historical ecology approaches to human the western tradition. Anthropological challenges and
behavior and agency in the environment is landscape, debates surrounding the appropriation of indigenous
a term that has is its origins in historical geography. materials and intellectual property rights can also help
Landscape is also the multiscale domain that perma- to insure that cultural borrowing is appropriately
culture takes as its field of operation (Mollison 1988). contextualized, acknowledged, left alone if needed,
Therefore, historical ecology and permaculture are traded, or compensated for (Agrawal 2002; Cleveland
theoretically aligned on at least one basic level. Both and Murray 1997; Dewalt 1994; Sillitoe 1998, 2006).
permaculture and historical ecology have a shared Ethnoecologists can also study permaculture sites as
interest in the applied realm, as applied historical dynamic cultural arenas and natural laboratories,
ecologists are cognizant of their role in supplying where people in various bioregions across the world
baseline data related to time depth and traditional are incorporating, classifying, reclassifying, and hybrid-
knowledge that can be used to restore past landscapes izing locally appropriate technologies and biological
(Baleé 2006; Swetnam et al. 1999). Similarly, per- knowledge. This seems to be an important step for
maculturists seek to improve the sustainability of ethnoecology to contribute on-the-ground solutions
present landscapes through various design principles. toward sustainability.
A major finding within historical ecology is that Political ecology has brought issues of political
human cultures do not always reduce environmental economy and power to the forefront of ecological
landscapes into barren wastelands of low diversity. approaches that have been apolitical in their tradi-
Rather, human communities often heighten species tional forms (Robbins 2004). Approaches such as
diversity in local environments through ongoing re- world systems theory (Wallerstein 1974) and posts-
source management strategies that increase landscape tructuralism (Escobar 1999) point out how limited
heterogeneity—particularly local and indigenous access to and control over resources—combined with
gardening and agroforestry practices (Baleé 2006; the essentializing tendencies of ‘‘otherness’’—tend to
Fairhead and Leach 1996). Species increases through disempower individuals, communities, and the envi-

Culture & Agriculture 54 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

ronments in which they dwell. Analysis has centered Fictional Scenario 2:
largely on the relationship of governmental and cor- An environmental anthropologist gets up in the morn-
porate power/capital hegemonies in the Global North ing, takes her five-minute solar hot water shower, and puts
to nations and communities on the periphery of the on her just-casual-enough/just-business-enough hemp/or-
capitalist world economy, particularly in the Global ganic cotton sweater that was made by the homespun
South. The political ecology approach articulates well seamstress in the ecovillage. She cooks a quick pot of oatmeal
with permaculture ethics and cultural critique that (purchased in a bulk order from the village co-op) and checks
encourage modern individuals to take responsibility email on her solar powered laptop. The fair trade coffee is
for their own actions, reduce their consumption and done just in time and she pours it into her trusty to go mug
waste, and live a more simple and ecological lifestyle, and hops out the front door of her passive solar cob house.
thereby enacting a more democratic and fair division She walks past several other residences (one post-and-beam
of and access to the world’s environmental resources passive solar and the other cordwood construction, both
(Holmgren 2002). Both permaculture and many prom- built by the ecovillage forestry co-op) and then out through
inent strains of political ecology are engaged in a the extensive village gardens and orchards. She swipes a
critique of current globalization trends emerging from limbertwig apple from a nearby tree and picks a few kale and
a capitalism whose political power is centered in the mustard greens to chew on. She waves to two of her grad-
Global North. Permaculture offers political ecology the uate students who are collecting data for their applied
opportunity to study how citizens, particularly in the research projects as she gets in the community hybrid SUV
Global North, are providing lifestyle and community that she has reserved for her drive to Washington, DC. She
changes to meet the sustainability challenge and in- picks up several of her colleagues at the department and
herent inequalities in the current global economic within 30 minutes they are on the road. It is a four and half
system. hour drive, but within the eight hour radius of a pact they
have made with each other for their one conference presen-
tation a year. This may not be the best way to get ahead in
Discussion their profession, but it sure does make their life less hectic
and keep their ecological footprint down. A Global Ecovil-
Fictional Scenario 1: lages compilation CD plays in the background as they head
An environmental anthropologist gets up in the morn- to the AAA meetings. They had heard that this year the
ing, takes his customary 20-minute hot shower, throws on anthropology and environment section of the AAA had
his best five hundred dollar suit (one of over 25 suits he has made some real progress in reducing the waste produced by
accumulated over the years), walks out his two-story sub- the annual meeting and each of them was curious to see
urban house and jumps in his SUV, quickly navigating the what had been done.
30-minute drive through rush hour to take care of a few These two fictional scenarios depict two opposite
things in his university office. After packing his briefcase extremes of a continuum and serve to illustrate a
with the necessary papers, he jumps back in the SUV and point. We all probably know at least someone who (at
makes the hour long trek to the nearest regional airport. As least loosely) fits the description of fictional scenario 1.
usual, breakfast is eaten on the run through a McDonalds It is fairly unlikely that we know anyone who fits sce-
drive-thru with an order of a bacon, egg, and cheese nario 2 (although not completely out of the realm of
mcmuffin, a hashbrown, and a cup of coffee. NPR plays on possibility), even if we may know several anthropol-
the radio on the way to the airport which gives him short ogists who would ideally live in such a way. Most of
snippets of global events. This will be the last of 18 round- us probably fit somewhere in between these extremes,
trip flights he has makes this year. Several hours later the navigating the constraints of our personal and profes-
plane touches down in Washington, DC. Outside the ter- sional lives to try and be as minimally wasteful as we
minal he catches the first taxi ride available and tells the cab can. Perhaps a minority of anthropologists do not care
driver from Nigeria to take him directly to the five-star hotel how much they consume and are explicit about their
where the American Anthropology Association Meetings wasteful choices. We will not judge them here and it
will take place. By the time he and several thousand other certainly does not mean they cannot produce excellent
anthropologists complete their weekend trips, they will research and theory. But our call for a dialogue be-
probably have consumed more resources than many of the tween anthropology and permaculture will probably
communities that they study will use in a year. be of much more use to those who are interested

Culture & Agriculture 55 Volume 30, Numbers 1 and 2 2008

in the greening of our profession and to some extent more democratic ways to those with whom we con-
‘‘practicing what they preach.’’ Taking responsibility duct research.
for our own personal consumption patterns and dem-
onstrating to others in our consumption-oriented cul- Note
ture that an environmentally sustainable future is a
very real alternative development option is a major 1. Development is used here for lack of a better word. The
promise of the engagement between permaculture and general idea of development—the improvement of the hu-
man condition—retains its value. However, development
environmental anthropology. It has the potential to has become synonymous with a certain kind of develop-
bring us down to earth onto a more level playing field ment, one based on distinctly Euro-American, socio-cultural,
with the subjects of our research as well. and political economic models and one driven by the dic-
Permaculture, at present, is not a significant tates of global capital. Most permaculturalists would
approach in the international agriculture centers undoubtedly balk at the cultural baggage carried by the
concept of development; however, we do not have space to
(CGIAR) and other international development arenas
debate the viability of the term here.
such as the World Bank. We propose that it should
probably remain so because permaculture provides an References Cited
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