EXAM QUESTIONS

AQA TRILOGY

QUANTITATIVE
CHEMISTRY

Q1-6 FOUNDATON

Q3-9 HIGHER

MARK SCHEME AT THE END OF

ALL THE QUESTIONS

Page 1 of 29
Q1.
A teacher extracted copper from copper oxide.

This is the method used.

1.   Mix 1.30 g of zinc and 1.59 g of copper oxide.

2.   Heat the mixture strongly.

3.   When the mixture starts to glow, stop heating.

4.   Let the glow spread through the mixture.

5.   Leave the mixture to cool.

(a)  This reaction is exothermic.

Which part of the method shows the reaction is exothermic?

Tick one box.

Mix zinc and copper oxide

Heat the mixture

Let the glow spread

Leave to cool

(1)

The equation for the reaction between zinc and copper oxide is:

(b)  1.30 g of zinc fully reacted with 1.59 g of copper oxide to produce 1.62 g of zinc
oxide.

What mass of copper was produced?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Mass of copper produced = __________________ g

(1)

(c)  What is the physical state of zinc oxide in the reaction?

Page 2 of 29
 Tick one box.

Aqueous

Gas

Liquid

Solid

(1)

(d)  Which substance has been oxidised in the reaction?

Tick one box.

Copper

Copper oxide

Zinc

Zinc oxide

(1)

(e)  What type of reaction takes place when zinc reacts with copper oxide?

Tick one box.

Combustion

Crystallisation

Displacement

Neutralisation oxide

(1)

Copper is a metal.

(f)  Which structure represents the arrangement of atoms in pure copper?

Page 3 of 29
 Tick one box.

(1)

(g)  Copper is used in electrical wiring.

Give one reason why.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(h)  In the UK, 40% of the copper we use is recycled copper.

The other 60% is copper obtained by mining.

What is the simplest ratio of recycled copper to copper obtained by mining?

Tick one box.

2:3

2:5

4 : 10

6:4

(1)

Page 4 of 29
 (i)  What are two advantages of recycling copper?

Tick two boxes.

Conserves copper ores

Increase in greenhouse gases

Less energy used

More jobs for miners

More space used at landfill

(2)
(Total 10 marks)

Q2.
This question is about Group 1 elements.

A teacher demonstrated the reaction of Group 1 elements with water.

Figure 1 shows the apparatus.

Figure 1

(a)  What name is given to Group 1 elements?

Tick one box.

Alkali metals

Halogens

Noble gases

Page 5 of 29
 Non-metals

(1)

(b)  The teacher wore safety glasses and used tongs to handle the elements.

Suggest one other safety precaution the teacher should take.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

Table 1 shows the teacher’s results.

Table 1

Element Observations

• bubbles form
Lithium • lithium moves slowly on
surface

• bubbles form
• sodium moves quickly on
Sodium
surface
• sodium melts to form a ball

• bubbles form
• potassium moves very
quickly on surface
Potassium
• potassium melts to form a
ball
• a lilac flame is seen

(c)  Describe the trend in reactivity in Group 1.

Give two observations from Table 1 which provide evidence for the trend.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(d)  Rubidium is a Group 1 element.

Rubidium is below potassium in the periodic table.

Page 6 of 29
 Suggest why the teacher did not demonstrate the reaction between rubidium and
water.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(e)  Complete the balanced equation for the reaction between sodium and water.

______ Na + ______H2O ⟶ ______ NaOH + H2

(1)

(f)  What is the name of the compound with the formula NaOH?

Tick one box.

Sodium dioxide

Sodium hydrate

Sodium hydroxide

Sodium oxide

(1)

Table 2 shows the diameter of atoms of Group 1 elements.

Diameter of atom in
Element
nanometres
Lithium 0.304

Sodium 0.372

Potassium X

Rubidium 0.496

Caesium 0.530

(g)  Predict value X in Table 2.

X = ____________________ nanometres
(1)

(h)  1 nanometre is 10−9 metres.

What is the diameter of a lithium atom in metres?

Tick one box.

Page 7 of 29
 3.04 × 10−8 m

3.04 × 10−9 m

3.04 × 10−10 m

3.04 × 10−11 m

(1)

Figure 2 shows the use of lithium and lithium compounds in 2007 and 2017.

Figure 2

(i)  Describe how the use of lithium and lithium compounds changed between 2007 and
2017.

You must include data from Figure 2 in your answer.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)
(Total 13 marks)

Page 8 of 29
Q3.
Calcium oxide (quicklime) is made by heating calcium carbonate (limestone).

calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

100 g ? 44 g

(a) 44 grams of carbon dioxide is produced when 100 grams of calcium carbonate is
heated.

Calculate the mass of calcium oxide produced when 100 grams of calcium
carbonate is heated.

___________________________________________________________________

mass _____________ g
(1)

(b) What mass of carbon dioxide could be made from 100 tonnes of calcium carbonate?

mass ____________ tonnes

(1)
(Total 2 marks)

Q4.
Some students investigated magnesium oxide.

(a) Magnesium oxide has the formula MgO.

(i) Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of magnesium oxide.

Relative atomic masses: O = 16; Mg = 24.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Relative formula mass = ___________________

(2)

(ii) Calculate the percentage by mass of magnesium in magnesium oxide.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Percentage by mass of magnesium in magnesium oxide = _______%

(2)

(iii) Calculate the mass of magnesium needed to make 25 g of magnesium oxide.

______________________________________________________________

Mass of magnesium = ___________________ g

(1)

Page 9 of 29
(b) The students calculated that if they used 0.12 g of magnesium they should make
0.20 g of magnesium oxide.

They did this experiment to find out if this was correct.

• The students weighed 0.12 g of magnesium ribbon into a crucible.

• They heated the magnesium ribbon.

• They lifted the lid of the crucible slightly from time to time to allow air into the
crucible.

• The students tried to avoid lifting the lid too much in case some of the
magnesium oxide escaped.

• When all of the magnesium appeared to have reacted, the students weighed
the magnesium oxide produced.

The results of the experiment are shown below.

Mass of magnesium 0.12

used in grams

Mass of magnesium 0.18

oxide produced in grams

(i) The mass of magnesium oxide produced was lower than the students had
calculated.
They thought that this was caused by experimental error.

Suggest two experimental errors that the students had made.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Page 10 of 29
 ______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) The students only did the experiment once.

Give two reasons why they should have repeated the experiment.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)
(Total 9 marks)

Q5.
Calamine lotion is used to treat itching. The main ingredients are two metal oxides.

(a) One of the metal oxides has a relative formula mass (Mr) of 81.

The formula of this metal oxide is MO.

(M is not the correct symbol for the metal.)

The relative atomic mass (Ar) of oxygen is 16.

(i) Calculate the relative atomic mass (Ar) of metal M.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

Relative atomic mass (Ar) = _____________

(2)

(ii) Use your answer to part (a)(i) and the periodic table on the Data Sheet to

Page 11 of 29
 name metal M.

The name of metal M is ___________________________________ .

(1)

(b) The other metal oxide is iron(III) oxide.

This contains iron(III) ions (Fe3+) and oxide ions (O2-).

(i) Explain in terms of electrons how an iron atom (Fe) can change into an iron(III)
ion (Fe3+).

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) The diagram below represents the electronic structure of an oxygen atom (O).

Complete the diagram below to show the electronic structure of an oxide ion
(O2-).

(1)
(Total 6 marks)

Q6.
Some students did an experiment to find the relative formula mass (Mr) of a gas.

Page 12 of 29
This is the method they used.

• The mass of the canister of gas was measured using a balance, which weighed to
two decimal places.

• The measuring cylinder was filled with 1 dm3 of the gas from the canister.

• The mass of the canister of gas was measured again.

• The temperature of the laboratory was measured.

• The air pressure in the laboratory was measured.

The students repeated the experiment three times.

(a) The results for one of the experiments are shown in the table below.

Mass of the canister of gas before

53.07 g
filling the measuring cylinder

Mass of the canister of gas after

51.21 g
filling the measuring cylinder

Calculate the mass of the 1 dm3 of gas in the measuring cylinder.

___________________________________________________________________

Mass = _________________________________ g
(1)

(b) How could the results be made more precise?

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(1)

(c) The students used their results to calculate values for the relative formula mass (Mr)
of this gas.
The results are shown in the table below.

Page 13 of 29
 Experiment 1 2 3 4

Relative formula mass (Mr) 45.4 51.5 46.3 45.8

(i) Calculate the mean value for these results.

______________________________________________________________

Mean = __________________________________
(2)

(ii) The four results are different.

The students thought this was because of experimental error.

Suggest two causes of experimental error in this experiment.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(iii) It was important for the students to repeat the experiment.

Suggest why.

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(1)

(d) The teacher told the students that the formula of the gas is C3H8

Calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of this gas. You should show your working.

Relative atomic masses: H = 1; C = 12.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Relative formula mass = ____________________

(2)
(Total 9 marks)

Q7.
Silicon is an important element used in the electronics industry.

(a) Silicon can be made by heating a mixture of sand (silicon dioxide) with magnesium
powder.

The equation for this reaction is shown below.

Page 14 of 29
 SiO2 (s)+ 2Mg (s) → 2MgO (s) + Si (s)

Calculate the mass of silicon dioxide needed to make 1 g of silicon.

Relative atomic masses: O = 16; Si = 28

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Mass = ____________________________g
(3)

(b) The resulting mixture of magnesium oxide and silicon is added to a beaker
containing hydrochloric acid. The silicon is then filtered from the solution.

(i) The magnesium oxide reacts with the hydrochloric acid and forms magnesium
chloride (MgCl2) solution and water.

magnesium oxide + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride solution + water

Write a balanced symbol equation for this reaction, including state symbols.

______________________________________________________________
(2)

(ii) The gases produced are a mixture of several silicon hydrides.

One of the gases produced in the reaction is the silicon hydride with the
formula SiH4. The structure of this molecule is similar to methane, CH4.

Draw a diagram to show the bonding in a molecule of SiH4. Represent the

electrons as dots and crosses and only show the outer shell (energy level)
electrons.

Page 15 of 29
 (1)

(iii) A sample of a different silicon hydride was found to contain 1.4 g of silicon and
0.15 g of hydrogen.

Calculate the formula of this silicon hydride. You must show all your working to
gain full marks.

Relative atomic masses: H = 1; Si = 28

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________
(4)

(iv) The silicon hydrides react immediately they come into contact with oxygen in
the air. They burst into flames with a small explosion and give out energy.

Which letter, A to H, best describes this reaction?

Energy involved in breaking and Activation Rate of Letter

forming bonds energy reaction

fast A
The energy released from forming new high
slow B
bonds is greater than the energy needed
to break existing bonds
fast C
low
slow D

fast E
The energy needed to break existing high
slow F
bonds
is greater than the energy released from

Page 16 of 29
 forming new bonds
low fast G

slow H

Letter __________
(1)

(c) The structure of silicon is similar to the structure of diamond.

Describe the structure of silicon and explain why it has a high melting point. You
may draw a diagram if this helps.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)
(Total 15 marks)

Q8.
Copper can be produced from copper(II) sulfate solution by two different methods.

Method 1 – Electrolysis

(a) To produce copper by electrolysis a student has inert electrodes, a d.c. power
supply, a switch and electrical wires for the external circuit.

Draw and label the apparatus set up to produce copper from copper(II) sulfate
solution by electrolysis.
(2)

(b) Suggest why the colour of the copper(II) sulfate solution fades during the
electrolysis.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(3)

(c) Explain how copper is produced from copper(II) sulfate solution by electrolysis.

Page 17 of 29
 ___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

Method 2 – Displacement

(d) The chemical equation for the displacement of copper using iron is:

CuSO4 + Fe Cu + FeSO4

Calculate the minimum mass of iron needed to displace all of the copper from 50
cm3 of copper(II) sulfate solution.

The concentration of the copper(II) sulfate solution is 80 g CuSO4 per dm3.

Relative atomic masses (Ar): O = 16; S = 32; Fe = 56; Cu = 63.5

Give your answer to 2 significant figures.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Mass of iron = __________________ g

(4)
(Total 13 marks)

Q9.
A teacher demonstrated the extraction of copper from copper oxide.

This is the method used.

1.   Mix 1.30 g of zinc and 1.59 g of copper oxide.

2.   Heat the mixture strongly.
3.   When the mixture starts to glow, stop heating.

Page 18 of 29
4.   Let the glow spread through the mixture.
5.   Leave the mixture to cool.
6.   Add hydrochloric acid to the cooled mixture.
7.   Filter the mixture obtained in step 6.

(a)  A student concluded that an exothermic reaction had taken place.

Explain how an observation made during the demonstration shows this.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(2)

(b)  The equation for the reaction between zinc and copper oxide is:

Zn + CuO ⟶ ZnO + Cu

1.59 g of copper oxide reacted.

Calculate the mass of copper produced.

Relative atomic masses (Ar): Cu = 63.5 O = 16 Zn = 65

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Mass of copper produced = ______________________ g

(3)

(c)  Explain why steps 6 and 7 result in only copper being obtained as the residue.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
(4)

Page 19 of 29
(d)  The ionic equation for the reaction is:

Zn + Cu2+ ⟶ Zn2+ + Cu

Which statement about the reaction between zinc and copper ions is correct?

Tick one box.

Copper ions have been oxidised because the copper

ions have gained electrons.

Copper ions have been oxidised because the copper

ions have lost electrons.

Zinc has been oxidised because the zinc atoms have

gained electrons.

Zinc has been oxidised because the zinc atoms have

lost electrons.
(1)
(Total 10 marks)

Page 20 of 29
Mark schemes

Q1.
(a)  let the glow spread
1

(b)  1.27 (g)

1

(c)  solid
1

(d)  zinc
1

(e)  displacement
1

(f)  A
1

(g)  any one from:

•   (good electrical) conductor
•   can be bent easily
ignore malleability

•   does not corrode

ignore does not rust
1
allow is ductile

(h)  2 : 3
1

(i)  conserves copper ores

1

less energy used

1
[10]

Q2.
(a)  alkali metals
1

(b)  any one from:

•   small piece of metal
•   large volume of water
•   use a (safety) screen
•   keep a safe distance (between teacher / students and apparatus)
1

(c)  reactivity increases down the group

1

any two from:

Page 21 of 29
 •   speed increases (down the group)
•   sodium / potassium melts but lithium does not
•   flame is seen with potassium, but no flame with lithium / sodium
2

(d)  rubidium is too reactive

allow reaction would be violent
1

(e)  2Na + 2H2O ⟶ 2NaOH + H2

allow correct multiples
1

(f)  sodium hydroxide
1

(g)  an answer in the range 0.373−0.495 (nanometres)

1

(h)  3.04 × 10−10 m

1

(i)  batteries increased from 10 to 28

or
batteries increased by 18
allow batteries increased approximately ×3
1

producing ceramics and / or glass increased from 10 to 22

or
producing ceramics and / or glass increased by 12
allow ceramics and / or glass increased by
approximately ×2
1

lubricants decreased from 8 to 6

or
lubricants decreased by 2
allow lubricants decreased by a quarter
1
if no other marks awarded allow 1 mark for
batteries and glass / ceramics increased,
lubricants decreased, with no or incorrect data
[13]

Q3.
(a) 56g
for 1 mark
1

(b) 44 tonnes
for 1 mark
1
[2]

Page 22 of 29
Q4.
(a) (i) 40
correct answer with or without working or incorrect working
if the answer is incorrect then evidence of 24 + 16 gains 1
mark
ignore units
2

(ii) 60
correct answer with or without working or incorrect working
if the answer is incorrect then evidence of 24/40 or 24/(i)
gains 1 mark
ecf allowed from part(i)
ie 24/(i) ×100
ignore units
2

(iii) 15
ecf allowed from parts(i) and (ii)
24/(i) × 25 or (ii)/100 × 25
ignore units
1

(b) (i) any two from:

ignore gas is lost

• error in weighing magnesium / magnesium oxide

allow some magnesium oxide left in crucible

• loss of magnesium oxide / magnesium

allow they lifted the lid too much
allow loss of reactants / products

• not all of the magnesium has reacted

allow not heated enough
allow not enough oxygen / air
2

(ii) any two from:

ignore fair test

• check that the result is not anomalous

• to calculate a mean / average

allow improve the accuracy of the mean / average

• improve the reliability

allow make it reliable

• reduce the effect of errors

2
[9]

Page 23 of 29
Q5.
(a) (i) 65
correct answer with or without working = 2 marks
if answer incorrect
evidence of (81 - 16) for 1 mark
ignore units
2

(ii) zinc
accept error carried forward from (a)(i)
allow correct symbol
answer given should be element / metal closest to their
answer
do not allow compounds
1

(b) (i) • it loses electrons

sharing / covalency = max 1 mark
1

• three electrons
1

(ii) 8 electrons shown in second shell.

accept dots / crosses / mixture of dots and crosses / e
electrons do not need to be paired
do not allow extra electrons in first shell
1
[6]

Q6.
(a) 1.86
ignore units / 1.9
1

(b) use a balance which weighs to more decimal places

accept (use a measuring cylinder with) smaller (scale)
divisions / intervals

or use more sensitive balance

allow reference to more decimal places allow smaller units /
scale
1

(c) (i) 45.8(3333333)

correct answer gains 2 marks with or without working
ignore units / 46
if the answer is not correct then evidence of:
(45.4 + 46.3 + 45.8) ÷ 3
or 137.5 ÷ 3
or 47.25 / 47.3 / 47.2 gains 1 mark
2

Page 24 of 29
 (ii) any two from:
ignore zero error / faulty equipmen

• loss of gas or leak

• error in measurement of volume of gas / gas in cylinder / 1 dm3

• error in weighing the canister / gas at start

• error in weighing the canister / gas at end

error in weighing the canister / gas = 1 mark

• change in temperature
allow incorrect measurement of temperature

• change in pressure
allow incorrect measurement of pressure
if no other mark awarded allow error in weighing for 1 mark
2

(iii) any one from:

ignore fair test / precise / valid or to check for errors /
mistakes

• check for anomalous results

• to find the mean / average

allow improve (accuracy of) mean / average

• (improve) reliability / make reliable

1

(d) 44
correct answer gains 2 marks with or without working
ignore units
if the answer is incorrect evidence of (3 × 12) / 36 and (8 ×
1) / 8 gains 1 mark
2
[9]

Q7.
(a) Mr (SiO2) = 60
if Mr incorrect ecf for max 2
1

60 g SiO2 → 28 g Si
correct answer for 3 marks
1

2.14 g SiO2 → 1 g Si
allow 2, 2.1, 2.14 (or anything rounding to 2.14), 2.16 or 2.2
a unit is not required but an incorrect unit loses the third
mark

Page 25 of 29
 OR Mr (SiO2) = 60 (1)

moles if silicon needed = = 0.0357

mass of SiO2 needed = 0.0357 × 60 (1)

= 2.14 g (1)
allow 2, 2.1, 2.14 (or anything rounding to 2.14), 2.16 or 2.2

OR Mr (SiO2) = 60 (1)

mass SiO2 = 1 × (1)

= 2.14 g (1)
allow 2, 2.1, 2.4 (or anything rounding to 2.14), 2.16 or 2.2
3

(b) (i) MgO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

penalise incorrect symbols correctly balanced equation for 1
mark state symbols for 1 mark
allow correct multiples / fractions
2

(ii)

or

ignore inner shell electrons of silicon

allow correct drawings without symbols
must clearly indicate four shared pairs of electrons with one
electron from each atom

(iii) Si H

= 0.05 = 0.15
1

Page 26 of 29
 1 3
for whole number ratio can be implied
1

Si H3
accept H3 Si or any correct formula with 1:3 ratio
if in step 1 they get either of ratios incorrect they lose first 2
marks but can be ecf for 3rd and 4th mark
evidence of mass / Ar 1 mark
proportions of each 1 mark
whole number ratio 1 mark
correct formula 1 mark
1

(iv) C
accept c
1

(c) any four from:

• giant structure / macromolecule / lattice / giant molecule

allow giant molecular / giant atomic structure

• each silicon atom joined to four other atoms

(or diagram)

• covalent bonds

• bonds are strong or large amount of energy needed to break bonds

accept hard to break bonds

• large number of bonds to be broken

mention of giant ionic structure or intermolecular forces or
intermolecular bonds max 1 mark
diamond or carbon discussion max 3 marks unless clearly
linked to silicon
4
[15]

Q8.
(a) electrodes connected to d.c. power supply by wires
for this diagram ignore the material used for the electrodes
as long as they are made from carbon or metals that are
inert
1

electrodes labelled anode (+) and cathode (−)

1

(b) copper ions cause the blue colour

answer must be in terms on copper ions
1

copper ions are reduced / converted to copper ions

Page 27 of 29
 1

so the concentration of copper ions decreased

1
if no other mark awarded allow 1 mark for copper ions are
used up during electrolysis

(c) copper ions are positive

1

so are attracted to the inert cathode or inert negative electrode

1

copper ions gain electrons at the inert cathode or inert negative electrode
1

so they are reduced to form copper atoms

1

(d) 50 cm3 contains 4 g CuSO4

1

Mr CuSO4 = 159.5
1

4 g CuSO4 reacts with × 56 g Fe

= 1.40(43877)
1

= 1.4 (g)
1
accept 1.4(g) with no working shown for 4 marks
allow 1.40(43887) without working shown for 3 marks
[13]

Q9.
(a)  reference to glow
1

(which) shows energy is being transferred to the surroundings

1
allow ‘heat’ for energy
allow (which) shows energy is being given out

(b)  (Mr CuO =) 79.5

1

allow an incorrectly calculated value for Mr from

step 1
1

(mass Cu = 0.02 × 63.5) = 1.27 (g)

1

Page 28 of 29
 alternative approach:
79.5 (g) CuO ⟶ 63.5 (g) Cu (1)

(mass Cu) = 1.27 (g) (1)

an answer of 1.27 (g) scores 3 marks
an incorrect answer for one step does not
prevent allocation of marks for subsequent steps

(c)  hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc oxide

allow hydrochloric acid and zinc oxide produce
zinc chloride
1

(to) form a solution (of zinc chloride)

1

copper does not react (with dilute acid)

1

(so copper) remains as a solid

allow (so copper) will collect in filter paper
1

(d)  zinc has been oxidised because the zinc atoms have lost electrons
1
[10]

Page 29 of 29