Electrodes & Sensors 2017-10-03 Complete

Biomedical Electrodes,
Sensors, and Transducers
from: Chaterjee, Biomedical Instrumentation, chapter 6
© D. J. McMahon 140928 rev cewood 2017-10-03

Key Points
Electrodes, Sensors, and Transducers:
- types of electrodes
- voltaic
- electrolytic
- Ag/AgCl electrodes
- know the characteristics of sensors:
- sensitivity
- static & dynamic error
- accuracy
- precision
- hysteresis
- frequency response
- resolution
- pressure transducers
- temperature transducers (esp thermistor vs thermocouple)
- advantages of the instrumentation amplifier
Definition of Biomedical Electrodes,
Sensors, and Transducers
• Electrode:
– Solid electric conductor
– Detects electrical activity
• Sensor:
– Detects change in physical stimulus
• Turns it into a signal
• Transducer:
– Converts energy types
block diagram of human-machine interface
Biomedical Electrodes
• Electrode:
– Conductor
– Makes contact with
a nonmetal
• Electrochemical cell
– Electrode is anode Charge density in the muscle-electrode
or cathode interface
Theory of Electrodes
• Electrochemical cell is divided into:
– Voltaic cell
• Generates electrical current
• Chemical reaction: two half reactions
– Electrolytic cell
• Uses the electrical current
voltaic cell: electrolytic cell:
generates electrical current Uses the electrical current
table of half-cell potentials
Silver/Silver Chloride
Reference Electrode
Stable reference electrode
Silver/silver chloride electrode

silver/silver chloride button electrodes
A view of a silver/silver chloride electrode

Provides a low-offset, low impedance interface with
the monitor with minimal effect on the patient’s skin.
Types of Electrodes
• Include:
– Polarizable or nonpolarizable
– Electrode shapes: button or bar types
– Electrode configurations: monopolar or bipolar
– Needle electrodes (typical for EMG)

– Cup electrodes (typical for EEG)
– Skin-surface electrodes (everything else)
cup electrodes (typ. EEG)
needle electrode (typ. EMG).
Skin-surface electrodes
http://multimedia.3m.com/mws/media/128308O/red-dot-biomedical-electrodes-full-line-brochure.pdf
Classification of Sensors and
Transducers
• If based upon stimulus:
– Mechanical
– Acoustic
– Electric
– Magnetic
– Optical
– Thermal
– Radiologic
Performance Characteristics of
Electrodes, Sensors, and Transducers
• Sensitivity
– Output change divided by input change
• Static and dynamic error
– Difference between measured and actual value
• Static error: measured value doesn’t change
• Dynamic error: measured value changes
• Hysteresis
– Unable to repeat data in opposite direction
Performance Characteristics (more)
• Accuracy
– How close output is to true value
• Reproducibility (precision)
– Ability to produce identical output values
• At different times under the same conditions
• Frequency response
– Range of frequencies
• Bandwidth
• Resolution
– Smallest step of meaningful output
• Measurable over range
Pressure Transducers
• Pressure
– Force per unit area
• Types of pressure transducers:
– Metal strain gauge
– Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
FIGURE 6-15a A simple metal gauge FIGURE 6-15b Backing

material of a metal gauge
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
A simple LVDT transducer:

movement or displacement
A balanced bridge circuit:
Both gauges affected by what we

don’t want to measure.
Only active gauge is affected by what

we do want to measure.
- - - axis of s-t-r-e-t-c-h - - -
LVDT in an amplifier circuit
Output voltage in a LVDT transducer
Flow Transducers
• Measure flow of gases, liquids, or solids
– Given as:
• Q = (area) (velocity)
A simple flow
transducer
don’t confuse that with:
Blood flow detection by ultrasound & Doppler shift:
RBC is also called “formed element”, larger than other blood components
Temperature Transducers
• Types include:
– Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
• Metal wire resistance increases with temperature
– Thermistor
• Semiconductor device
• Negative or positive temperature coefficient
– Thermocouple
• Converts temperature reading into voltage reading
• Uses two dissimilar metals: Seebeck effect
simple thermocouple transducer
thermocouple with ice bath

Optical Transducers
• Don’t require direct physical contact
– Avoid disturbances
• Photoconductive cell
– Common type
– Uses reflection of light
• Detects distance or level
Summary
• Acquiring biomedical signals
– Electrode or transducer is essential
• Electrode
– Solid electric conductor
• Sensor senses stimulus
• Strain gauge and LVDT
– Pressure sensors
• RTD, thermistor, and thermocouple
– Temperature sensors
Summary (more)
• Strain gauge
– Determines amount of strain
• Most common: metal foil gauges
• LVDT
– Provides output voltage proportional to displacement
• RTDs or thermistors
– Resistance varies with temperature
• Thermocouples
– Voltage varies with temperature

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Biomedical Electrodes,

Sensors, and Transducers

from: Chaterjee, Biomedical Instrumentation, chapter 6

© D. J. McMahon 140928 rev cewood 2017-10-03

Silver/silver chloride electrode

A view of a silver/silver chloride electrode

– Needle electrodes (typical for EMG)

FIGURE 6-15a A simple metal gauge FIGURE 6-15b Backing

A simple LVDT transducer:

A balanced bridge circuit:

Both gauges affected by what we

Only active gauge is affected by what

thermocouple with ice bath

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