Biot–Savart law

In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the Biot– relies on the superposition principle for magnetic fields,
Savart law (/ˈbiːoʊ səˈvɑːr/ or /ˈbjoʊ səˈvɑːr/)[1] is an i.e. the fact that the magnetic field is a vector sum of
equation describing the magnetic field generated by an the field created by each infinitesimal section of the wire
electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the mag- individually.[4]
nitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric
There is also a 2D version of the Biot-Savart equation,
current. The law is valid in the magnetostatic approx- used when the sources are invariant in one direction. In
imation, and is consistent with both Ampère’s circuital general, the current need not flow only in a plane normal
law and Gauss’s law for magnetism.[2] It is named after to the invariant direction and it is given by J . The result-
Jean-Baptiste Biot and Félix Savart who discovered this ing formula is:
relationship in 1820.

∫ ∫
µ0 (J dl) × r′ µ0
1 Equation B(r) = = r′
(J dl) × ^
2π C |r′ | 2π C

1.1 Electric currents (along closed curve) 1.2 Electric currents (throughout conduc-
The Biot–Savart law is used for computing the resul- tor volume)
tant magnetic field B at position r generated by a steady
current I (for example due to a wire): a continual flow of The formulations given above work well when the cur-
charges which is constant in time and the charge neither rent can be approximated as running through an infinitely-
accumulates nor depletes at any point. The law is a phys- narrow wire. If the conductor has some thickness, the
ical example of a line integral, being evaluated over the proper formulation of the Biot–Savart law (again in SI
path C in which the electric currents flow. The equation units) is:
in SI units is[3]

or, alternatively:
where dl is a vector whose magnitude is the length of
the differential element of the wire in the direction of ∫∫∫
conventional current, r′ = r − l , the full displacement B(r) = µ0 (J dV ) × ^r′
4π ′
|r | 2
vector from the wire element ( l ) to the point at which V
the field is being computed ( r ), and μ0 is the magnetic
where dV is the volume element and J is the current den-
constant. Alternatively:
sity vector in that volume (in SI in units of A/m2 ).

∫ The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics,

µ0 Idl × ^ r′ playing a similar role to Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.
B(r) =
4π C |r′ |2 When magnetostatics does not apply, the Biot–Savart law
should be replaced by Jefimenko’s equations.
r′ is the unit vector of r′ . The symbols in boldface
where ^
denote vector quantities.
The integral is usually around a closed curve, since elec- 1.3 Constant uniform current
tric currents can only flow around closed paths. An in-
finitely long wire (as used in the definition of the SI unit In the special case of a steady constant current I, the mag-
of electric current - the Ampere) is a counter-example. netic field B is

To apply the equation, the point in space where the mag-

∫
netic field is to be calculated is arbitrarily chosen ( r ). µ0 dl × ^r′
Holding that point fixed, the line integral over the path of B(r) = I ′
4π C |r | 2
the electric currents is calculated to find the total magnetic
field at that point. The application of this law implicitly i.e. the current can be taken out of the integral.

1
2 3 AERODYNAMICS APPLICATIONS

1.4 Point charge at constant velocity

In the case of a point charged particle q moving at a con-
stant velocity v, Maxwell’s equations give the following
expression for the electric field and magnetic field:[5]

q 1 − v 2 /c2 ^r′
E=
4πϵ0 (1 − v 2 sin2 θ/c2 )3/2 |r′ |2
1
B= v×E
c2
where ^r′ is the unit vector pointing from the current (non-
retarded) position of the particle to the point at which the The figure shows the velocity ( dV ) induced at a point P by an
field is being measured, and θ is the angle between v and element of vortex filament ( dL ) of strength Γ .
r′ .
When v2 ≪ c2 , the electric field and magnetic field can was essentially a rotational analogy to the linear elec-
be approximated as[5] tric current relationship,
2. Electric convection current
q ^r′
E= J = ρv
4πϵ0 |r′ |2
where ρ is electric charge density. B was seen as a
µ0 q ^r′ kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their
B= v× ′ 2
4π |r | axial planes, with H being the circumferential veloc-
These equations are called the “Biot–Savart law for a ity of the vortices.
point charge”[6] due to its closely analogous form to the
“standard” Biot–Savart law given previously. These equa- The electric current equation can be viewed as a convec-
tions were first derived by Oliver Heaviside in 1888. tive current of electric charge that involves linear motion.
By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current
involving spin. There is no linear motion in the inductive
2 Magnetic responses applications current along the direction of the B vector. The magnetic
inductive current represents lines of force. In particular,
it represents lines of inverse square law force.
The Biot–Savart law can be used in the calculation of
magnetic responses even at the atomic or molecular level, In aerodynamics the induced air currents are forming
e.g. chemical shieldings or magnetic susceptibilities, pro- solenoidal rings around a vortex axis that is playing the
vided that the current density can be obtained from a role that electric current plays in magnetism. This puts
quantum mechanical calculation or theory. the air currents of aerodynamics into the equivalent role
of the magnetic induction vector B in electromagnetism.
In electromagnetism the B lines form solenoidal rings
3 Aerodynamics applications around the source electric current, whereas in aerody-
namics, the air currents form solenoidal rings around the
The Biot–Savart law is also used in aerodynamic theory source vortex axis.
to calculate the velocity induced by vortex lines. Hence in electromagnetism, the vortex plays the role of
In the aerodynamic application, the roles of vorticity and 'effect' whereas in aerodynamics, the vortex plays the role
current are reversed in comparison to the magnetic appli- of 'cause'. Yet when we look at the B lines in isolation, we
cation. see exactly the aerodynamic scenario in so much as that
B is the vortex axis and H is the circumferential velocity
In Maxwell’s 1861 paper 'On Physical Lines of Force',[7] as in Maxwell’s 1861 paper.
magnetic field strength H was directly equated with pure
vorticity (spin), whereas B was a weighted vorticity that In two dimensions, for a vortex line of infinite length, the
was weighted for the density of the vortex sea. Maxwell induced velocity at a point is given by
considered magnetic permeability μ to be a measure of
the density of the vortex sea. Hence the relationship, Γ
v=
2πr
1. Magnetic induction current
where Γ is the strength of the vortex and r is the perpen-
B = µH dicular distance between the point and the vortex line.
 3

This is a limiting case of the formula for vortex segments 6 Notes

of finite length:
[1] “Biot-Savart law”. Random House Webster’s Unabridged
Dictionary.
Γ
v= [cos A − cos B] [2] Jackson, John David (1999). Classical Electrodynamics
4πr
(3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. Chapter 5. ISBN 0-471-
where A and B are the (signed) angles between the line 30932-X.
and the two ends of the segment.
[3] Electromagnetism (2nd Edition), I.S. Grant, W.R.
Phillips, Manchester Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2008,
ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9
4 The Biot–Savart law, Ampère’s [4] The superposition principle holds for the electric and mag-
circuital law, and Gauss’s law for netic fields because they are the solution to a set of linear
differential equations, namely Maxwell’s equations, where
magnetism the current is one of the “source terms”.

[5] Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics

See also: Curl (mathematics) and vector calculus identi-
(3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 222–224, 435–440. ISBN
ties
0-13-805326-X.

In a magnetostatic situation, the magnetic field B as calcu- [6] “Archived copy”. Archived from the original on 2009-06-
lated from the Biot–Savart law will always satisfy Gauss’s 19. Retrieved 2009-09-30.
law for magnetism and Ampère’s law:[8] [7] Maxwell, J. C. “On Physical Lines of Force” (PDF). Wiki-
media commons. Retrieved 25 December 2011.

[8] See Jackson, page 178–79 or Griffiths p. 222–24. The

presentation in Griffiths is particularly thorough, with all
In a non-magnetostatic situation, the Biot–Savart law the details spelled out.
ceases to be true (it is superseded by Jefimenko’s equa-
tions), while Gauss’s law for magnetism and the Maxwell–
Ampère law are still true. 7 References
• Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electro-
5 See also dynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-
805326-X.
5.1 People • Feynman, Richard (2005). The Feynman Lectures
on Physics (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-
• Jean-Baptiste Biot 0-8053-9045-2.

• Félix Savart

• André-Marie Ampère
8 Further reading

• James Clerk Maxwell • Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd Edition),

G.A.G. Bennet, Edward Arnold (UK), 1974, ISBN
0-7131-2459-8
5.2 Electromagnetism • Essential Principles of Physics, P.M. Whelan, M.J.
Hodgeson, 2nd Edition, 1978, John Murray, ISBN
• Maxwell’s equations 0-7195-3382-1
• Ampère’s law • The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, G.
Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN
• Magnetism 978-0-521-57507-2.

• Coulomb’s law • Physics for Scientists and Engineers - with Modern

Physics (6th Edition), P. A. Tipler, G. Mosca, Free-
• Darwin Lagrangian man, 2008, ISBN 0-7167-8964-7
4 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R.G.

Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN
(Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC
Inc.) 0-89573-752-3
• McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edi-
tion), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3

9 External links
• Electromagnetism, B. Crowell, Fullerton College
• MISN-0-125 The Ampère–Laplace–Biot–Savart Law
by Orilla McHarris and Peter Signell for Project
PHYSNET.
 5

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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