4 - Sensors and Transducers PDF

University of Technology Dr. louay A.
Mahdi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Branches: General, Refrigeration and Air conditioning, Vehicles Measurements
Forth class 2014 – 2015 sensors and Transducers 4
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University of Technology Dr. louay A.Mahdi
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4.0 Basic definitions:
The sensing element is the first element in the measurement system; it is in contact with, and draws
energy from, the process or system being measured. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
definition is A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement. The
input to this element is the true value of the measured variable; the output of the element depends
on this value. The elements are classified according to whether the output signal is:
 Electromagnetic: - photo sensors
- Current, voltage,
 Mechanical: - physical like pressure, force,
- accelerometer
- sound
- Heat.
 chemical: - smell
-taste
-pH
 Biological: DNA, T cell count.
 Nuclear
Elements with an electrical output are further divided into passive and active. Passive devices such
as resistive, capacitive and inductive elements require an external power supply in order to give a
voltage or current output signal; active devices, e.g. electromagnetic and thermoelectric elements,
need no external power supply. In this part the main physical principles used in measurement
sensors, and then it goes on to discuss the range of sensors and instruments that are available for
measuring various physical quantities.
4.1 Specifications of Sensor:
The specifications are clarified in lecture. 3
4.2 Attributes of Sensors:

• Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors function, such as electro-
optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet.
• Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical variables.
• Size: The physical volume of sensors.
• Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or discrete/analog or digital.
• Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-making.
• Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just receiving signals.
• Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in environment.
• Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough for its operation conditions.
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4.3 Physical Principles:
 Ampere's Law: A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences
a force (e.g. galvanometer)
 Curie-Weiss Law: There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials exhibit

paramagnetic behavior.
 Faraday’s Law of Induction :A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an

opposing voltage/current (e.g. transformer)
 Photoconductive Effect: When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance
of the material decreases. Photoelectric cell can detect light or convert it into electricity.
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4.4Types:
4.4.1 Resistive sensing elements:
Resistive sensors rely on the variation of the resistance of a material when the measured
variable is applied to it. This principle is most commonly applied in temperature measurement,
and in displacement measurement. In addition, some moisture meters work on the resistance-
variation principle. The types are:
i. Potentiometers for linear and angular displacement measurement.
Figure 4.1 shows potentiometers for the measurement of (a) linear (rectilinear) and (b)
angular (rotary) displacement. They consist of a former with a cylindrical cross-section which is either
a straight cylinder or an arc of a circle. Resistive material is then placed on the former so that the
resistance per unit length is constant (the usual case). This means that resistance is proportional to
the distance d travelled by the wiper between A and B.
Figure 4.1 linear and angular displacements.
ii. Resistive metal and semiconductor sensors for temperature measurement.

This principle is most commonly applied in temperature measurement using resistance
thermometers or thermistors.
Figure 4.2 Metal resistive temperature sensors,

Resistance/ temperature characteristics of commonly
used metals.
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iii. Metal and semiconductor resistive strain gauges.
Before discussing strain gauges we must first briefly explain the concepts of stress, strain,
elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio.
Stress is defined by force/area, so that in Figure 4.3(a) the stress experienced by
the body is +F/A, the positive sign indicating a tensile stress which tends to increase the
length of the body. In Figure 4.3(b) the stress is −F/A, the negative sign indicating a
compressive stress which tends to reduce the length of the body. The effect of the applied
stress is to produce a strain in the body which is defined by (change in length)/(original
unstressed length). Thus in Figure 2.3(a) the strain is e = +Δ l / l (tensile), and in 2.3(b) the
strain is e = −Δ l / l (compressive); in both cases the strain is longitudinal, i.e. along the
direction of the applied stress. The relationship between strain and stress is linear for a
given body over a certain range of values; the slope of the straight line is termed the elastic
modulus of the body:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
For linear tensile or compressive stress the elastic modulus is called Young’s modulus E;
for shear stress the relevant elastic modulus is shear modulus S. Returning to Figure 3.3(a)
we note that the increase in length of the body is accompanied by a decrease in cross-
sectional area, i.e. a reduction in width and thickness. Thus in Figure 3.3(a) the longitudinal
tensile strain is accompanied by a transverse compressive strain, and in Figure 3.3(b) the
longitudinal compressive strain is accompanied by a transverse tensile strain. The relation
between longitudinal strain eL and accompanying transverse strain eT is:
𝑒𝑇 = −𝑣𝑒𝐿
Figure 4.3 Stress and strain: (a) Effect of tensile stress (b) Effect of compressive stress.
Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in resistance when they are stretched or
strained. They are able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0–50 μm, and are
typically used as part of other transducers, for example diaphragm pressure sensors that convert
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pressure changes into small displacements of the diaphragm. Measurement inaccuracies as low as
0.15% of full-scale reading is achievable and the quoted life expectancy is usually three million
reversals. Strain gauges are manufactured to various nominal values of resistance, of which 120Ω,
350Ω and 1000Ω are very common. The typical maximum change of resistance in a 120Ω device
would be 5Ω at maximum deflection. The traditional type of strain gauge consists of a length of metal
resistance wire formed into a zigzag pattern and mounted onto a flexible backing sheet, as shown in
Figure 4.4(a). The wire is nominally of circular cross-section. As strain is applied to the gauge, the
shape of the cross-section of the resistance wire distorts, changing the cross- sectional area. As the
resistance of the wire per unit length is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, there is a
consequential change in resistance. The input–output relationship of a strain gauge is expressed by
the gauge factor, which is defined as the change in resistance (R) for a given value of strain (S), i.e.
In use, strain gauges are bonded to the object whose displacement is to be measured. The
process of bonding presents a certain amount of difficulty, particularly for semiconductor types. The
resistance of the gauge is usually measured by a d.c. bridge circuit and the displacement is inferred
from the bridge output measured. The maximum current that can be allowed to flow in a strain gauge
is in the region of 5 to 50 mA depending on the type. Thus, the maximum voltage that can be applied
is limited and consequently, as the resistance change in a strain gauge is typically small, the bridge
output voltage is also small and amplification has to be carried out. This adds to the cost of using
strain gauges.
Figure 4.4 Strain gauges: (a) wire type; (b) foil type.
iv. Semiconductor resistive gas sensors.

Metal oxide sensors have semiconducting properties which are affected by the presence of
gases. The resistance of chromium titanium oxide is affected by reducing gases such as
carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons. Here oxygen atoms near the surface react with
reducing gas molecules; this reaction takes up conduction electrons so that fewer are
available for conduction. This causes a decrease in electrical conductivity and a
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corresponding increase in resistance. The resistance of tungsten oxide is affected by
oxidizing gases such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) and ozone.
Figure 4.5 shows a typical construction of a metal oxide sensor using thick film technology.
This consists of an alumina substrate with a film of oxide printed on one side and a platinum
heater grid on the other. A typical NOX sensor has an ambient temperature range of −20 °C
to +60 °C and operating power of 650 mW. The resistance is typically 6 kΩ in air, 39 kΩ in
1.5 ppm NO2 and 68 kΩ in 5.0 ppm NO2.
A typical CO sensor has an ambient temperature range of −20 °C to +60 °C and an
operating power of 650 mW. The resistance is typically 53 kΩ in air, 85 kΩ in 100 ppm CO
and 120 kΩ in 400 ppm CO.
Figure 4.5 Typical construction of metal

oxide gas sensor.
4.4.2 Capacitive sensing elements:

Capacitive devices are often used as displacement sensors, in which motion of a moveable
capacitive plate relative to a fixed one changes the capacitance. Often, the measured displacement
is part of instruments measuring pressure, sound or acceleration. Alternatively, fixed plate capacitors
can also be used as sensors, in which the capacitance value is changed by causing the measured
variable to change the dielectric constant of the material between the plates in some way. This
principle is used in devices to measure moisture content, humidity values and liquid level.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel metal plates separated by a dielectric or insulating
material (Figure 4.6).
Figure 4.6 Capacitive sensing

elements.
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4.4.3 Inductive sensing elements:
i. Variable inductance (variable reluctance) displacement sensors.
In order to discuss the principles of these elements we must first introduce the concept of
a magnetic circuit. In an electrical circuit an electromotive force (e.m.f.) drives a current
through an electrical resistance and the magnitude of the current is given by
e.m.f. = current × resistance
A simple magnetic circuit is shown in Figure 4.7(a): it consists of a loop or core of
ferromagnetic material on which is wound a coil of n turns carrying a current i. By analogy
we can regard the coil as a source of magneto motive force (m.m.f.) which drives a flux
through the magnetic circuit.
Figure 4.7(b) shows the core separated into two parts by an air gap of variable width. The
total reluctance of the circuit is now the reluctance of both parts of the core together with
the reluctance of the air gap. Since the relative permeability of air is close to unity and
that of the core material many thousands, the presence of the air gap causes a large
increase in circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in flux and inductance. Thus
a small variation in air gap causes a measurable change in inductance so that we have
the basis of an inductive displacement sensor.
Figure 4.7(c) shows a typical variable reluctance displacement sensor, consisting of three
elements: a ferromagnetic core in the shape of a semi toroid (semicircular ring), a
variable air gap and a ferromagnetic plate or armature.
Figure 4.7 Variable reluctance elements: (a)&(b) Basic principle of reluctance sensing
elements (c) Reluctance calculation for typical element (d) Differential or push/pull
reluctance displacement sensor.
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ii. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) displacement sensor.
This sensor is a transformer with a single primary winding and two identical secondary
windings wound on a tubular ferromagnetic former (Figure 4.8). The primary winding is
energized by an a.c. voltage of amplitude VP and frequency f Hz; the two second Aries are
connected in series opposition so that the output voltage VOUT sin(2π f t + φ) is the difference
(V1 − V2 ) of the voltages induced in the second Aries. A ferromagnetic core or plunger moves
inside the former; this alters the mutual inductance between the primary and second Aries.
With the core removed the secondary voltages are ideally equal so that VOUT = 0. With the
core in the former, V1 and V2 change with core position x, causing amplitude VOUT and phase
φ to change.
Figure 4.8 LVDT and connections to phase-sensitive detector.
4.4.4 Electromagnetic sensing elements.

These elements are used for the measurement of linear and angular velocity an based on Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction. This states that if the flux linked by a conductor is changing with
time, then a back e.m.f. is induced in the conductor with magnitude equal to the rate of change of
flux.
In an electromagnetic element the change in flux is produced by the motion being investigated; this
means that the induced e.m.f. depends on the linear or angular velocity of the motion. A common
example of an electromagnetic sensor is the variable reluctance tacho generator for measuring
angular velocity (Figure 4.9).
It consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material (attached to the rotating shaft) and a coil
wound onto a permanent magnet, extended by a soft iron pole piece. The wheel moves in close
proximity to the pole piece, causing the flux linked by the coil to change with time, thereby inducing
an e.m.f. in the coil.
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The magnitude of the e.m.f. can be calculated by considering the magnetic circuit formed by the
permanent magnet, air gap and wheel. The e.m.f. is constant with time and depends on the field
strength of the permanent magnet. The reluctance of the circuit will depend on the width of the air
gap between the wheel and pole piece. When a tooth is close to the pole piece the reluctance is
minimum but will increase as the tooth moves away. The reluctance is maximum when a ‘gap’ is
adjacent to the pole piece but falls again as the next tooth approaches the pole piece.
Figure 4.9 Variable reluctance tacho generator, angular variations in reluctance and flux.
4.4.5 Thermoelectric sensing elements.

Thermoelectric or thermocouple sensing elements are commonly used for measuring temperature. If
two different metals A and B are joined together, there is a difference in electrical potential across
the junction called the junction potential. This junction potential depends on the metals A and B and
the temperature T °C of the junction.
A thermocouple is a closed circuit consisting of two junctions (Figure 4.10), at different temperatures
T1 and T2 °C. If a high-impedance voltmeter is introduced into the circuit, so that current flow is
negligible, then the measured e.m.f. is, to a close approximation, the difference of the junction
potentials, i.e.
Thus the measured e.m.f. depends on the temperatures T1, T2 of both junctions. In the following
discussion T1 will be the temperature to be measured, i.e. the temperature of the measurement
junction, and T2 will be the temperature of the reference junction. In order to accurately infer T1 from
the measured e.m.f., the reference junction temperature T2 must be known.
Figure 4.10 thermocouple principles.
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4.4.6 Elastic sensing elements.
If a force is applied to a spring, then the amount of extension or compression of the spring is
approximately proportional to the applied force. This is the principle of elastic sensing elements
which convert an input force into an output displacement. Elastic elements are also commonly used
for measuring torque, pressure and acceleration.
In a measurement system an elastic element will be followed by a suitable secondary displacement
sensor, e.g. potentiometer, strain gauge or LVDT, which converts displacement into an electrical
signal. The displacement may be translational or rotational.
Elastic sensing elements have associated mass (interance) and damping (resistance) as well as
spring characteristics. Figure 4.11 shows dynamic models of elastic elements for measuring linear
acceleration, torque, pressure and angular acceleration.
a b c d
Figure 4.11 Dynamic models of elastic elements:
(a) Linear accelerometer (b) Pressure sensor (c) Angular accelerometer (d) Torque sensor.
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4.4.7 Piezoelectric sensing elements.
If a force is applied to any crystal, then the crystal atoms are displaced slightly from their normal
positions in the lattice. This displacement is proportional to the applied force: i.e., in the steady state,
the dynamic relation between and can be represented by the second-order transfer function.
Piezoelectric elements are commonly used for the measurement of acceleration and vibration. The
following are same types of the piezoelectric sensing materials.
Figure 4.12Single crystals (Quarts) Polycrystalline ceramics (PTZ) Polymer (PVDF)
4.4.8 Piezo resistive sensing elements.
The Piezo resistive effect was defined as the change in resistivity of a material with applied
mechanical strain; silicon doped with small amounts of n- or p-type material exhibits a large Piezo
resistive effect and is used to manufacture strain gauges with high gauge factors as shown in figure
4.13.
Figure 4.13 Piezo resistive sensors
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4.4.9 Electrochemical sensing elements:
i. Ion selective electrodes.

Ion selective electrodes (ISEs) are sensors which directly measure the activity or
concentration of ions in solution. They could, for example, be used to measure the
concentration of lead, sodium or nitrate ions in drinking water. When an ISE is
immersed in a solution, a reaction takes place between the charged species in the
solution and those on the sensor surface. Equilibrium is then established between
these species: there is a corresponding equilibrium potential difference between the
sensor and solution, which depends mainly, but not entirely, on the activity of a single
ion. This output signal depends also, to some extent, on the activity of other ions
present in the solution; the electrodes are therefore selective rather than specific.
Figure 4.14 show the basic system for ion concentration.
Figure 4.14 Basic system for ion concentration measure and equivalent circuit
ii. Electrochemical gas sensors.

Some solid-state materials give an electrochemical response to certain gases. An
example is zirconia, which is sensitive to oxygen. Zirconia is based on zirconium oxide
(ZrO2) with small amounts of other metal oxides present. These atoms replace Zr
atoms at lattice sites and enable the material to conduct both electrons and oxygen
O2− ions. Opposite surfaces of a slab of zirconia are coated with a thin layer of
platinum, which is porous to oxygen molecules, to give two electrodes. If a surface is
exposed to a gas containing oxygen, then oxygen molecules diffuse into the zirconia.
A practical sensor consists of a small hollow cone of zirconia, coated on both the inside
and outside with a layer of porous platinum and held at a constant temperature of 640
°C.
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iii. Chemically sensitive field effect transistors (CHEMFET).
It is a chip of silicon crystal with impurities added to create areas of n-type and p-type
material. The device has four terminals. The source S and drain D are regions of
enriched n-type material, the body or substrate (B) is p-type material and the gate G is
metal or polysilicon material. The body is often connected to the source to give a three-
terminal device. The gate is insulated from the substrate by a thin layer of silicon
dioxide so that negligible current is drawn through the gate terminal. Figure 4.15 shows
the construction of chemically sensitive field effect transistors. This type is used to
analyze the liquids and the gases.
Figure 4.15 The construction of chemically sensitive field effect transistors.
4.4.10 Hall Effect sensors.

An important application of Hall devices is to measure magnetic field. It consists of a conductor
carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic field, as shown in Figure 4.16. This
produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly proportional to the
magnetic field strength. For an excitation current I and magnetic field strength B, the output voltage
is given by V = KIB, where K is known as the Hall constant.
Figure 4.16 principles of Hall-effect sensor.
The conductor in Hall-effect sensors is usually made from a semiconductor material as opposed to a
metal, because a larger voltage output is produced for a magnetic field of a given size. In one
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common use of the device as a proximity sensor, the magnetic field is provided by a permanent
magnet that is built into the device. The magnitude of this field changes when the device becomes
close to any ferrous metal object or boundary. The Hall-effect is also commonly used in keyboard
pushbuttons, in which a magnet is attached underneath the button. When the button is depressed,
the magnet moves past a Hall-effect sensor. The induced voltage is then converted by a trigger
circuit into a digital output. Such pushbutton switches can operate at high frequencies without
contact bounce.
4.4.11 Optical sensors

Optical sensors are based on the modulation of light travelling between a light source and a light
detector, as shown in Figure 4.17. The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fibre-
optic cable. Either form of transmission gives immunity to electromagnetically induced noise, and
also provides greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous environments. Light
sources suitable for transmission across an air path include tungsten-filament lamps, laser diodes
and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). However, as the light from Tungsten lamps is usually in the visible
part of the light frequency spectrum, it is prone to interference from the sun and other sources.
Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred. These emit light in a narrow
frequency band in the infrared region and are not affected by sunlight.
The main forms of light detector used with optical systems are photocells (cadmium sulphide or
cadmium selenide being the most common type of photocell), phototransistors and photodiodes.
These are all photoconductive devices, whose resistance is reduced according to the intensity of
light to which they are exposed. Photocells and phototransistors are particularly sensitive in the
infrared region, and so are ideal partners for infrared LED and laser diode sources.
Air-path optical sensors are commonly used to measure proximity, translational motion, rotational
motion and gas concentration.
Figure 4.17 principles of optical sensors.
Optical sensors can use fibreoptic cable instead to transmit light between a source and a detector. In
such sensors, the variable being measured causes some measurable change in the characteristics
of the light transmitted by the cable.
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4.4.12 Nuclear sensors.
Nuclear sensors are uncommon measurement devices, partly because of the strict safety regulations
that govern their use, and partly because they are usually expensive. Some very low-level radiation
sources are now available that largely overcome the safety problems, but measurements are then
prone to contamination by background radiation.
The principle of operation of nuclear sensors is very similar to optical sensors in that radiation is
transmitted between a source and a detector through some medium in which the magnitude of
transmission is attenuated according to the value of the measured variable. Caesium-137 is
commonly used as a gamma-ray source and a sodium iodide device is commonly used as a gamma-
ray detector. One current use of nuclear sensors is in a non-invasive technique for measuring the
level of liquid in storage tanks, They are also used in mass flow rate measurement and in medical
scanning applications.
4.4.13 Micro sensors.

Micro sensors are millimeter-sized two- and three-dimensional micro machined structures that have
smaller size, improved performance, better reliability and lower production costs than many
alternative forms of sensor. Currently, devices to measure temperature, pressure, force,
acceleration, humidity, magnetic fields, radiation and chemical parameters are either in production or
at advanced stages of research.
Micro sensors are usually constructed from a silicon semiconductor material, but are sometimes
fabricated from other materials such as metals, plastics, polymers, glasses and ceramics that are
deposited on a silicon base. Silicon is an ideal material for sensor construction because of its
excellent mechanical properties. Its tensile strength and Young’s modulus is comparable to that of
steel, whilst its density is less than that of aluminum. Sensors made from a single crystal of silicon
remain elastic almost to the breaking point, and mechanical hysteresis is very small. In addition,
silicon has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and can be exposed to extremes of
temperature and most gases, solvents and acids without deterioration.
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4.5 Transducers:
A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to
another, often in a different form (electrical, mechanical or acoustical).
4.6 Specification of transducers: Same for sensors.
4.7 Classification of transducers:
1. Based on principle of transduction
2. Active & passive
3. Analog & digital
4. Inverse transducer
There are mainly two types of transducers:
1) Electrical
2) Mechanical
The electrical output of a transducer depends on the basic principle involved in the design.
The output may be analog, digital, or frequency modulated.
4.7.1 Electrical Transducer
Electrical transducers can be classified into two major categories:
Active transducers: Generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical parameter
(does not require external power to operate). Example: piezo-electric sensor and photo cells.
Passive transducers: Requires external power to operate. Example: Strain gauges and
thermistors.
4.7.2 Resistive Position Transducer:
Operates under a principle of resistance change by the physical movement under measurement.
, The shaft and wiper can be moved to the left or right causes a change in the circuit resistance.
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that senses the strain produced by a force
on the wires. When a gauge is subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of
cross-section decreases thus increases its resistance. The main strain gauge is wire strain gauges,
A fine wire element is cemented to a thin sheet of paper, Bakelite or Teflon. The measurement of the
sensitivity of a material to strain is called the gauge factor.
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4.7.3 Capacitive Transducer
Capacitive transducer operates by a linear change in capacitance.
A variable plate area transducer is shown in the figure below.
It is made of a fixed plate called Stator and a movable plate called the Rotor. The
capacitance of the transducer is changing as the rotor changes its position relative to
the stator. This transducer can be used to detect the amount of roll in an aircraft.
Another example of capacitive transducer is the capacitive pressure transducer as shown in the
figure. This sensor is designed to measure pressure (in vacuum). A
metallic diaphragm will move to the right when pressure is applied to the
chamber and to the left when vacuum is applied. This diaphragm is used
as one plate of a variable capacitor. The capacitive transducer is simple
to construct, inexpensive, and effective for HF variations.
4.7.4 Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self-generating or the passive
type. The self-generating type utilizes the basic electrical generator principle. a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor. A tachometer is an example of the
self-generating transducer which directly converts speed or velocity into an electrical signal. An
inductive electromechanical transducer
converts physical motion into a change in
inductance.
For the measurement of displacement of linear and angular movement respectively. Works on the
principle of the variation of permeability causing a change in self-inductance. the variable reluctance
transducer.
4.7.5 LVDT is Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

An movable soft iron slides within the hollow part of the transformer thus affects the magnetic
coupling between the primary and the secondary windings. The frequency of the ac voltage applied
to the primary winding ranges from 50 Hz to 20 kHz.
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4.8 Wheatstone bridge
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the
unknown component. Its operation is similar to the original potentiometer. It
was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and
popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone
bridge's initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and
comparison.
4.8.1 Operation
In the figure, is the unknown resistance to be measured; , and

are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of is adjustable. If the ratio of the two
resistances in the known leg is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg ,
then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow through
the galvanometer . If the bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether is
too high or too low. is varied until there is no current through the galvanometer, which then reads
zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if
, and are known to high precision, then can be measured to high precision. Very small
changes in disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of
Alternatively, if , , and are known, but is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or
current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of , using Kirchhoff's circuit laws
(also known as Kirchhoff's rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance
thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a
resistance to zero the voltage.
4.8.2 Derivation
First, Kirchhoff's first rule is used to find the currents in junctions B and D:
Then, Kirchhoff's second rule is used for finding the voltage in the loops ABD and BCD:
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The bridge is balanced and , so the second set of equations can be rewritten as:
Then, the equations are divided and rearranged, giving:
From the first rule, and . The desired value of is now known to be given as:
If all four resistor values and the supply voltage ( ) are known, and the resistance of the
galvanometer is high enough that is negligible, the voltage across the bridge ( ) can be found by
working out the voltage from each potential divider and subtracting one from the other. The equation
for this is:
Where is the voltage of node B relative to node D.
4.8.3 Modifications of the fundamental bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is the fundamental bridge, but there are other modifications that can be
made to measure various kinds of resistances when the fundamental Wheatstone bridge is not
suitable. Some of the modifications are:
1-D.C. bridge measurements
The simplest form of a D.C. four-arm resistance bridge is the Wheatstone bridge. This is
suitable for the measurement of resistance typically in the range from 1 Ω to 10 Ω and is
shown in Figure above. The detector which may be either a galvanometer or an
electronic detector is used to detect a null potential between the points D and B of the
bridge, or Strain gauges and platinum resistance thermometers may be situated at a
considerable distance from the bridge and the long leads connecting the active element to
the bridge will have a resistance which will vary with temperature.
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2-A.C. bridge measurements:
i. Null-type impedance bridge
A typical null-type impedance bridge is shown in Figure below. The null point can be
conveniently detected by monitoring the output with a pair of headphones connected via an
operational amplifier across the points BD. This is a much cheaper method of null detection
than the application of an expensive galvanometer that is required for a D.C. Wheatstone
bridge.
I1R1 = I2R2 I1Zu = I2Zv

Thus:
Zu = ZvR1/R2
Zu is capacitive,
Notice that the expression for Zu as an inductive
impedance has a resistive term in it because it is
impossible to realize a pure inductor.
ii. Maxwell bridge
The requirement for a variable inductance box is avoided by introducing instead a second
variable resistance. The circuit requires one standard fixed-value capacitor, two variable-
resistance boxes and one standard fixed-value resistor, all of which are components that are
readily available and inexpensive.
I1ZAD = I2ZAB I1ZDC = I2ZBC
thus: ZBC/ZAB =ZDC/ZAD or ZBC=(ZDC * ZAB)/ZAD
iii. Deflection-type A.C. bridge
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A.C. bridges for the measurement of capacitance and inductance

Bridge Circuit Balance conditions Notes
Maxwell L1=(R2/R4)L3 used to measure the
parallel components of an
unknown inductance
Maxwell- L1=R2 R3C4 used for the measurement

Wien1 R1=R2R3/R4 of inductance; if C4 and
Q1=ωC4R4 R4 are variable bridge
measures L1 and R1; if R4
and R2 or R3 are variable
bridge measures L1 and
Q1
Hay measurement of A.C

inductance in the presence
of D.C. bias current; used
for the measurement of
inductances with high L and
Q
Owen L1= C4R3. R2 measurement of the series

inductance and
G1=1/R1=(1/C4R3)C2 conductance of an
unknown inductor; used as
a high-precision
bridge
Series used for the measurement

capacitance of capacitance; if C3 and
Component R3 are variable bridge
bridge measures C1 and R1; if R3
and R4 are variable bridge
measures C1 and D1
22
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Bridge Circuit Balance conditions Notes

Parallel measurement of the parallel
capacitance capacitance and resistance
component of an unknown capacitor;
bridge used particularly for high D
capacitor measurement
Maxwell- measurement of the parallel

Wien2 capacitance and resistance
of an unknown capacitor;
used as a frequency-
dependent circuit in
oscillators
Schering measurement of the parallel

capacitance and resistance
of an unknown capacitor:
used for measuring
dielectric losses at high
voltage and r.f.
measurements
23

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University of Technology Dr. louay A.

4.2 Attributes of Sensors:

 Curie-Weiss Law: There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials exhibit

 Faraday’s Law of Induction :A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an

Figure 4.1 linear and angular displacements.

ii. Resistive metal and semiconductor sensors for temperature measurement.

Figure 4.2 Metal resistive temperature sensors,

iv. Semiconductor resistive gas sensors.

Figure 4.5 Typical construction of metal

4.4.2 Capacitive sensing elements:

Figure 4.6 Capacitive sensing

Figure 4.8 LVDT and connections to phase-sensitive detector.

4.4.4 Electromagnetic sensing elements.

4.4.5 Thermoelectric sensing elements.

Figure 4.10 thermocouple principles.

Figure 4.12Single crystals (Quarts) Polycrystalline ceramics (PTZ) Polymer (PVDF)

4.4.8 Piezo resistive sensing elements.

Figure 4.13 Piezo resistive sensors

i. Ion selective electrodes.

ii. Electrochemical gas sensors.

Figure 4.15 The construction of chemically sensitive field effect transistors.

4.4.10 Hall Effect sensors.

Figure 4.16 principles of Hall-effect sensor.

4.4.11 Optical sensors

Figure 4.17 principles of optical sensors.

4.4.13 Micro sensors.

4.7.5 LVDT is Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

In the figure, is the unknown resistance to be measured; , and

At the point of balance, the ratio of

Then, the equations are divided and rearranged, giving:

Where is the voltage of node B relative to node D.

4.8.3 Modifications of the fundamental bridge

1-D.C. bridge measurements

i. Null-type impedance bridge

I1R1 = I2R2 I1Zu = I2Zv

ii. Maxwell bridge

I1ZAD = I2ZAB I1ZDC = I2ZBC

thus: ZBC/ZAB =ZDC/ZAD or ZBC=(ZDC * ZAB)/ZAD

iii. Deflection-type A.C. bridge

A.C. bridges for the measurement of capacitance and inductance

Maxwell- L1=R2 R3C4 used for the measurement

Hay measurement of A.C

Owen L1= C4R3. R2 measurement of the series

Series used for the measurement

Bridge Circuit Balance conditions Notes

Maxwell- measurement of the parallel

Schering measurement of the parallel

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