Lab 8 - Polarization

Lab 8 Polarization L8-1
Name Date Partners
Lab 8 - Polarization
OBJECTIVES
• To study the general phenomena of electromagnetic wave polarization
• To investigate linearly polarized microwaves
• To investigate linearly polarized visible light
OVERVIEW OF POLARIZED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves are time varying electric and magnetic fields that are coupled to each
other and that travel through empty space or through insulating materials. The spectrum of
electromagnetic waves spans an immense range of frequencies, from near zero to more than
1030 Hz. For periodic electromagnetic waves the frequency and the wavelength are related
through
c = λf , (8.1)
c is shown
where λ is the wavelength of the wave, f is its frequency, f in Figure 8.1.
In Investigation 1, we will use waves having a frequency of 1.05 × 1010 Hz (10.5 GHz), corre-
sponding to a wavelength of 2.85 cm. This relegates them to the so-called microwave part of
the spectrum. In Investigation 2, we will be using visible light, which has wavelengths of 400 –
700 nm (1 nm = 10−9 m), corresponding to frequencies on the order of 4.3 × 1014 -7.5 × 1014 Hz
(430 - 750 THz). These wavelengths (and hence, frequencies) differ by nearly five orders of
magnitude, and yet we shall find that both waves exhibit the effects of polarization.
University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

PHYS 2040, Spring 2014 Supported by National Science Foundation
and the U.S. Dept. of Education (FIPSE), 1993-2000
L8-2 Lab 8 Polarization
Frequency, Hz Wavelength, m
10-15 Electromagnetic waves are transverse. In
1023 -14
10 other words, the directions of their electric
1022
Gamma rays 10-13 and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the
1021
10-12 direction in which the wave travels. In addi-
1020
10-11 tion, the electric and magnetic fields are per-
1019
10-10 1 Å pendicular to each other.
1018
X rays 10-9 1 nm
1017 When the electric field of a wave is oriented
10-8
1016 Ultraviolet light in a particular direction, that is to say, not in
10-7
1015 VISIBLE LIGHT random directions, we say the wave is polar-
10-6 1 mm
1014 ized. In this lab, we will investigate the polar-
Infrared light 10-5
1013 ization of two types of electromagnetic waves
10-4
1 THz 1012 that have somewhat different wavelengths and
10-3 1 mm
1011
10-2 1 cm frequencies: microwaves and visible light.
1010 Microwaves
Short radio waves 10-1 We will both produce and analyze polarized
1 GHz 109
1 1m waves.
108 Television and FM radio
10
10 7 Figure 8.2 shows a periodic electromagnetic
AM radio 102
1 MHz 10 6 wave traveling in the z-direction and polarized
103 1 km
10 5
in the x-direction. E is the vector of the elec-
104
104 and B is the vector of the magnetic field. Study this figure carefully. We will refer to it
tric field
105
kHz 103
1often. Long radio waves 6
10
102
107
10
Figure 8.1: Direction of

Propagation
Direction of
Figure 8.2:
Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever electric charges are accelerated. This makes
it possible to produce electromagnetic waves by letting an alternating current flow through a
wire, an antenna. The frequency of the waves created in this way equals the frequency of
the alternating current. The light emitted by an incandescent light bulb is caused by thermal
motion that accelerates the electrons in the hot filament sufficiently to produce visible light.
Such thermal electromagnetic wave sources emit a continuum of wavelengths. The sources that
we will use today (a microwave generator and a laser), however, are designed to emit a single
wavelength.
The inverse effect also happens: if an electromagnetic wave strikes a conductor, its oscillating
electric field induces an oscillating electric current of the same frequency in the conductor. This

is how the receiving antennas of a radios or television sets work. The associated oscillating
magnetic field will also induce currents, but, at the frequencies we will be exploring, this effect
is swamped by that of the electric field and so we can safely neglect it.
Even though the electric field vector is constrained to be perpendicular to the direction of prop-
agation, there are still infinitely many orientations possible (illustrated in Figure 8.3). Electro-
magnetic waves from ordinary sources (the sun, a light bulb, a candle, etc.), in addition to having
a continuous spectrum, are a mixture of waves with all these possible directions of polarization
and, therefore, don’t exhibit polarization effects.
Some possible directions of

the electric field vector
Direction of
propagation
Figure 8.3:
It is, however, possible to produce linearly polarized electromagnetic waves. In other words,
waves whose electric field vector only oscillates in one direction. Look again at Figure 2. It
schematically shows a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave polarized in the x-direction.
The electric field of a plane wave of wavelength λ, propagating in the z-direction and polarized
in the x-direction, can be described by:
!
2π
E x = iE x sin (z − ct) , (8.2)
λ
where E x is the vector of the electric field, E x its amplitude, and i the unit vector in the x-
direction. A wave of the same wavelength, polarized in the y-direction, is described by:
!
2π
Ey = jEy sin (z − ct) + φ . (8.3)
λ
Here, j is the unit vector in the y-direction and φ is a constant that accounts for the possibility
that the two waves might not have the same phase. From two such waves, one can construct all
plane waves of wavelength λ traveling in the z-direction.
If both x- and y-components are present and their phase difference is zero (or 180◦ ), the wave
will be linearly polarized in a direction somewhere between the x-direction and the y-direction,
depending on the relative magnitudes of E x and Ey (see Figure 8.4 (a)). Mathematically such a
wave is described by:
!
2π
E = E x + Ey = (i E x ± j Ey ) sin (z − ct) , (8.4)
λ

y y y
E E E
x x x
a) b) c)
Figure 8.4:
where the plus sign refers to a phase difference of zero and the minus sign to one of 180◦ (π
radians). The angle θ between this polarization direction and the x-direction is given by
Ey
tan θ = . (8.5)
Ex
If the phase shift is not zero (or 180◦ ), the wave will not be linearly polarized. While we will
only be investigating linear polarization in this lab, it is useful to know something about other
types of polarization. Consider the case where the magnitudes are equal, but the phase shift is
±90◦ (± π/2 radians). In other words:
π
E x = Ey and φ = ± (8.6)
2
The resulting wave, called a circularly polarized wave, can be written:
" ! !#
2π 2π
E = E x + Ey = E i sin (z − ct) ± j cos (z − ct) (8.7)
λ λ
by making use of the fact that . With the plus sign, this equation describes a wave whose electric
field vector, E, rotates clockwise in the x − y plane if the wave is coming toward the observer.
Such a wave, illustrated by Figure 8.4 (b), is called a right circularly polarized wave. With the
minus sign, the equation describes a left circularly polarized wave.
With the phase shift still ±90◦, but with different magnitudes
π
E x , Ey and φ = ± , (8.8)
2
the E vector will still rotate clockwise or counterclockwise but will trace out an ellipse as shown
Figure 8.4 (c). If there are many component waves of different E x , Ey , and φ, the resulting wave
will be unpolarized.
Polarized electromagnetic waves can be obtained in two ways:
1. by using sources, such as certain lasers, that produce only waves with one plane of polar-
ization, or
2. by polarizing unpolarized waves by passing them through a polarizer, a device that will
let only waves of one particular plane of polarization pass through.

Some sources of electromagnetic waves generate linearly polarized waves. Examples include
the microwave generator we’ll use today as well as some types of lasers. Other sources generate
unpolarized waves. Examples include thermal sources such as the sun and incandescent lamps.
One way of producing linearly polarized electromagnetic waves from unpolarized sources is
to make use of a process that directs waves of a given polarization in a different direction than
waves polarized in a perpendicular direction. Earlier we noted that the electric field of an electro-
magnetic wave incident upon a wire induces an oscillating current in the wire. Some energy will
be lost through resistive heating, but most will be re-radiated (scattered). Only the component
of the oscillating electric field that is parallel to the wire will induce a current and be scattered.
The electric field component perpendicular to the wires, on the other hand, will be essentially
unaffected by the wires (assuming a negligible wire diameter). Hence, both the scattered and
unscattered electromagnetic waves are linearly polarized.
For microwaves, we can (and will) use an array of actual wires. For visible light, we use a Po-
laroid filter. Polaroid filters are made by absorbing iodine (a conductive material) into stretched
sheets of polyvinyl alcohol (a plastic material), creating, in effect, an oriented assembly of micro-
scopic “wires”. In a Polaroid filter the component polarized parallel to the direction of stretching
is absorbed over 10◦ times more strongly than the perpendicular component. The light emerging
from such a filter is better than 99% linearly polarized.
Ee
Ei
p Polarizer P
q
Wave propagation
Figure 8.5:
A polarizer will only pass the components of an electromagnetic wave that are parallel to its
polarizing axis. Figure 8.5 shows polarized electromagnetic waves incident on a polarizing
filter, P (shown as a wire array).
The electric field of the incident wave (Ei ) is oriented at an angle θ relative to the polarization
axes of P. Let p be a unit vector along the polarization axis of the polarizer. The effect of the
polarizer, then, is to “project out” the component of Ei that is along p: Ee = p(p· Ei ) = Ei cos(θ)p.
Because the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of its electric field
amplitude, it follows that the intensity of the electromagnetic waves exiting the analyzer is given
by:
Ie = Ii cos2 θ. (8.9)
This is known as Malus’ Law, after the French physicist who discovered the polarizability of
light.
Initially unpolarized electromagnetic waves can be thought of as a mixture of all possible polar-
izations. Each possible polarization will be attenuated according to Malus’ law, and so the total

intensity will be the initial intensity times the average of cos2 θ (which is 1/2). In other words,
the intensity is reduced to one half of the incident intensity.
Except in the case where θ is zero (or 180◦ ), Ee (the electric field of the electromagnetic waves
exiting the polarizer) will have a component that is perpendicular to Ei . If we place yet another
polarizer after P (call it P0 ) with its polarization axis right angles to incident wave’s polarization
axis, we will get electromagnetic waves out whose polarization is orthogonal to the incident
waves’ polarization. We have effectively rotated the polarization of the incident waves (with
some loss of intensity). Applying Malus’ Law, we get:
I 0 = Ii cos2 θ cos2 θ0 (8.10)

where θ is the angle between the initial polarization and the first polarizer, P, and θ0 is the
angle between P and the second polarizer, P0 . But P0 is at right angles to the initial wave’s
polarization, so θ + θ0 = 90◦ . Hence, cos2 θ0 = sin2 θ. Using another trigonometric identity
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ, we finally get I 0 = 0.25 Ii sin2 2θ. We can see we get the maximum trans-
mission when θ = 45◦ (sin(2 × 45◦ ) = 1) and that it is one quarter of the intensity of the incident
polarized waves (Ii ).
INVESTIGATION 1: Microwave Polarization

For this experiment, you will need the following:
• Gunn diode microwave transmitter
• Microwave receiver
• Wire grid polarizer
CAUTION: DO NOT ALLOW THE RECEIVER’S METER TO PEG AT ANY

TIME!
To peg the meter means to allow the needle to go beyond the maximum value on the scale.
If you find the meter pegged, immediately turn down the sensitivity and/or move the
receiver away from the microwave generator!
Activity 1-1: Polarization of Microwaves from a Gunn Diode
Inside the microwave generator is a solid state device called a Gunn diode. When a DC voltage
is applied to a Gunn diode, current flows through it in bursts at regular intervals. For your
diode, these bursts come at 9.52 × 10−11 seconds apart causing, in addition to the dc current,
an ac current at 1.05 × 1010 Hz (10.5 GHz). As a result, a large AC voltage, oscillating at that
frequency, is present across the slot, and so a wave is radiated from the horn. The electric
field of this wave oscillates in the same orientation as the Gunn diode. The polarization of an
electromagnetic wave is determined by the direction of the electric vector E. The magnetic field
B encircles the current in the Gunn diode and so emanates in the orientation perpendicular to
E.
Important Note: The Gunn diode is placed inside the generator in a way that the electric
field will oscillate vertically when the knob on the back is placed at 0◦ .

Just inside the horn of the receiver is a microwave detector. In addition, there is some cir-
cuitry, which amplifies the signals received by the detector and outputs this amplified signal to
a d’Arsonval meter and to an external output. The amplification, or alternatively its inverse, the
sensitivity, (also labeled METER MULTIPLIER), is controlled via two knobs. The VARIABLE
SENSITIVITY knob allows for fine adjustment. As you turn up the sensitivity (from 30 to 1),
the signal is amplified more and more.
Generator
Receiver
Figure 8.6:
1. Set up the generator and receiver as shown in Figure 6, with about 75 cm between the
faces of the horns.
Prediction 1-1: With what relative orientation of the transmitter and receiver angles do
you expect to find minimum intensity? What does this tell you about the electromagnetic
microwaves? Do this before coming to lab.
2. Set the knobs on back of both pieces so the angle indicator is at 0◦ . Adjust the sensitivity
on the receiver to obtain a signal near 0.5 on the meter. If you cannot achieve this with
a sensitivity of 30, 10 or 3, move the receiver closer to the generator. Rotate the receiver
and verify that it is sensitive to the polarization of the wave. Return the receiver angle to
0◦ .
Question 1-1: Does it make sense that maximum intensity is obtained when both
generator and receiver are oriented the same way? Explain why. Why does the received
signal go to zero when they are at 90◦ with respect to one another?
Activity 1-2: Wire Grid Polarizer

Prediction 1-2: With the generator and receiver oriented the same way, what orientation
(relative to the generator) of a wire grid placed in between them will give the maximum
received intensity? Do this before coming to lab.
Prediction 1-3: With the generator and receiver oriented at 90◦ with respect to one
another, what orientation (relative to the generator) of a wire grid placed in between them
will give the maximum received intensity? Do this before coming to lab.
1. Make sure that the generator and the receiver are oriented the same way: with the E field
vertical (indicators at 0◦ ).
2. Insert the wire grid polarizer between the generator and the receiver so that the wires are
initially oriented vertically (parallel to the direction of the E field). Slowly rotate the
polarizer so that the wires become perpendicular to the E field.
Question 1-2: With what relative orientation(s) of the wire grid polarizer did the receiver
indicate the highest intensity? The lowest?
3. Remove the wire grid. Rotate the receiver’s angle by 90◦ so that the generator and receiver
are orthogonal. Turn up the receiver’s sensitivity to 1.
4. Repeat step 2.
Question 1-3: With what orientation(s) of the polarizer did the receiver indicate the
highest intensity? The lowest?

Question 1-4: Explain the phenomena you observed in step 4 and reported in the previous
question
Note: Turn off your receiver and unplug the generator.
INVESTIGATION 2: Polarization of a High-intensity Lamp
Figure 8.7:
Note: The room lights will have to be out during the remainder of this lab.
In this investigation, the unpolarized light from a high-intensity lamp will be linearly polarized.
This polarization will be investigated with a second Polaroid analyzer. In addition, a third polar-
izer will be added to investigate the effect of the orientation of a third polarizer on the intensity.
A schematic diagram of what happens is shown in Figure 8.7.
For this experiment you will need the following:
• Optical bench with lens holders
• Two polarizers with stands
• Bausch and Lomb polarized light demonstrator kit
• Small support stand
• Desk lamp (high intensity light source)
• Light sensor and cable
Activity 2-1: Light Source and Polaroids
The light sensor that will be used for the rest of the experiments
Note: The light sensor that will be used for the rest of the experiments is a photodiode with
a sensitivity that ranges from 320 nm to 1,100 nm. This includes not only visible light, but
also some ultraviolet and infrared. Make sure not to allow the output voltage from the
sensor to go above 4.75 Volts. At this point, the sensor is saturated and you will give
poor results.
1. Set up the lamp, polarizers, and light sensor as shown in Figure 8.8. DO NOT TURN
YOUR LAMP ON YET. Make sure your lamp is on the opposite end of the table from
the computer and is pointing towards the wall, not towards the center of the room. We want
to minimize the interference of the light coming from the desk lamp into each other’s light
sensor.
2. The polarizer and analyzer in Figure 8.8 are Polaroid sheets and are exactly the same
material. We sometimes use the term “polarizer” when we are polarizing light and “ana-
lyzers” when we are analyzing the light polarization. When it doesn’t matter or if we refer
to them generically, we generally called them polarizers.
Figure 8.8: Optical bench setup. The lamp should be close to the heat absorbing filter to prevent
stray light reaching other tables.
3. The heat-absorbing filter (item #1 in the box of components) absorbs infrared light and
should be mounted on the small support stand in between the light source and the first
polarizer. Place it as close to the polarizer as you can so that little, if any, light can get
into the polarizer without first passing through the heat filter. Move the lamp up close to
the heat filter so that stray light will not reach other tables’ light sensor.
4. Ensure that the heights of the light, heat absorbing filter, polarizers and light sensor are
lined up. Your lamp (light source) can now be turned on.
Warning: ALWAYS PLACE THE HEAT ABSORBING FILTER BETWEEN THE

LIGHT AND THE FIRST POLAROID FILTER TO BLOCK THE INFRARED
LIGHT AND PREVENT HEAT DAMAGE.
Note: The infrared light emitted from the lamp will not be polarized by the filters, but will
be seen by the photodetector.

5. Connect the light sensor to channel A in the PASCO interface. Set the sensitivity on the
side of the light sensor to 100.
6. Open the experiment file named L08.A2-1 Light Source.
7. When looking towards the polarizers from the lamp, you will see angle indications on the
polarizers. Set them both to 0◦ (straight up). See Figure 8.9. The Polaroid Filters we are
using allow the electric field E vector of the transmitted light to oscillate in the direction
of the indicator tab (angle) on the Polaroid.
hould never Start taking data with the computer. Look at the
. Move the digits window, which shows the voltage produced
by the light sensor. This should never be greater
o that this than 4.75 V. Move the lamp (light source) so that
V. The units this reading is less than 4.0 V. The units for inten-
but Lumens. sity are not volts but Lumens. However, the output
of the light sensor probe in volts is directly propor-
of the light tional to the light intensity.
is directly
8. Stop the computer and delete the test data.
Start taking data; the computer will stop af-
d delete the ter 2 minutes.
ng data; the 9. Note that the light intensity is not constant.
2 Write down the mean light intensity and
standard deviation:
Fig. 9. Convention for measuring
Figure 8.9: Convention for measuring an- Mean light intensity: %
gle of polarizer. This Diagram is noted
Standard
while deviation:
looking towards the light sensor, %
along the path of light.
10. Print out the graph of light intensity vs. time for your group report.
The purpose of having you do this brief measurement is to note that the intensity of the lamp is
not very constant. This will have some effect on the subsequent measurements that you take, so
certain measurements that require a series of measurements (like changing polarization angles)
need to be taken quickly so that the lamp intensity does not have a large effect.
Activity 2-2: Light Polarizer and Analyzer
You will need a third polarizer for this activity.
1. Use the same experimental setup as before and place the new polarizer on the optical
bench between the other two. We will renumber the polarizers starting from the lamp (1,
2, 3).
2. Set the angle of the first and third polarizers to +90◦ . Take out the (new) polarizer #2 for
now.

3. Use the same experimental file as before and start taking data.
4. Adjust the angle of the 3rd polarizer and find all the angles for which you detect the
maximum and minimum light intensity in the light sensor. Write those angles below:
Angle for maximum intensity: degrees

Angle for minimum intensity: degrees
Question 2-1: In light of what you know about Polaroids, explain the angles you just
determined.
Question 2-2: Consider what happens when the two polarizers are crossed (the first
polarizer is at +90◦ and the third at 0◦ ). What is the orientation of the electric field after it
passes through the first polarizer? What will happen to this light when it passes through
the 3rd polarizer?
5. Now put the 2nd polarizer back in between the other two polarizers. Set the angle of the
3rd polarizer to 0◦ .
6. Rotate the 2nd polarizer over its entire angular range and observe the light intensity de-
tected. Find the orientation for which the light intensity output shown on the computer is
a maximum. Record the angle at which the maximum occurs.
Angle: degrees
7. Click on the red square to stop the data collection.

Question 2-3: Describe what happened as the angle of the 2nd polarizer was rotated.
Explain this behavior. (Hint: can any visible light pass through this system?)

Question 2-4: Explain your findings in terms of the orientation of the electric field after
the light travels through each polarizer. Why would the angle found in step 6 produce the
maximum intensity?
8. Move the light sensor aside and look from where the light sensor was through all three
polarizers towards the lamp. Rotate the 2nd polarizer over its entire angular range.
Question 2-5: Describe what you see now and explain these phenomena.
You should conclude from these measurements that there must be some electromagnetic radi-
ation background that is not visible light and that is not affected by the Polaroid sheets. It is,
however, detected by the light sensor. You should keep this in mind as we progress through this
lab.
Activity 2-3: Linearly Polarized Light and Malus’ Law
1. Remove the 2nd polarizer. You should now have two polarizers, both set to 0◦ . Replace
the light sensor. Your apparatus will be similar to that shown in Figure 8.8.
2. Open the experimental file L08.A2-3 Linearly Polarized. There should be a data table
when you open the file.
3. In the data table, the first column will be the values for Angle that you enter. The second
column is Light Intensity. This column shows the percentage of maximum light intensity
that is currently being put out by the sensor. The third column is the Voltage column.
4. Press Start to begin collecting data. The output from the light sensor will be shown in
the digits window. Check to make sure the light sensor output voltage is still not greater
than 4.0 V. If it is, move the lamp back until it is not. You should be okay if you are in the
range 2 – 4 V.
5. Now set the first polarizer to 0◦ and the analyzer to −90◦ .
6. Read over steps 7 – 12 before taking data. You will need to take these data fairly quickly
as discussed before, and you need to be familiar with the procedure.
7. When you are ready to take data, press Keep. A box will pop up that asks you the angle
of the polarizer. Type in “-90” and press Enter.
8. Change the analyzer to an angle of −80◦ . The voltage output will be shown as before.
Press Keep and type in the angle.

9. Adjust the angle of the analyzer in 10 steps from −90◦ to 90◦ . Repeat step 8 until all of
the values are entered. This can go rather quickly with one person changing the angle and
another person operating the computer. Once Keep has been selected, the next angle can
be changed by one group member while another is entering the angle into the computer.
10. When you are finished entering data, click on the red square next to Keep to stop data
collection. Print out your table for your report. Only print one per group. [You may need
to print it twice to include all the data.]
11. At the bottom of the screen, there should be two graphs minimized. Bring up the graph
titled I vs. Angle so you can see the graph of your light intensity plotted versus angle. If
you see a fit to your data, you have brought up the wrong graph. Print out this graph for
your group report.
Question 2-6: What does your graph look like? Does it follow the curve you would
expect?
12. Minimize this graph, and maximize the second graph entitled Fit Malus. You will see
your data plotted along with a fit. You could have easily entered this fit into Data Studio
yourself, but we have done it for you to save time. We have fit straight line (y = mx + b)
to I versus cos2 θ. Print out your fit for your group report.
13. Record the fit parameters m and b:
m: b:
Question 2-7: Discuss the physical meanings of m and b.
Question 2-8: How could you minimize b?
INVESTIGATION 3: Other Methods for Polarizing and Depolarizing

DEPOLARIZATION
To change polarized light into unpolarized light one must introduce random phase differences
between the two components of the electric vector. This can be accomplished by interposing a
material that is both inhomogeneous and anisotropic across the wave front.
BIREFRINGENCE
Most of the transparent materials that one encounters daily, such as glass, plastics, and even
crystalline materials such as table salt, are optically isotropic, i.e. their index of refraction is the
same in all directions. Some materials, however, have an optically favored direction. In these
materials the index of refraction depends on the relative orientation of the plane of polarization
to that preferred direction. Such materials are called birefringent or doubly refracting. The
best known example of such materials is calcite (CaCO3 ). Optically isotropic materials, such
as glass, can be given a preferred direction, and thus made to be birefringent, by stressing or
bending them.
1
2
o-ray
e-ray
Figure 10
Figure 8.10:
Consider a light wave traversing a birefringent crystal, as shown in Figure 8.10, where the direc-
tion of propagation of the wave is entering the crystal perpendicularly. An initially unpolarized
light beam will split into two separate linearly polarized beams. One of these is called the or-
dinary ray or o-ray and the other the extraordinary ray or e-ray. The behavior of the o-ray
is essentially that of a ray in an isotropic medium: it is refracted in accordance with Snell’s law,
and its refractive index no is independent of the direction of travel.
The e-ray, on the other hand, behaves in a most peculiar way. Its index of refraction ne depends
on the orientation of the crystal. Moreover, its direction of travel, after entering the crystal is
not consistent with Snell’s law. As Figure 8.10 shows, it will be refracted even if its angle of
incidence is 90◦ . On leaving the crystal it becomes again parallel to the direction of incidence
but displaced with respect to the incident beam. Since the two emerging rays are linearly po-
larized along mutually perpendicular directions, doubly refracting crystals make very effective
polarizers: If one cuts a birefringent crystal so that the e-ray, but not the o-ray, is totally reflected
at the exit face one can produce light that is 99.999% linearly polarized.
The wavelength dependence of the index of refraction, although small, lends itself to some
pretty demonstration experiments. If one places two Polaroid filters in front of a light source
so that their directions of polarization are perpendicular to each other, they will appear dark.
If one then places an object made of a birefringent material between the crossed Polaroids, a
multicolored image of the object will become visible in the previously dark field. The o-ray and
the e-ray have traveled different optical path lengths and their phases, upon leaving the object,
will differ, the difference being a function of the wavelength of the light. Since the two rays
are polarized in different directions they cannot interfere with each other. The second Polaroid

(the analyzer) passes that component of each ray whose plane of polarization is parallel to the
direction of polarization of the filter. These components have the same plane of polarization and
can interfere. Whether their interference is constructive or destructive will depend on their phase
difference and hence on their color.
In this investigation, you will use different objects and materials to both polarize and depolarize
light. You will need the following materials:
• Polarized light demonstrator kit
• Optical bench with lens holders
• Desk lamp
Activity 3-1: Depolarization
As you will recall from the readings above, random phase differences may be introduced be-
tween the two components of the electric field vector to depolarize the light.
wax
P paper P'
Incident
light
Figure 8.11:
1. Set up two polarizers on the optical bench with the desk lamp and heat-absorbing filter
as done in Investigation 2 (see Figure 8.11). Set the polarizer P such that E is vertical (0◦ ).
Prediction 3-1: With this setup (without wax paper), what do you expect to see as you
vary the angle of the analyzer P0 with respect to P? (Hint: we did this in Investigation 2).
Do not answer before lab.
Prediction 3-2: With the wax paper added between the polarizers, what do you expect to
see as you vary the angle of the analyzer P0 with respect to P? Do not answer before lab.

2. Hold the piece of wax paper from the polarizing kit in between the two polarizers.
3. Rotate the polarizer through all angles and observe (by eye) the transmitted light.
Question 3-1: Describe the transmitted light intensity as you rotate the polarizer.
Question 3-2: What does this show you about the polarization of the light through the
wax paper?
Activity 3-2: Birefringence by the Calcite Crystal
Set the calcite crystal from the polarization kit on the dot: •
1. Hold a polarizer over the calcite and look through the thickest section of calcite at the dot.
Question 3-3: What do you observe and with and without the polarizer?
2. Slowly rotate the polarizer until only one dot is seen. Note the orientation of the polarizer.
θ1 : (choose a relative zero angle)

3. Rotate the polarizer again until only the other dot is seen. Note the orientation of the
polarizer.
θ2 : (use same zero angle as before)
Question 3-4: What does this tell you about the relative polarization of the images
created by the calcite crystal?

Activity 3-3: Interference Caused by Birefringence
P P'
Incident
light mica plate
Figure 8.12:
1. Hold the mica sample between two crossed polarizers (set at 90◦ and 0◦ , for example) and
look through the setup at the lamp.
2. Tilt the mica sample slowly backwards as shown in Figure 8.12. Also rotate the mica in
the plane of the Polaroids.
Question 3-5: What do you see?
Activity 3-4: Birefringence Due to Stress
Replace the mica with the U-shaped piece of plastic between the crossed polarizers. Note that
the inside corners of the plastic are cut different: one is sharply cut at 90◦ , the side is rounded.
1. Look through the polarizer at the plastic.

Question 3-6: What do you observe? Do you see light?
Question 3-7: Based on your previous observations, is the light polarized by the plastic?
Why or why not?

2. Lightly squeeze the two legs of the U toward each other while looking at the plastic
through the polarizer.
Question 3-8: What do you observe?
Question 3-9: What has changed about the light through the plastic?
Comment: The strain partially orients the molecules and makes the plastic birefringent.
From such patterns engineers can locate regions of high strain in a plastic model of a struc-
ture and then decide whether the structure must be redesigned or strengthened in certain
places.
Question 3-10: In which corner of your plastic is there the greatest stress?
Activity 3-5: Polarization of Scattered Light
Sunlight is scattered while passing through the atmosphere. Light with a short wavelength is
scattered more than light with a long wavelength. This is why the sky appears blue. Light
scattered by 90◦ is strongly polarized. You can verify this on a clear day if you look through a
Polaroid filter in the appropriate direction of the sky. A similar observation can be made in the
laboratory by passing laser light through a tank of water that has been clouded by suspending
some scattering material in it. At the front of the room there should be such a tank with a laser
beam should already be passing through it.
Look down from the top of the tank into the water so you can see the laser beam scattered in the
water. Rotate the polarizer while you look at the scattered light.
Question 3-11: Record your observations and use them to discuss the polarization of the
scattered light especially as a function of the Polarized filter.

Please clean up your lab area


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Lab 8 Polarization L8-1

Name Date Partners

• To study the general phenomena of electromagnetic wave polarization

• To investigate linearly polarized microwaves

• To investigate linearly polarized visible light

OVERVIEW OF POLARIZED ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Figure 8.1: Direction of

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Some possible directions of

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

I 0 = Ii cos2 θ cos2 θ0 (8.10)

INVESTIGATION 1: Microwave Polarization

• Gunn diode microwave transmitter

• Wire grid polarizer

CAUTION: DO NOT ALLOW THE RECEIVER’S METER TO PEG AT ANY

Activity 1-1: Polarization of Microwaves from a Gunn Diode

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Activity 1-2: Wire Grid Polarizer

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Note: Turn off your receiver and unplug the generator.

INVESTIGATION 2: Polarization of a High-intensity Lamp

• Optical bench with lens holders

• Two polarizers with stands

• Bausch and Lomb polarized light demonstrator kit

• Small support stand

• Desk lamp (high intensity light source)

• Light sensor and cable

Activity 2-1: Light Source and Polaroids

Warning: ALWAYS PLACE THE HEAT ABSORBING FILTER BETWEEN THE

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

6. Open the experiment file named L08.A2-1 Light Source.

Activity 2-2: Light Polarizer and Analyzer

You will need a third polarizer for this activity.

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Angle for maximum intensity: degrees

7. Click on the red square to stop the data collection.

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Activity 2-3: Linearly Polarized Light and Malus’ Law

5. Now set the first polarizer to 0◦ and the analyzer to −90◦ .

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

13. Record the fit parameters m and b:

Question 2-7: Discuss the physical meanings of m and b.

Question 2-8: How could you minimize b?

INVESTIGATION 3: Other Methods for Polarizing and Depolarizing

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

• Polarized light demonstrator kit

• Optical bench with lens holders

Activity 3-1: Depolarization

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton

Activity 3-2: Birefringence by the Calcite Crystal

θ1 : (choose a relative zero angle)

θ2 : (use same zero angle as before)

University of Virginia Physics Department Modified from P. Laws, D. Sokoloff, R. Thornton