Working Memory:
A Complete Guide to How
Your Brain Processes
Information, Thinks and
Learns
by Scott Young & Jakub Jílek

1.
 Table of Contents
What is Working Memory? The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability to Think and Learn 5
Why Working Memory Matters 10
How Working Memory Underpins Your Ability to Learn 11
Can You Improve Your Working Memory 14
How can you measure your working memory? 16
Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies 18
Are all sounds equally harmful to learning? 20
Does music affect everyone the same way? 21
How to use sound to boost your learning 22
Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination 25
Strategies for improving your visuospatial working memory 26
How to use visualization and drawing to improve learning 29
Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily 33
The hidden costs of multi-tasking 34
Who is affected by multi-tasking? 36
How badly designed textbooks split your attention 38
Chunking – the secret to expertise 42
How to use chunking as a mnemonic technique 44
Chunking works by reducing memory load 45

2.
 

How experts use chunks 48

Build chunks with pre-training 49
Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties 52
Reduce intrinsic load with segmenting and worked-examples 53
Reduce extrinsic load with visually simple textbooks
and a goal-free approach 55
How to optimize cognitive load 56
Anxiety: how to turn it into excitement 58
Why does anxiety burden our working memory? 59
How you can overcome anxiety 60
Summary and conclusion 63
Endnotes 66

3.
 

How do you keep everything in mind when solving tough problems? When
you read a book, listen to a podcast or have a conversation–how does your
brain hold onto all the information?

The answer is something psychologists call working memory.

Unlike long-term memory, which I’ve covered in-depth here, working

memory isn’t about remembering the past. Instead, it’s about holding to-
gether the present in your mind so you can learn, make decisions and solve
problems.

Working memory is essentially your mental bandwidth. If you have a

good working memory, or can use yours more effectively, you can think
and learn better. Thus, understanding this important facet of your mind is
essential for anyone who wants to perform better in work, school and life.

To give you that understanding, I’ve collaborated again with Jakub Jilek,
who has his masters in cognitive science and is currently studying for
his PhD. We’ve put together a full guide to explaining what your working
memory is, how it works, and most of all–how you can apply simple meth-
ods to think and learn better.

4.
 What is Working
Memory?
The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability
to Think and Learn
 What is Working Memory? The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability to Think and Learn

What is working memory? The easiest way to understand working memory

is by visualizing it as a carpenter’s workbench:[1] The carpenter temporarily
places tools and materials on the workbench as she builds new products. The
workbench has a small size – only a few items can be placed on it at once.

Similarly, you temporarily store information in your working memory when

you’re solving a problem or making a decision. Working memory also has a
small capacity – it can only hold a few items at once.

However, the workbench is not just for keeping materials in one place. It’s
a workspace – the carpenter uses it to combine different materials to cre-
ate new products. Similarly, working memory is not just a simple storage.
Working memory enables you to generate new thoughts, change them,
combine them, search them, apply different rules and strategies to them, or
do anything else that helps you navigate your life.

By enabling all of these functions, working memory underpins your think-

ing, planning, learning and decision-making.

Scientists have developed various models of working memory. In this guide,

we will draw on the most popular model, which has been developed by Alan
Baddeley.[2] According to this model, working memory can be divided into
four components:

6.
 What is Working Memory? The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability to Think and Learn

The first component is called the phonological loop. It’s essentially a storage
of sounds – it allows you to temporarily memorize digits, words and sen-
tences (by the way they sound).

The second component is called the visuospatial sketchpad. As the name

suggests, the sketchpad stores two- and three-dimensional images of ob-
jects.

7.
 What is Working Memory? The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability to Think and Learn

The third component is the central executive. Its main responsibility is di-
recting attention and manipulating information.

Using our workbench analogy, you could think of the the phonological loop
and the visuospatial sketchpad as two different vises that hold materials in
one position. Each vise can hold a different kind of material (such as wood or
metal). Similarly, the phonological loop can hold sounds and the visuospatial
sketchpad can hold images.

You could think of the central executive as the carpenter herself. The car-
penter decides which tools and materials to use in the same way as the cen-
tral executive decides which things to pay attention to. She shapes metal
and wood by using chisels, saws and drills to create a new product such as
a chair. Similarly, the central executive re-arranges ideas and applies the
rules of grammar, logic or algebra to come up with a solution to a problem or
make a decision.

Baddeley’s model also has a fourth component (“episodic buffer”) which we

won’t cover here because it’s not so well researched as the other three compo-
nents.

8.
 What is Working Memory? The Four Components
Underlying Your Ability to Think and Learn

You may have also heard of the term “short-term memory”. Scientists cur-
rently use this term when they talk about a simple temporary storage (but
not manipulation) of information,[3] which can be of any kind (visual or
auditory). The term “working memory” is used to talk about the whole stor-
age and manipulation system.

To give you a quick recap, here’s the three main parts of working memo-
ry:

1. Phonological loop – stores sounds including words, digits, sentences

2. Visuospatial sketchpad – stores images of objects
3. Central executive – directs attention and manipulates information

In this guide we’ll look at all these three components and see how they
impact on your learning. In addition, we’ll cover another three important
topics, which are closely connected to working memory:

1. Chunking – the compression of information

2. Cognitive load – the processing demands placed on working memory
3. Anxiety – the culprit behind problems with working memory

9.
Why Working Memory
Matters
Working memory is a key aspect of intelligence.[4] Much of your learning
depends on your working memory.

Think of the last time you followed a hard class. In the beginning, you
might have kept up fine. But eventually it became harder and harder to un-
derstand what the professor was saying. Even though you tried your best
to pay attention, you left feeling confused and frustrated.

It turns out that the culprit is likely an overloaded working memory[5] (read
Summary and Conclusion for other possibilities). The study material re-
quired your working memory to process too much new information at the
same time. As a result, the system became overwhelmed and broke down.

Even if you don’t regularly attend confusing lectures, understanding how

your working memory functions is essential for learning better.

How Working Memory Underpins Your Ability to Learn

In order to learn, you first must comprehend.[6][7] To do this, your working
memory is always involved:

Your phonological loop must keep track of the sounds of the words you
read or hear. Your central executive must constantly update these sequenc-
 Why Working Memory Matters

es as you go along. Finally, these meanings need to be integrated so you

can understand everything. If any of these processes fail, you’ll get lost and
confused.

Solving problems is also essential to learning.[8] Once again, your working

memory is working hard.

Consider trying to solve the problem of adding two numbers:

87 + 65 = ?

Most of us learn how to add numbers like these in grade school (the solu-
tion is 152). Despite the simplicity, however, there’s a lot of complicated
cognition to pull off this calculation.[9][10]

Your visuospatial sketchpad first has to store a visual representation of the

symbols. Your central executive has to apply the rules of addition and store
the intermediate steps (e.g. 80 + 60). Finally, your phonological loop has to
maintain the subvocal instructions to control the operation (“add eighty
and sixty” etc.).[11] If any of these problems fail the result is, again, confu-
sion and getting lost.

12.
 Why Working Memory Matters

Besides comprehension and problem-solving, working memory underpins

many other learning skills. Note-taking[12] requires you to quickly store and
process what is has just been said while simultaneously processing what is
being said right now.

It shouldn’t surprise you now that working memory capacity has been
found to be significantly connected to reading comprehension[13][14],
maths[15] and problem-solving.[16] Students who have a better working
memory enjoy better grades.[17] Most importantly, higher working memory
capacity predicts better learning outcomes and achievement. [18][19][20]

13.
Can You Improve Your
Working Memory
 Can You Improve Your Working Memory

You’ve probably heard of memory experts who can remember astonish-

ingly long sequences of random digits or words. For example, Rajan Ma-
hadevan is able to correctly retrieve a staggering 31,811 digits of the math-
ematical constant pi (long-term memory). He can also remember up to 63
randomly presented digits or words (working memory).[21] Another mne-
monist, Suresh Kumar Sharma, holds the Guinness world record for man-
aging to recite pi to 70,030 digits without making any mistakes.[22]

You may be thinking that it’s impossible to achieve such amazing feats
unless you’re born naturally gifted.

Although both of these mnemonists have likely had an above-average

working memory since childhood, genetic predispositions are by no means
the whole story. If these champions were naturally blessed with a fantastic
working memory, then we would expect them to excel in all tasks requiring
working memory, right?

Researchers decided to test this idea.[23] Instead of digits or words, they

gave Rajan Mahadevan series of symbols (such as !, @, *, +, etc.). Can you
guess how many symbols Rajan managed to remember?

To everyone’s surprise, Rajan could only keep 6 of these symbols in his

working memory – the same as an average university student.

15.
 Can You Improve Your Working Memory

When interviewing these and other mnemonists, scientists found that

they had devoted extensive time of practice to hone their memory. What’s
more important, they use highly sophisticated and refined versions of
mnemonic techniques such as the method of loci or the story method.[24]

All these results suggest that working memory is (to some degree) a skill
like any other – if you practice it, you can improve it.

While the jury is still out whether and to what degree it’s possible to im-
prove the core processes of working memory,[25] scientists have discovered
many techniques that help you make your working memory more efficient
and effective. In the following sections we’ll describe how you can apply
these techniques to boost your comprehension and problem-solving skills.

How can you measure your working memory?

If you set out to improve your working memory, it can be useful to know
how you can measure it. Scientists distinguish between short-term memo-
ry capacity and working memory capacity.[26]

Short-term capacity is simply your ability to temporarily store of small

amounts of information.[27] This information can be digits, letters, words,
symbols, pictures, scenes, or anything else. Short-term memory span is
the number of items that one can store in their short-term memory.

Would you like to know your digit span? Try this online test. Scroll down

16.
 Can You Improve Your Working Memory

the webpage, uncheck “sound enabled”, set the starting sequence length
to 3 and click start. Do this at least three times and then compute the aver-
age, which will be your digit span. You can also click “repeat” if you want to
repeat a sequence with the same number of digits.

The average human span is 4 items,[28] although the exact number depends
on the type of items. People can typically remember more letters than
words and more digits than letters. The average digit span is 7 digits.

Working memory capacity is your combined ability to store and manipu-

late information. It’s traditionally measured with complex span tasks (such
as the operation span) and the famous n-back. These tests can’t be taken
online, but you can download them here.

17.
Phonological Loop:
How Music Disrupts
Your Studies
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

Phonological loop is the first kind of short-term memory storage which

stores sounds. Being able to have a conversation, listen to music and un-
derstand a lecture all depend on your phonological loop.

As you read these lines, your phonological loop is working at every mo-
ment. It uses subvocalisation (your internal voice) to translate visual infor-
mation (digits, letters, words and sentences) into auditory information,
which is then processed to extract meaning.[29]

If the subvocalisation process is disrupted, it will be hard to maintain in-

formation in your phonological loop. As a consequence, your comprehen-
sion will suffer. To see this on yourself, try the following experiment:

If you haven’t already done so, measure your digit span. After you’ve done
that, measure your digit span again. This time, however, firstly start play-
ing a favorite song of yours that contains lyrics (it shouldn’t be a purely
instrumental piece). Set the volume to a comfortable level (not too quiet
but not too loud). What is your digit span now?

19.
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

It’s likely that your digit span is now one or more digits lower.[30] This is
because the music interfered with the subvocalisation process, which was
thus less effective at encoding information in your phonological loop.

Are all sounds equally harmful to learning?

Many studies have shown that listening to many kinds of sounds and mu-
sic can have a profoundly negative impact on your working memory, read-
ing comprehension and mathematical problem-solving.[31] For instance,
one study has shown that students who revise in a quiet environment later
perform 60% better in an SAT comprehension test than their peers who
listen to music (with lyrics).[32]

20.
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

However, different kinds of sounds have different effects. Firstly, the detri-
mental effect is much stronger with vocal music compared to instrumental
music. One study showed that students who revised without music were
10% better than students who revised while listening to instrumental mu-
sic.[33]

Secondly, it doesn’t matter if you don’t understand the language. Foreign

language also impairs working memory.[34] Thirdly, although even pure
tones can disrupt performance, the tones have to fluctuate. If the pure tone
has a constant pitch, it doesn’t have a harmful effect on memory.[35]

Does music affect everyone the same way?

Listening to music doesn’t affect everyone in the same way. In general,
individuals with a high working memory capacity are more resistant to the
harmful effects of music.[36]

However, students are very bad at predicting what effect music has on
their performance. Interestingly enough, the students who prefer listening
to music while studying are also those whose reading comprehension is
most likely to suffer due to interference from music.[37]

Why do so many students listen to music although it impairs their learn-

ing? Why do they even feel that they benefit from this? We believe that the
reason for this might be twofold:

21.
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

Firstly, music could help reduce anxiety and help one calm down, which
may be beneficial for studying.[38] Secondly, music could drown out even
more disrupting external noise, which might actually help to protect work-
ing memory.

Interestingly, although white noise seems to worsen the performance of

students with normal attention, it can actually improve the performance of
students with attention problems.[39]

In general, we would recommend that you avoid listening to music while

studying (especially vocal music). It’s important that you study in a quiet
environment where no-body is speaking or making any other noise. The
exception to this rule is when you’re preparing for an exam that will take
place in a noisy environment. In this case, it’s beneficial to spend some
time revising in a noisy environment (to see why, check our Complete
Guide on Memory, section “Context-dependence” ).

If you cannot revise in a quiet environment, the best way to reduce noise
is by using earplugs. Alternatively, a not too harmful option is to listen to
white noise (check out the plethora of white-noise nature sounds on You-
Tube). If you do have to listen to music, go for instrumental music.

How to use sound to boost your learning

The first strategy to improve your learning is by protecting your phonolog-
ical loop from interfering sounds. Scientists have found yet another strate-
gy that significantly boosts learning and that also makes use of sound.

In an intriguing study, students had to memorize lists of words.[40] The first

group read the words aloud, the second listened to a recording of their
own voice reading the words, the third group listened to someone else,
while the fourth group studied the words in silence. Interestingly, the first
group showed the best performance (20% better than the fourth group),
followed by the second, third and fourth group.

22.
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

The advantage of reading aloud over reading silently for subsequent mem-
ory performance is called the “production effect”.[41]

Scientists believe that producing words makes them more distinctive than
reading them silently because you additionally use your vocal cords and
facial muscles.[42]

To harness the production effect, however, you shouldn’t read aloud all of
your study material. Distinctiveness is relative – a word read aloud will
stand out in the context of silently-read words but it won’t stand out if all
other words are also read aloud.[43] Therefore, to get the most benefit, we
recommend that you use the production effect only for a selection of the
most important information.

23.
 Phonological Loop: How Music Disrupts Your Studies

In summary, we recommend the following:

• Ideally, avoid noise during learning and don’t listen to any kind of
music
• The best way to down out noise is by using earplugs (or listening to
white noise)
• If you do have to listen to music (because it helps you calm down for
instance), choose instrumental music with no lyrics
• To boost your comprehension and memory, read aloud what you’re
studying
• Only apply this to a selection of the most important concepts /
information
• If you read aloud everything, it won’t work

24.
 Visuospatial
Sketchpad: Upgrade
Your Imagination
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

Visuospatial sketchpad is the second kind of short-term memory storage.

It stores two- or three-dimensional objects and their positions in space.

The visuospatial sketchpad is essential for understanding mathematical,

science, technology and engineering subjects. Visuospatial working mem-
ory capacity in childhood reliably predicts mathematical achievements in
adolescence even when other factors such as intelligence are accounted
for.[44]

Strategies for improving your visuospatial working memory

In a stunning study, researchers from Berkley examined the visuospatial
skills of engineering students.[45] They found that the men performed on
average nearly 10% better than women in various tasks such as mental ro-
tation of objects. The researchers later interviewed experienced engineers
and asked them to share their strategies for solving visuospatial problems.

On the basis of these strategies, they designed a visuospatial training pro-

gram. All women who had low scores were invited to attend the program.
Interestingly, after only 3 hours of training, there were no longer any sig-
nificant differences between men and women.

26.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

This study demonstrates how the use of appropriate strategies can sub-
stantially (and quickly) help your visuospatial sketchpad. Which strategies
are the best? In the study mentioned above, the researchers found that
different engineers used different strategies that achieved the same result.

Therefore, there seems to be no single “right” strategy for approaching

visuospatial problems. However, you can develop your own strategy. We’re
going to show you how to do it on the following task: Have a look at the
picture below and try to find the folded cube which cannot be made from
the unfolded cube (there’s only one).

Before we give you the correct answer, think of the strategy that you used.
There are two broad strategies for these kinds of problems. A holistic strat-
egy consists of firstly folding the cube, then rotating it mentally as a whole
and comparing it with the folded cubes. This is the most working-memory
demanding strategy. In contrast, an analytic strategy consists of noticing
the relationships between the patterns in a step-by-step way. Let’s walk
through an analytic strategy:

27.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

If you look at the first folded cube, you can ask yourself: If the white cross
is above the black x, can the five dots be on the right?

Then look at the unfolded cube. Visualize the unfolded cube in such a way
that the white cross is above the black x.

From this position you can see easily that the first folded cube is the same
as the unfolded cube.

As an alternative, you could “unfold” the cubes first, possibly even draw
them unfolded. Then rotate and compare the unfolded cubes to see if they
fit.

If you apply one of these strategies to the remaining three cubes, you’ll see
that it’s the fourth cube that doesn’t fit.

Rather than folding and rotating in one go (which is more difficult for the working
memory), try flattening the test cube first, splitting it into parts, and comparing that to
the original diagram. Breaking down problems this way can turn something confusing
into something easy.

If you can use the holistic approach straightaway then it’s likely that your
visuospatial sketchpad has a high capacity. If not, then you can benefit
from using a more piecemeal approach. The whole idea is to offload infor-

28.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

mation from your working memory – to break down the task into smaller,
more manageable pieces and to store intermediate steps on paper. This
way you can achieve the same result as someone with a high working
memory capacity, albeit perhaps more slowly.

How to use visualization and drawing to improve learning

The visuospatial sketchpad is useful not only for visuospatial problems. The
phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad are largely independent
of each other.[46] Therefore, you can use your visuospatial sketchpad to help
your phonological loop and vice versa.

A beautiful demonstration of how the visuospatial sketchpad can help the

phonological loop was carried out by scientists who examined Japanese ex-
perts on mental calculation.[47] These experts have a very high digit span (16
number) and they can quickly subtract and add up numbers having up to 9
digits. Where does their miraculous ability come from? Through practice,
these experts have learnt to construct a “virtual” abacus in their minds that
they use to make calculations.

29.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

While a mental abacus is probably no longer needed in the age of comput-

ers, you can use visualization in other ways: If you’re going shopping and
you want to remember shopping list, you can chunk it into one picture. For
instance, you could imagine peppers, milk, chicken and mustard as mus-
tard-covered chicken, swimming in a bowl of cereal and surrounded by
peppers.

Visualization strategies can be beneficial for your reading comprehension

as well. In an interesting study, researchers asked students to read a scien-
tific text from chemistry.[48] One group of students was given no strategy,
one group was asked to focus on the text (summarize and find the main
points), whereas the last group was asked to use the drawing-construction
strategy (draw molecules and their bonds). At the end of the study session,
students were assessed with a test.

One would expect that focusing on the text, finding its main points and
being able to summarize it, should be the key ingredients of reading com-
prehension. However, the results showed the exact opposite. The drawing
students outperformed the no-strategy students by 30%. What’s more,
summarizing actually worsened the performance of the text-focused
group compared to the control group.

30.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

Although the drawing-construction strategy improves students’ compre-

hension of particular scientific texts,[49] research has yet to show whether
it generalizes to all subjects and all kinds of texts. You need to experiment
with yourself to find out how when drawing is useful and when it isn’t.

Moreover, the quality of drawings is essential for the technique to be effec-

tive.[50] This means that your drawings need to be a faithful representation
of the text’s contents, correctly capturing the relationships between differ-
ent concepts.

Therefore, it undoubtedly takes some practice to master the skill of visual-

ization. Nevertheless, although drawing is not an out-of-the-box strategy,
if done well, it can become a powerful technique in you learning arsenal.

In summary, we recommend the following:

• Don’t worry if you have problems with visuospatial tasks – it’s most-
ly a matter of choosing the right strategy.
• Use the analytical strategy (step-by-step) approach to solve visuo-
spatial tasks.
• Break down complex tasks into small components.
• Offload the results of intermediate steps onto paper.

31.
 Visuospatial Sketchpad: Upgrade Your Imagination

• Try the drawing-construction strategy to help you with reading

comprehension.
• This strategy can make you process information more deeply.

32.
Central Executive: How
to Concentrate Your
Mind Easily
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

The central executive is the third component of working memory. The cen-
tral executive has many functions. Here we’ll focus on allocation of atten-
tion and manipulation of information.

The hidden costs of multi-tasking

Selective attention is the ability to direct cognitive resources to things
which are relevant to the task at hand and to filter out everything else.[51]

Trying to pay attention to multiple things at the same time (multi-tasking)

is generally harmful to performance. Using our workbench analogy from
the beginning, imagine that we asked our carpenter to chisel, saw and drill
several different pieces of wood at the same time. The result of such effort
would likely be a shoddy product. Unsurprisingly, a wealth of studies have
shown the detrimental effects of multi-tasking on comprehension, learn-
ing and students’ grades. [52]

34.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

Too many tools, too few hands

As a matter of fact, “multi-tasking” is a bit of a misnomer.[53] True

multi-tasking is quite rare because it is very difficult to pay attention to
two things at the same time. Multi-tasking typically consist of switching
back and forth between multiple tasks, rather than simultaneously focus-
ing on several tasks.

Multi-tasking is inefficient because each switch that you make incurs a

cost.[54] If you’re oscillating between reading your notes and checking your
phone, for instance, each switch takes some time and energy – you have
shift your goals (“Now I want to do this instead of that”) and re-activate
the rules for the activity you’re switching to (read a paragraph – type a
response).

Although one task switch may only take a few seconds (and seem insignif-
icant), all the myriad switching done within one day can add up to a sub-
stantial amount of time and eat away at your productivity.

35.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

Who is affected by multi-tasking?

The negative effect of multi-tasking can be quite insidious. In a series of
studies,[55] researchers had students read a text passage and assessed their
comprehension with tests. Some students also carried out an interruption
task (solving a math problem between each paragraph).

Researchers found that the interruption had no effect on students’ knowl-

edge (they could correctly answer questions despite the interruption).
However, when global comprehension was assessed (the text’s theme and
tone, the author’s goals and morale), the interruption worsened perfor-
mance by as much as 30%.

This study nicely demonstrates that you might feel that multi-tasking is
not affecting your performance based on the fact that you remember ev-
erything from the text easily. However, your comprehension, which re-
quires synthesizing information from different parts of the text, could still
suffer.

It may come as a surprise, but multi-tasking may not always harmful.

What matters is whether the two tasks employ the same cognitive process-
es.[56] This happens, for instance, when you’re watching television while
reading your notes. Doing these two activities simultaneously is going to
interfere with your comprehension as both of these activities compete for
access to your phonological loop.

36.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

However, reading a book while sitting on the train or practicing flashcards

while commuting, will likely not substantially impair your comprehension.
(Scott: I was listening to music while drawing the images for this post, but
I never listen to music while writing.)

37.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

Research has also shown that individuals with a high working memory ca-
pacity are more resistant to the negative effects of multi-tasking (especially
if the secondary task is not too demanding).[57] Therefore, if you have a high
working memory capacity, you might be able to do multi-tasking without
substantially hurting your performance.

How badly designed textbooks split your attention

Multi-tasking is a form of dividing your attention. Besides different activ-
ities (like watching TV and reading notes), attention can also be divided
among different study materials. If you have multiple source materials
which you have to look at while studying, then your comprehension will
suffer. This is called the split-attention effect.[58]

As a demonstration, we’ve prepared two tasks from geometry. You don’t

need to solve the tasks, just have a look at them. Both tasks ask you to do
exactly the same thing (calculate two angles), however, each task is pre-
sented differently. Which of the two tasks seems easier?

Needlessly confusing….

38.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

This task is easier, because you don’t need to go back and forth on the picture to figure
out how the information relates to each other.

The correct answers are 60°and 120° degrees, respectively. Did you find the
second task easier to understand?

Whereas the first task was presented with separate textual and graphical
information, the second task featured information integrated into a coher-
ent whole.

The first task placed an unnecessary load on the central executive, which
had to shift attention between the text and the picture and combine it
together to enable understanding. This was essentially extra manipula-
tion of information that had nothing to do with solving the actual task. In
contrast, the second task freed up cognitive resources that could be instead
devoted to solving task.

Researchers have found that if study material is presented in an integrated

format, then comprehension improves dramatically (one study has report-
ed a 30% improvement compared to split-attention format[59]). This effect
has been found for all kinds of subjects, including geometry, program-
ming, geography and engineering.[60]

Consider another example. The simple arrangement and distance of words

on vocabulary flashcards can make a significant difference to your reten-
tion:

39.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

Both of these flashcards are for the Chinese word for “history.” (A) makes it harder to
match character to pronunciation than B.

Compared to the second example, the first example places a demand on

your central executive, which has to figure out the way from the Chinese
character to its phonic equivalent. Indeed, presenting flashcards like the
second example substantially improves later recall.[61]

You may not be able to select your study material or perhaps there are no
textbooks / lecture notes available which present material in an integrative
way. However, you need not depend on the particular way your study ma-
terial is structured. When taking notes, make sure that you have all infor-
mation in one place. Stick to the rule “one concept must fit on one page”. If
you can’t fit one concept on one page then you need to break it down into
smaller concepts.

Pay attention to how your study material is structured. If you have to study
from multiple sources (several textbooks / notebooks), it might be a good
idea to combine the information and put it all into one place (by re-writing
or photocopying for instance). If this is too cumbersome, then drawing a
structure, a concept map or an outline of what you’re studying should also
help.

If you have difficulty understanding a concept, re-draw graphs and re-

write your notes so that everything is integrated in one place. This way you
will free up precious working memory resources, which you’ll be able to
devote to comprehension.

40.
 Central Executive: How to Concentrate Your Mind Easily

In summary, we recommend the following:

• Avoid multi-tasking and interruptions even if you feel that it’s not
affecting you – the negative effect can be well hidden from you sight
• Multi-tasking will not affect your learning and performance only
if the two or more activities that you do simultaneously don’t share
the same working memory resources (e.g. practicing flashcards
while commuting)
• When studying, put all information relevant to one concept into one
place to prevent divided attention
• Try to find study materials which feature integrated information
(graphs and text combined together rather than presented separate-
ly)
• If necessary, re-draw or photo-copy different parts of your notes/
textbooks/lecture notes so that everything is integrated
• Design your own study materials (like flashcards) in an integrative
way to boost your memory

41.
Chunking – the secret
to expertise
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

For two years, researchers followed a single student of average intelligence

and short-term memory capacity.[62] Every day, the student had to listen to
sequences of digits. While at the start, he could only recall 4 digits, by the
end of the study, he managed to correctly remember a series of 80 digits.

When interviewing the student, the researchers found that the he was a
competitive runner. When hearing the sequences of digits, the student
transformed every 4 digits into a running time (e.g. 3492 was transformed
to 3 minutes and 49.2 seconds). In this way, he effectively compressed 4
units of information into 1 unit of information.

The process of compressing information is called “chunking”. To see how

chunking it works, you can try the following little experiment:[63]

1) Look at these letters for 10 seconds and try to memorize as many of them
as possible, while covering the rest of the page:

2) Now do the same thing with these letters:

43.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

The chances are that you probably couldn’t recall all of the letters from the
first list, but you could easily recall all of the letters from the second list.
What’s going on here?

You may have noticed that the letters in both lists are the same, only ar-
ranged differently. However, while in the first list you had to memorize 12
letters (which is way above the average short-term memory span), in the
second list you were not memorizing letters at all. Instead, you memorized
4 syllables (FRAC-TO-LIS-TIC).

The key idea behind chunking is that you group the underlying items by
some sort of meaning or structure. The group then becomes a single unit
(=chunk). Although our short-term memory can only hold 4 chunks at a
time, these chunks can be fairly complex.

How to use chunking as a mnemonic technique

You can easily use chunking to memorize phone numbers, passwords or
PIN codes. Simply divide the given sequence into chunks containing the
maximum of 4 items each. For instance, to remember the phone number
743293045, you could split the number with dashes like this: 743-293-045.
This way, you effectively have to remember only 3 chunks of information,
instead of 9 separate digits. If you’re interested in more advanced chunk-
ing methods for long sequences of numbers, have a look at the phonet-
ic-number system.

44.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

You can also use chunking to boost your learning. A useful chunking tech-
nique is organization. Organization is when you categorize unstructured
study material into meaningful groups. For example, you can group for-
eign language vocabulary based on topics, similar meanings (synonyms) or
similar pronunciation.

The structure can also be more complex (hierarchical). For instance, you
can study chemical elements grouped by their various properties. Research
shows that people can memorize up to twice as many hierarchically orga-
nized items than unorganized items.[64]

Chunking works by reducing memory load

Chunking reduces the load on working memory because it replaces the
items in your working memory with items from your long-term memo-
ry.[65] To see how it works, try the following experiment:

Memorize the following list of 5 words (while covering the rest of the page).
You have 5 seconds:

45.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

large, run, tremble, believe, fish, series

How many words did you remember?

Now memorize another list of 5 words. You have 5 seconds:

besar, berlari, gemetar, percaya, ikan, siri

How many words did you remember now? Although the second list con-
tained the same number of words (which had the same meaning and al-
most the same number of letters in total), you probably remembered fewer
words from the second list than from the first list. How is this possible?

As an English speaker, you probably knew all the words from the first list.
However, unless you speak Malay, you didn’t know any of the words from
the second list. The first list was easier precisely because you could use
your pre-existing knowledge of English vocabulary stored in your long-
term memory. You simply “downloaded” each word from your long-term
memory as a chunk.

46.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

In contrast, since you couldn’t retrieve the Malay words from your long-
term memory, you could only “download” smaller chunks from your long-
term memory – syllables or letters. As a result, there were many more
pieces of information that had to be stored in your working memory from
the second list.

Researchers have found that although humans have a very limited working
memory capacity, their long-term memory capacity can be astonishing-
ly high. In one study,[66] scientists asked subjects to look at 2500 pictures
for three seconds each. After that, they asked them about the details of
selected pictures such as the positions of objects, their shape and color.
Surprisingly, subjects were 90% accurate at remembering the details of the
pictures.

Therefore, the most powerful way that you can free up your working mem-
ory capacity is by drawing on your long-term memory resources. The more
knowledge you have stored in your long-term memory, the less informa-
tion you need to process with your working memory and the easier will it
be to understand your study material and solve problems.

47.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

How experts use chunks

Chunking is the secret behind acquiring mastery in any subject[67] (alter-
native explanations have also been proposed – see Ericsson’s long-term
working-memory hypothesis).[68] This is because any kind of complex skill
is essentially a huge chunk containing a large number of nested chunks.

Consider playing the piano: Playing the piano consists of many skills, such
as sight reading, finger techniques, understanding of rhythm, pushing the
pedals, and many others. Each of these skills also consists of further sub-
skills. For example, sight reading requires the knowledge of keys, notes,
scales and various musical symbols denoting rhythm and volume. For a
novice player, doing all of these things at the same time is an impossible
task. And yet expert musicians can play complex pieces with little effort,
even by sight-reading only.

Expert musicians can play the piano with little effort precisely because
they do not have to retrieve each individual skill separately. This would
overload their working memory and make performance impossible. In-
stead, they retrieve one large chunk from their long-term memory that
contains all of these sub-skills “compressed” within it. This saves precious

48.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

working memory resources which can be devoted to processing other in-

formation such as sight-reading.

Therefore, to master any subject, you need to firstly build solid foundations
of the basics (the elementary chunks). Only then can you attempt to form
increasingly complex chunks.

Build chunks with pre-training

Understanding chunking can help you with your comprehension and prob-
lem-solving skills. If you’re experiencing difficulty understanding your
study material or cannot solve a problem, then it’s likely that your working
memory is overloaded.[69] Working memory becomes overloaded if it has
to process too much information at the same time. This typically happens
when you don’t have sufficient knowledge of the prerequisites.

If this is the case, practicing your target skill (e.g. solving many differential
equations) likely won’t be of much help or it will be inefficient. A far superi-
or strategy is to firstly identify the underlying sub-skills (arithmetic, alge-
bra) that you may be lacking and master these first. This way you can save
yourself substantial amounts of time and effort.

49.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

If you have difficulty understanding something, firstly identify the under-

lying chunks and store them into your long-term memory. This technique
is called pre-training.[70] Pre-training is very effective for all kinds of sub-
jects. As an illustration, consider the following study: [71]

Students were taught about the car-breaking system. One group was
firstly introduced to the names of each component (the pedals, the piston,
the master cylinder) and their locations. Only once they had mastered the
individual components were they taught about their behavior and how
they worked together to achieve braking. In contrast, the second group of
students was taught all information at once.

Although both groups were exposed to identical material, the pre-training

procedure led to substantially better comprehension and recall (up to 30%)
than presenting all information at the same time.

You can use pre-training to approach any study material. Firstly, identify
the key concepts and vocabulary. Secondly, use the internet or any other
resource to find simple definitions. Thirdly, begin to explore how the con-
cepts relate to one another.

50.
 Chunking – the secret to expertise

In all courses and textbooks it’s often the case that each new lecture (or
chapter) requires some knowledge of the previous chapters. If you’re hav-
ing difficulty understanding a lecture, you might be missing something
from the previous lectures and you need to re-study it.

If you have trouble solving mathematical problems, it’s likely that you don’t
have properly formed chunks for the underlying operations. For instance,
it’s difficult to solve a differential equation without the knowledge of alge-
bra (re-arranging equations) and arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multi-
plication and division). If you master the underlying sub-skills first, then
mathematics will be much easier.

Our general recommendations are the following:

• Use chunking to compress information so that you can remember

more.
• You can chunk your study materials by grouping concepts into cate-
gories.
• For instance, you can group foreign language vocabulary by top-
ics, similar meanings, or similar pronunciation.
• To gain expertise in any subject or skill, you need to build increas-
ingly complex chunks of information
• You can do this with pre-training (pre-studying the definitions
and meanings of concepts before your lecture or before you read
a textbook)
• If you don’t understand something, try to identify what exactly
you’re having a problem with and study this first
• Firstly master the underlying sub-skills and then practice your tar-
get skill to save time and energy

51.
 Cognitive load:
the culprit behind
learning difficulties
 Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties

So far we’ve talked about various ways how you can reduce the load placed
on your working memory in order to boost your comprehension and prob-
lem-solving skills. Scientists have developed a theory of cognitive load
which explores in detail the different kinds of load that can be placed on
working memory.[72]

Cognitive load is defined as the effort used by the working memory system
to process information. The main idea of the cognitive load theory is that
working memory capacity is limited. If the working memory resources
that are needed to process information are greater than your capacity, then
you will fail to understand the information. Using our workbench analogy,
this would be comparable to our carpenter trying work with too many tools
and materials at the same time, which would start falling off the work-
bench as a result.

There are three types of cognitive load: Intrinsic, extrinsic and germane.
All types of load are additive – their sum makes up the overall load on your
working memory.

Reduce intrinsic load with segmenting and worked-examples

Intrinsic load is associated with the task, it’s basically the level of difficulty
of the subject. As an illustration, compare the obvious differences in diffi-

53.
 Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties

culty between solving a simple arithmetic calculation (2 + 2 = ?) and a dif-

ferential equation like the one below:

Intrinsic load is fixed for a particular kind of task and for each individual
(given their current level of abilities). High intrinsic load can be beneficial
as it stimulates effective learning. However, if it exceeds your working
memory resources, it can impair your learning.

One way you can reduce intrinsic load is by gaining more knowledge of the
underlying chunks (we covered this in the previous section). Another way
is to reduce the complexity of the material.

You can reduce complexity by segmenting and sequencing.[73] Instead of

reading a textbook chapter all at once, split it up into bite-sized chunks.
Separate long passages of text graphically (e.g. draw a line to create new
paragraphs if necessary). When you’ve done this, study the information
step by step. If you come across a graph or a passage that you cannot un-
derstand, cover up parts of it and focus on smaller elements. The less infor-
mation you need to process at one time, the easier it will be to understand
it.

54.
 Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties

Another great way to reduce complexity is by going through worked-ex-

ample problems.[74] Worked examples guide you through each step of
problem-solving and teach you the model that you can then apply on new
problems. Worked examples are especially useful during early stages of
learning. Many textbooks now have worked examples.

However, be careful – badly designed worked examples are useless. Good

worked-examples have clear language and graphics and are easy to follow.
If your worked example is difficult to understand – it causes high cognitive
load – then you need to find a different one.

Reduce extrinsic load with visually simple textbooks and a goal-

free approach
In contrast with intrinsic load, extrinsic load is associated with the way the
study material is presented. If you’re experiencing difficulty understand-
ing something, maybe it’s because of high extrinsic load.

Perhaps your lecturer is difficult to understand. Maybe your textbook /

lecture notes are not well written and understandable. Do not feel that you
are stuck with whatever your course offers to you. Devoting some time
before you start learning something to find high-quality materials is defi-
nitely a worthwhile investment.

One reason why study materials may impose a high cognitive load is be-
cause they contain a lot of redundant information. Authors of textbooks
often try to make them visually appealing by including lots of unnecessary
decorations, photos and graphics. The rule of thumb is that the more visu-
ally appealing a textbook is, the higher extrinsic load it will impose. Unless
they are used for explanation of study material, graphics only burden the
visuospatial sketchpad.

Another way that you can reduce extrinsic load is by approaching problems
in a goal-free way. In the geometrical example that we presented in section
“visuospatial sketchpad”, the goal was to compute the angles alpha and

55.
 Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties

beta. A goal-free approach to this problem would be to calculate any kind

of angle and as many angles as possible in any order.[75]

If you have a given goal, then you have to process the goal, the problem
givens and the difference between the two simultaneously. In a goal-free
approach, you focus only on the current state and how to get to the next
state. As a result, the extrinsic load on your working memory is decreased.

The goal-free approach is particularly suitable for math and program-

ming.[76] For instance, if you have a programming assignment, instead of
trying to solve it straight-away, firstly explore its components. Play with
different functions – see what kind of inputs they take and what outputs
they produce. Similarly, if you’re solving a math or geometry problem such
as the one above, don’t try to reach the goal immediately. Instead, explore
the problem and calculate different things in a step-by-step way.

How to optimize cognitive load

The third type of cognitive load is called germane. Germane load is the
effort that you have to make to construct integrated chunks of information
(called schemas) from the concepts in your study material. To successfully
learn something, you need to devote some of your working-memory re-

56.
 Cognitive load: the culprit behind learning difficulties

sources to germane load. To achieve this, you need to minimize the level
of extrinsic load and optimize the level of intrinsic load (i.e. find the right
level of difficulty).

How do you know which type of cognitive load is causing you problems?
Researchers have developed a simple questionnaire that reliably tells apart
between different types of cognitive load.[77]

In essence, if you feel that the activity, the covered concepts, formulas or
definitions are complex, then high intrinsic load is likely the culprit. How-
ever, if you feel that the instructions/explanations are unclear or ineffec-
tive, or full of unclear language, then the problem lies with high extrinsic
load.

In summary, we recommend the following:

• If your study material feels too complex, then you need to reduce
your intrinsic load
• If your study material feels unclear or confusing, then you need to
reduce your extrinsic load
• To reduce intrinsic load, use segmenting and sequencing or find
some worked examples
• To reduce extrinsic load, find study materials with clear language
and modest graphics, and approach solving problems in a goal-free
way

57.
Anxiety: how to turn it
into excitement
 Anxiety: how to turn it into excitement

So far we have covered various things that can place a load on your working
memory and impair your comprehension and problem-solving skills. It
turns out that one of the major causes of cognitive load is anxiety.

Try to imagine how well our carpenter would perform if she felt anxious.
Her hands would probably tremble and she would have difficulty concen-
trating. In fact, she might even drill a hole in the wrong place or saw off an
important part, spoiling the final product.

Anxiety is especially harmful to mathematics,[78] but it can also worsen

performance in other subjects, such as biology.[79] One would expect that
individuals with an already low working memory capacity would be most
affected by anxiety. However, the opposite is true. High working memo-
ry capacity individuals use high-demand strategies for solving problems.
Performance pressure takes away the resources that these individuals need
to solve problems.

Why does anxiety burden our working memory?

Scientists believe that when you are anxious, your working memory is
preoccupied with anxious thoughts.[80] So instead of the task at hand, your

59.
 Anxiety: how to turn it into excitement

short-term storage is filled with irrelevant information. In particular,

verbal rumination (sub-vocally repeating anxious thoughts) interferes with
the phonological loop. Anxious thoughts can be associated with images,
which occupy the visuospatial sketchpad. Moreover, if you pay attention to
these anxious thoughts, this also places demands on the central executive.

Math anxiety could be a learned phenomenon. Researchers believe that we

learn anxiety from our parents when they help us with homework.[81] They
give out verbal and non-verbal signals that math is something difficult and
anxiety-provoking.

Unfortunately, math anxiety is also caused directly by teachers. Teachers

who are themselves insecure about their mathematical ability (it’s surpris-
ing how many of them are!) [82] tend to give harsh feedback, use defective
teaching methods and spread the toxic belief that some people can never
become good at math. All of these factors have a severe impact on students’
mathematical abilities and self-confidence.

How you can overcome anxiety

It may be impossible to change your school or university teacher. Howev-
er, in the age of internet you’re not bound to one incompetent teacher. For
math in particular, you can check online courses and websites (the best
one is the Khan Academy) which have excellent teachers who will guide
you through the whole curriculum step-by-step, with a calm reassuring

60.
 Anxiety: how to turn it into excitement

voice and completely for free. Don’t let your teacher spoil your experience
with math – ignore them, take the initiative and make a switch to someone
better.

In addition, you can take steps to effectively address your own anxiety.
It turns out that the effect that anxiety has on your performance largely de-
pends on the beliefs you have about it. If you believe that math anxiety will
harm you, then you will perform worse. On the other hand, if you believe
that math anxiety will help you perform better, then it won’t impact on
you.[83]

One way to overcome anxiety is therefore through a technique called “cog-

nitive reappraisal”.[84] Try to think of anxiety not as anxiety, but as excite-
ment. These two emotions are both arousing and seem to be quite simi-
lar physiologically. Researchers have found that although such a simple
reframing of your emotions does nothing to change your anxiety level or
bodily response (heart rate, etc.), it improves your performance.

Panic and excitement feel similar. It’s how we interpret those feelings that makes the
difference.

You can reframe your mindset by using subvocalization or speaking aloud

to yourself. In particular, you can override the anxious thoughts by repeat-

61.
 Anxiety: how to turn it into excitement

ing excitement-promoting mantras (“I’m excited”, “Get excited”). Often it’s

as simple as that. Even reading an article about the benefits of short-term
stress can help.

Another techniques that has been found to be effective is expressive writ-

ing (or journaling).[85] If you are anxious about a test or an exam, write
about your thoughts and your worries. By writing these down, you can
effectively offload them from your working memory. Expressive writing is
especially effective if you elaborate in detail on your deep feelings and what
in particular is causing you to feel anxious (which aspects of math or math
tests you’re most afraid).

In summary, we recommend the following:

• If your teacher is math-anxious, ignore them and find a better

teacher online (e.g. the Khan academy)
• Use cognitive reappraisal and subvocalization to transform anxiety
into excitement (“I’m excited”)
• Use expressive writing to offload your worries from memory onto
paper

62.
Summary and
conclusion
 Summary and conclusion

Let’s recap what we’ve learned!

Your working memory is the workbench of your mind. It keeps track of

what you’re seeing, hearing, thinking and imagining while allowing you to
work with that to produce long-term memories and solutions.

The most popular scientific model has four components of which we re-
viewed the most well-studied three:

1. Phonological Loop. Keeps track of what you’ve just heard. Also used to
subvocalize thoughts, while reading, speaking or thinking.
2. Visuospatial Sketchpad. Keeps track of pictures and spatial informa-
tion.
3. Central Executive. Allocates attention and manipulates information,
just like a carpenter on the workbench.

The most important finding about working memories is that they are lim-
ited. The average person can only hold 4-7 pieces of information at a time.

The flip-side of this is that we can chunk information. By combining com-

plex information into recognizable chunks, even super complicated things
can fit onto your mental workbench.

To make best use of your working memory:

1. Avoid music and distracting sounds while doing mentally demanding

work and studying.
2. Emphasize the most important information by speaking it aloud.
3. Use visual mnemonics to keep track of more ideas at once.
4. Visualization can improve studying over merely summarizing for some
subjects. Try to apply your imagination more when you study.
5. If you struggle with a problem, break it into simpler parts.
6. Mastery comes from chunking–building up stored patterns so complex
things become simple.

64.
 Summary and conclusion

In addition to the components of working memory, we talked about three

other issues. Chunking, cognitive load and anxiety.

Cognitive load determines a lot of what makes something confusing or

difficult. (Attention and specific learning disabilities, can also be factors,
however.) In particular there are three types of cognitive loads:

1. Intrinsic load. The difficulty of the idea itself.

2. Extrinsic load. Difficulties due to poor presentation/instruction.
3. Germane load. The effort required to make new chunks and remember.

You can mitigate intrinsic load by pre-training. Breaking down a complex

subject into simple parts, which you master first before moving on.

You can ease extrinsic load by finding good resources for learning, or reor-
ganizing confusing ones.

Finally anxiety has a big impact on working memory. By crowding out the
information you need to process, distracting thoughts can make it very
hard to perform. Try reframing your anxiety as excitement, seeking confi-
dent instructors and journaling your thoughts to make it easier.

65.
 Endnotes

Endnotes
[1]  Stott, A. (2019). A Case Study of a High Achiever’s Learning of Physical Science.

[2]  Baddeley, A. (2011). Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies. Annual Re-
view of Psychology, 63(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100422

[3]  Baddeley, A. D. (2015). Memory (2nd ed.).

[4]  N. Unsworth and T. S. Redick, “Working Memory and Intelligence,” in Learning and Mem-
ory: A Comprehensive Reference, Second Edi., vol. 2, Elsevier, 2017, pp. 163–180.

[5]  Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory. (P. Ayres, S. Kalyuga, S. (Online Service), & L.
(Online Service), Eds.) (1.). New York, NY : Springer New York.

[6]  Papagno, C., & Cecchetto, C. (2018). Is STM involved in sentence comprehension? Cortex,
1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2018.08.028

[7]  Baddeley, A. D. (2018). Exploring Working Memory. Routledge.

[8]  Wiley, J., & Jarosz, A. F. (2012). How working memory capacity affects problem solving.
Psychology of Learning and Motivation - Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 56). Else-
vier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394393-4.00006-6

[9]  Hubber, P. J., Gilmore, C., & Cragg, L. (2014). The roles of the central executive and visu-
ospatial storage in mental arithmetic: a comparison across strategies. Quarterly journal of
experimental psychology (2006), 67(5), 936-54.

[10]  Baddeley, A. D., Chincotta, D., & Adlam, A. (2001). Working memory and the control of
action: Evidence from task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130,
641–657.

[11]  Baddeley, A. D., Chincotta, D., & Adlam, A. (2001). Working memory and the control of
action: Evidence from task switching. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130,
641–657.

[12]  Bui, D. C., & Myerson, J. (2014). The role of working memory abilities in lecture note-tak-
ing. Learning and Individual Differences, 33, 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LIN-
DIF.2014.05.002

[13]  Daneman, Meredyth; Merikle, Philip M. (1996). “Working memory and language compre-
hension: A meta-analysis”. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 3 (4): 422–433.

[14]  Papagno, C., & Cecchetto, C. (2018). Is STM involved in sentence comprehension? Cortex,
1–11.

66.
 Endnotes

[15]  Raghubar, K. P., Barnes, M. A., & Hecht, S. A. (2010). Working memory and mathemat-
ics: A review of developmental, individual difference, and cognitive approaches. Learn-
ing and Individual Differences, 20(2), 110–122. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lindif.2009.10.005

[16]  Wiley, J., & Jarosz, A. F. (2012). How working memory capacity affects problem solving.
Psychology of Learning and Motivation - Advances in Research and Theory (Vol. 56). Else-
vier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394393-4.00006-6

[17]  Bull R., Espy K. A., Wiebe S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and exec-
utive functioning in preschoolers: longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at
age 7 years. Dev. Neuropsychol. 33, 205–228. 10.1080/87565640801982312

[18]  Bergman Nutley, S., & Söderqvist, S. (2017). How Is Working Memory Training Likely
to Influence Academic Performance? Current Evidence and Methodological Consider-
ations. Frontiers in psychology, 8, 69. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00069

[19]  H. L. Swanson and T. P. Alloway, “Working memory, learning and academic achieve-
ment.,” APA Educ. Psychol. handbook, Vol 1 Theor. Constr. Crit. issues., vol. 1, pp. 327–
366, 2011.

[20]  Lee, K., Pe, M., Ang, S., & Stankov, L. (2009). Do measures of working memory predict
academic proficiency better than measures of intelligence? Psychology Science Quarterly
(Vol. 51).

[21]  Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R. (2004). Uncovering the
structure of a memorist’s superior “basic” memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology, 49(3),
191–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.02.001

[22]  http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/most-pi-places-memorised

[23]  Ericsson, K. A., Delaney, P. F., Weaver, G., & Mahadevan, R. (2004). Uncovering the
structure of a memorist’s superior “basic” memory capacity. Cognitive Psychology, 49(3),
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