Bicycles Case Study of Indian Expierence

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cvcles.* A Case Stu&?of I- Exwrlence
Small-Scale Manufacturing Studies No. 1
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A Case Study
of
Indian Experience
UNITED NATIONS
UNITED NATIONS INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATION
VIENNA
SMALL-SCALE MANUFACTUIUNG STUDIES, No. 1
A Case study of Indian Experience
UNITED NATIONS
New York, 1969
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publi-
cation do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part
of the Secretariat of the United Kations concerning the legal status of any
country or territory or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of
its frontiers.
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

Sales No.: E. 69. II. B. 30
Price: $ US 1.00 (or equivalent in other currencies)
Printed in Austria
FOREWORD
This publication is the first in a series on the contribution of small-scale industries

to the production of consumer goods and producer goods of special importance
to the development of industrializing countries.
It is commonly believed that, because of the h an&+ Jf size and consequent
diseconomies of scale, and because of freqrllent weaknesses in technology and
management, small-scale industries in the developing countries should not be
oriented towards the manufacture of goods which benefit frorrl mass production
or call for complex technologies-automatic or specialized m:ichinery, mvolved
processes, high-precision work, etc. It is sometimes argued that small-scale indus-
‘. tries in the developing’countries should be confined to the production cf simple
goods requiring simpie technologies. Small-scale industry is considered as inter-
mediate between the traditional sector of artisans and handicrafts and the, modern
manufacturing sector--closer to the former than to the latter,
In fact, small-scale industries are or can be thoroughly modern-through
the use of modern machinery, up-to-date processing and management techniques,
and the production of modern and sophisticated goods.
No individual small-scale enterprise should attempt to produce the well-
known items requiring large-scale plant and mass production- automobiles, air-
planes, ships, steel and many others. However, many small-scale industries. may-
and, principally in industrial countries,, do-contribute to the production of
some of these goods under subcontracting arrangements whereby they manu-
facture parts and components or undertake certain processing and Lishing
operations for large-scale industries.
In any economy, a large number of items are or can be economically pro-
duced either in the large- or small-scale sectors. This is true of bicycles, motor-
cycies, electronic and optical good.s, some machine tools, certain types of agri-
cultural, electrical and ocher machinery and a number of home appliances. In
large-scale industries, especially in some industrializing countries, most of the
parts and components are usually manufactured in the plant itself and costs are
kept low through mass production. In small-scale industries, som.e (and occasion-
ally all) of the components are made in the plant, and the others are bough
from large-scale manufacturers, from specialized small-scale producers, or from
importers. Costs are reduced through low ov-erhead, appropriate machinery,
the use of labour-intensive operations and simplification of processing techniques.
Thus, the goods under consideration may be produced under several altsr-
native arrangements: (a) entirely by a large-scale industry; (b) assembled by a .
small-scale industry that may manufacture some of the parts and components
or even the whole item; (c) under subcontracting arrangements between the
large-scale factory and a number of small-scale ones; (d) under subcontracting
arrangements among small-;scale industries; and (e) under a new and largely
...
111
untested system, sometimes called “functional organization”, whereby a number
of small-scale producers manufacture and assemble parts and components of a
giver. item according to a common production programme.
The question whether there is scope for one, several or all of these arrange-
ments in any given country will vary according to the sircumstanc,:s. In some
countries, large-scale production, and therefore subcontracting between large-
and small-scale industries cannot be justi’fied economically. Elsewhere, the
inadequacy of skills, and the obstacles to joint or co-operative undertakings, may
hamper the promotion of subcontracting or of functional programmes among
small-scale enterprises. In far too many cases, the lack or inadequacy ofL~dustria1
extension services and of financial assistance may prevent small-scale industries
from contributing under any arrangement :o the production of major consumer
goods or producer goods.
There are strong grounds for believing that, provided an integrated pro-
gramme of promo:lun of, and .;ervice to, small-scale industries is in operation,
one or several of the above fcrms of organization can be introduced or expanded
in most developing countries. In order to produce or to contribute to the pro-
duction of the goods in question, small-scale industries should have well-trained
w,orkers, should be adequately financed, well equipped, well managed, able and
willing to co-operate, and, not infrequently, highly specialized. As a rule, this
can be achieved only if the industry is assisted at all stages of establishment,
management and operation through a comprehen: system ot* measures in-
cluding : technical and managerisl counselling ; traAng ; financing on liberal
conditions; industrial estates. including sometimes functional or ancillary estates;
common service facilities and a variety of incentives and measures of protection.
This series of publications, of which the present study on bicycles is the
first, is aimed at facilitating the establishment or expansion of the above forms
of organization in the developing countries. It is predicated on the assumption
that, in the production of certain. types of important goods, the small-scale
industry sector can be complementary to, or competitive with, the large-scale
industry se<-tor, or can substitute for it where it dots not or cannot exist. Since
the contribution of s&all-scale industries may range from the, production of
a few parts to the manufacturing of a wE4e product, each study should contain
a detailed analysis of the type, design and spec&cation of all parts and compo-
nents of the selected product. Since even the most modern small-scale industries
have limitations owing to size and scale of operation, each study should describe
appropriate machinery, propose simplifying innovations in processing, and point
out labour-intensive operations-without, however, &c&g productivity and
product quality. Data should also be provided on manufacturing processes in
the large- and small-scale sectors; on the operations that lend themselves to
subcontracting and joint production programmes; on standards, quality control
and inspection procedures; on internal and foreign marl eting ; and on productivity
and costs ir! the large- and small-scale sectors.
The treatment of the’ subject in this study goes kgr beyond what is usually
found in “model schemes” or “industry profiles”. While the study is based
almost entirely on the experience in India, it is likely that most of its &dings
iv
and reco,y.mendations are applicable to the conditions prevailing in other clevel-
oping countries. The study is intended for officers of industrial estcnslon ccntres,
small-scale industry service institutes, industry departments of ministei:cs of
industry, technological research institutes, technicians of industrial credit institu-
tions, large- and small-scale industrial entrepreneurs, and technical assistnncc
experts in developing countries.
The subject of bicycles was selected for the first issue of this series because
bicycles can be produced under various arrangements, and because of the wide-
spread demand for bicycles throughout the developing world. Other studies
to be published in this series will c!eal with sewing machines, radios, domestic
electrical applicances, agricultural implements and several types of machine.
UNIDO does not intend, however, to cover all possible items of small-scale
manufacture, and there is much scope for research to be undertaken by other
organizations along these lines, mainly in relatively advanced developing coun-
tries. It is hoped that the studies in the present series will encourage further efforts.
Co-ordination of the research to be undertaken bp other organizations with
the work programme of UNIDO is invited,
The study was prepared by G. B.Jakhetia, Deputy Director, Central Small
Industries Organisation of the Ministry of Industrial Dcvclo pmcnt and Company
Affairs, Government of India, and by R. Lakshminarasimhaiah, Deputy Director
in the same organization, in their capacity as cons&ants to UNIDO. The views
and opinions expressed in this paper arc those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the secretariat of UNIDO.
V
CONTENTS
Chapter 3. INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN BICYCLE IN

INDIA ......................... 1
Chapter 2. TYPES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONSOF BICYCLES MANUFACTURED

IN INDIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES ..............
Types .........................
Designs ........................
Specifications .....................
Chapter 3. SPECIFICATION OF THE BICYCLE SELECTEDFOR THIS STUDY .... 8
Chapter 4. COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING IN SMALL- AND LARGE-SCALE

SECTORS ........................ 11
Cost of production against capital investment in the small- and
large-scale sectors .................... 12
Chapter 5. SPECIFICATIONSOF BICYCLE PARTS AND COMPONENTS ...... 14

Frame set ....................... 15
Handle-bar. ...................... 20
Rear wheel ...................... 21
Front wheel ...................... 25
Brake set ....................... 26
Transmission ..................... 28
Chapter 6. MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMPLETE BICYCLE . 34

Process &' -manufacture and assembly ........... 38
Machines and equipment for a lower scale of production . . 42
Chapter 7. MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZEDCOMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY WITS 45

Chains ........................ 45
Spokes, nipples and washers ............... 48
Mudguards ...................... 49
Rims......................- .. .30
Hubs .............. .: .......... 50
Free-wheel ............. ‘I........... 52
Chain wheel and cranks ................. 53
Pedals ........................ 54
Turned components. .................. 55
BB shells ....................... 58
Saddles ........................ 59
Bicycle accessories ................... 59
vii
Chapter 8. THE SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM AND THE FUNCTIONAL INDUSTRIAL
ESTATEFORTHZ BICYCLEINDUSTRY. ............ 62
The subcontracting system ................ 62
Functional industrial estates. ............... 64
Subcontracting in the bicycle industry ........... 64
Chapter 9. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, QUALITY CONTROL AND INSPECTION

FORHOMEANDEXPORT. ................. 69
Standard specifications. ................. 69
Quality control. .................... 70
Inspection for the home market ............. 70
Inspection for export .................. 70
Chapter 10. EXPORT ......................... 72
Chapter 11. COMPARISON OF PRODUCTIVITY IN THE LARGE- AND SMALL-SCALS

SECTORS ........................ 75
Comparison of levels of productivity in the large- and small-
scale sectors ...................... 76
Suggestions for improvement of productk+y in small-scale
units ...................... : .. 78
Chapter 12. COST OFMANUFACTURING A COMPLETE BICYCLE ........ 79

Non-recurring costs .................. 79
Recurring costs .................... 79
Chapter 13. MARXETINGANDDISTRIBUTION ............... 84
Chapter 14. CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS ............ 86
...
Vlll
AT .REVIATIONS AND NOTES
The following abbreviations are used in this paper:
BB bottom bracket
BSS (or BS) British Standard Specification
BSW
v .. British Standard Whitworth
CRCA cold-rolled coil annealed
hundredweight (50.802 kg)
2 direct current
dia. diameter
EN Emergency National (British Standards)
ERW electrical resistance welded
ft foot or feet
G. gauge
HB hard-drawn bright (wire)
llP horsepower
h hour
HV hardness (Vickers)
ID inside diameter
inch or inches
Ei Indian Standards Institution
ISS (IS) Indian Standards Specification
kg kilogramme
kw kilowatt
kH left hand
:
millimetre
E mild steel
OD outside diameter
right hand
wm revolution per minute
Rs. rupees (7.50 rupees = US$l.OO, 1969)
TPI thread per inch
Gallons referred to in the text are imperial gallons of 4.546 litres.

‘6Ancillary industrial unit” is defined on page 63.
ix
Chapter ;I
INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN

I BICYCLE IN INDIA
The pedal-driven bicycle, which was the first attempt of man to provide himself
with a personal mode of transport without using animal power, was invented
in 1839 bv,I Kirkpatrick Macmillan of Scotland. The “velocipede”, as the bicycle
was originally called, has undergone many changes in its design, and its manu-
facturc has developed greatly during the past hundred years. Thus the modern
bicycle is a mechanized marvc: on two wheels and a product of specialized
technical achievcmcnt.
ZJtility and place of the bicycle in the economy
The bicycle is a cheap and speedy means of personal conveyance. Although

it is operated by one’s own power, it is four times as fast as walking and demands
far less energy. It plays an important role in daily life; it is able to carry loads
many times its own weight, and is used as a carrier by grocers, bakers, milkmen,
newspaper boys and the like. In many advanced countries holiday cycling is a
national pastime and there are many who enjoy bicycle racing as a sport. The
bicycle is a useful conveyance in almost all countries, but it plays an especially
significant role in the economy of India, as it is the most suitable and perhaps
the cheapest mode of conveyance in rural and urban areas.
Bicycle manufacture requires not only special skills in tool making, design
of press tools, jigs and fixtures, but also high-quality raw materials such as cold-
rolled steel strips or coils, ERW bicycle tubes, tllgh carbon steel wire, rubber
moulded goods and enamels and paints.
Development of the bicycle industry in Iudia
The bicycle industry has a significant place in the light engineering industry
in India. The origin of this industry dates back to the early years of this century.
It is reported that two small-scale units were established in Calcutta iz 1910.
The industry, however, did not make much headway initially and India continued
to be a iiourishing market for foreign bicycles. The development of the industry
started during the Second World War when the import of bicycles became
difficult. A f ew enterprising industrialists took advantage of this situation and
started the manufacture of bicycles and components. In 1941 a large-scale unit
WLSset up in Bombay; in the Punjab a fk,w units started the manufacture of
bicycle parts and accessories for the replacement market.
Systematic growth of the bicycle industry began only after the independence
of India with the beginning of the planning ‘era. Between 1950 and 1960 many
I 1
units were established in both the large- and small-scale sectors, owing to various
measures of protection and incentives granted to the indigenous manufacturers
by the Government. Another favourable factor responsible fol the growth of
this industry was the increase in demand for bicycles conscqucnt to the establish-
ment of industrial townships, the construction of roads in the urban and even
remote rural areas, the increase in trade between small villages and towns and
the rise in the standard of living of the pcoplc under the impact of successive
five-year plans.
Growth in the small-scale sector
The planned growth of the bicycle industry in the small-scale sector started
immediately after the introduction of the common production programme by
the Government of India during the First Five-Year Plan. The common produc-
tion programme envisaged the reservation of specific capacities for the manu-
facture of bicycles in the small-scale sector by putting a check on the expansion
of the existing capacities in the large-scale sector and also by giving priority
to industries in this programme for various important inputs such as raw mate-
rials, componcn es and technical and financial assistance. Following thcsc incentives,
manufacturing programmes for several small-scale units were approved by the
Government of India for the manufacture of components and complete bicycles.
To give some protection to the indigenous bicycle manufacturers, the
Govcrnmcnt adopted a policy of progressive reduction of imports. This has
hclpcd the indigenous manufacturers to eliminate competition from foreign
manufacturers and to meet the demand for bicycles by producing them within
the country. Until 1957 the import of complete bicycles was allowed. There-
after, only the import of raw materials and components was allowed, and this
on a selective basis, particularly with respect to those items for which manu-
facturing capacity had not been fully developed within the country. This policy
made it possible for small-scale industrialists to assemble complete bicycles at
a lower capital investment by manufacturing only a few parts in their factories.
Gradually the manufacture of the components :.hat had been imported was
started. The raw materials, however, continued to be imported. With the over-
all increase in the production of bicycles and components, the raw materials
needed by the industries also began to be produced in the country.
The bicycle industry in the small-scale sector developed mainly on the
following iint3 : (a) =x~its
specializing in the manufacture of specialized compo-
nents such as free-wheels, rims, mudguards, hubs, spokes and nipples and BB
shells; and jb) assemblers manufacturing a few parts and obtaining other com-
ponents from units that specialize in their manufacture.
Contribution of small-scale industries
Small-scale industries have made a substantial contribution to bicycle pro-

duction in India. Table 1 indicates the number and type of units (small- or large-
scale), their installed capacity and actual production. The table shows the progre%s
made by the bicycle industry in India during the period 1962-1966.
INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMEN-J OF THE MODERN BICYCLE IN INDIA 3
-__ ----
INSTALLED CAPACITY AND ACTL: PRODUCTION OF BICYCLE

MANUFACTURING UNITS i.‘l h<DIA, 1962- 1966"
.Sttrdl-sm!c sector
Prodrrctiotl
No. of hlsta~ka (thousmds of No. qf Itrstnlld (thousands of
Yenr capacity bicycles frids cflpyncit
y bicycles
rrtlits
per year) per year)
_____-~~---~- ~~ --~- -
1962 21 1,444 1,116 55 508 278
1963 21 1,444 1,166 50 610 274
1964 20 1,640 1,380 50 610‘ 308
1965 20 1,640 1,540 50 610 308"
1966 18 1,640 1,631 48 610 308"
a Estimates.
It may be seen that the small-scale sector accounts for about 20 per cent of
the total production of bicycles in India. Moreover, a large number of small-
scale units have been contributing substantially towards the manufacture of
bicycle parts, components and accessories. Small-scale manufacturers arc manu-
facturing highly sophisticated parts such as chains, spokes, free-wheels, hubs,
chain wheels and cranks. Some large-scale manufacturers are now buying these
components from small-scale units. Such co-operation has created a healthy
ancillary relationship between the large- and small-scale manufacturers and has
resulted in economies of production and over-all improvement in the quality
of bicycles. This has made it possible for the bicycle industry to break well into
the export market, and the bicycle is now one of the light engineering items
being exported by India.
Future potential
It is anticipated that by 1970/1971 there will be a yearly demand for 3 million

bicycles in India compared to the present production of 2.25 million per year.
The industry, therefore, has good scope for expansion, which can be realized
only by enhancing the e,xisting capacities or encouraging the establishment of
new units. I%ecs?gnizing this fact, the Government of India has declared, under
the Industries Development and Regulation Act, that no industrial licenses will
be required, even to set up large-SC&e units. Owing to the confidence created
by the small-scale nnits, the Government has reserved manufactLnre of all parts
and componen.ts except a few specialized items, such as free-wheels, rims and
chains, for the small-scale sector. The bicycle industry has also been declared
a priority industry and the manufacturers of bicycles and bicycle parts are there-
fore assured a full supply of raw materials, from imported sources if necessary.
These measures taken by the Government of India obviously offer a great op-
portunity for &rther development of this industry in the smalLscale sector.
Chapter 2
TYPES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLES

MANUFACTURED IN INDIA AND OTHER COUNTRIES
TYPES
The ;ype of bicycle manufactured depends upon the user for whom it is intended
and the purpose for which it is to be used. The rider may be a man, woman or
child; the purpose may be for sport, racing or load-carrying. Recently some
unconventional types have been made such as portable folding, small-wheeled
and cantilever models.
Bicycles produced in India
The following types of bicycle arc manufactured in India:

(a> Men’s roadster, single bar model, with raised handle-bar and double
levers ;
(b) Men’s roadster model with double bar;
(c) Women’s model with curved tube;
(d) Women’s model with straight tube;
(c) Sports model with raised handle-bar and caliper brakes;
( f) Children’s model.
Bicycles produced in other countries
In Japan several types of bicycle arc produced in addition to those made

in India ; they are :
(CI) Racer model with ten-speed dirailleur gear;
(b) V-n’s light-weight model;
(4 L gravity carrier ;
(4 Sp- .&wheeled cantilever model ;
(e) Portable folding model.
Most of the types described above are manufactured in the United Kingdom
and other European countries, the mosr popular
A types being sports and racing
models.
Recently a new type, called the Moulton bicycle, has been introduced in
the United Kingdom. This bicycle has changed the concept of pedal bicycles
that has prevailed since the introduction of the two-wheeled safety bicycle
in 1885. The novel features of the Moulton bicycle are: small wheels of 16 in.
diameter; natural rubber suspension system ; large luggage rack at front and
rear; precision built frame of special section steel tube; and low centre of gravity.
A folding model called the Moulton stowaway has also been introduced.
4
TYPES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLES MANUFACTURED IN INDIA 3
-___
Raleigh Industries Ltd, England, has developed a small-wheeled bicycle

with the additional feature of adjustabic handle-bars to suit all riders from
children to adults. In Hungary also, collapsib!c, foldable and dctachablc models
have been developed. The special featlu-e of these bicycles is that they can bc
folded and stored even in the boot of a car and can be quickly asscmblcd within
two to three minutes.
DESIGNS
Bicycle designs vary according to the shape and style of their components.
Different designs may be used fi>r mudguards, pedals, frames, cranks and chain
wheels.
Typical examples of various designs used in the manufacture of certain
parts are given below.
Frarrrrs Sports; men’s roadster; women’s sports, women’s roadster; men’s
double bar
Forks Tubular crown with chromium plated bras3 thimbles; flat crown
with brass cover chromium plated; butted column with tubular
crow11 chromium plated thimbles; butted column with brass
crown cover chromium plated
Deep round section; deep domed section; ribbed section; U-shaped
section; round narrow section
Cranks aud Joggled with cranks square or oval section; cranks with double
chain. wheel chain wheels; joggled with detachable arm
Harzdle-bars Raised with double lever screwing stud attachment; raised with
double lever brazed lever stud; north road raised pattern; raised
without lever with T-jointed stem; dropped for sports and racer
models
Brakes Lever brakes with brake shoes; caliper brakes with side pull or
central pull system
Hubs Thin barrels closed ends; thin barrels closed ends with replace-
able dust caps or open ends ; large barrels closed ends of pressed
steel; curved barrels with open ends; thin barrels closed ends for
dirailleur gears
Saddles Men’s full roadster three-coil springs and double wire base;
women’s roadster with turned down nose, heavy-weight double
wire base with double loop front and rear; spring seats double
wire base and rear coil springs
Pedals Pyramid full rubbers with screwed dust cap or winged dust cap;
diamond full rubbers with screwed or winged dust caps; rat-
trap type for sports and racers; full plastic pedals 1
1 A fully plastic pedal has been developed in India in which the 94 conventional parts
in a pair of pedals have been replaced by only seven plastic parts for each pedal without
sacrificing functional efficiency.
6 BICYCLES
._
Chaill guard ~~11double-sided; single-sided or half chain covers; quarter chain

cover
Ltrs,9’i,le Tubular construction; pressed steel frames provided with grip
carrierT or simple straps
Bel!c Lever operated electric bells or siren horns; spoke bells operated
by caliper handle-bar.
SPECIFICATIONS
Bicycles produced in India
The sizes of bicycles produced in India arc 20 in., 22 in., and 24 in., men’s
and women’s models. The children’s models are made in 14 in , 36 in., and 18 in.
sizes.
The men’s roadster model, single bar (figure 1) is the most popular bicycle
in India. The specification of this bicycle is given in chapter 3.
The specification of a sports model is: 21 in. framl:; 26 in. x 13/s in. wheels;
raised handle-bar; adjustable stem assembly; caliper brakes; Westrick rims with
l/d in. chain cover; and suitable saddle.
Bicycles made in Japan
The specifications of a few types of bicycle produced in Japan are given

below.
(a) Racer with tm-speeds
21 in. X 2’7 in. X 11/d in.; built of best quality
high-tension steel
tubing; brazed up lugs; front fork model for racer; any colour
on request ; handle-bar stem locking ring with micro-adjuster
Wheels Rims: 27 in. xl*/4 in., flat-sided, wired on, chromium plated,
36 x 36 holes
Tires: 27 in. x 11/d in., wired-on, black tread and side walls
Tubes: butyl tubes with English pattern valves
Spokes: steel spokes, 15 G., plated
Hubs: best forged steel hubs
Dirailleur gear: ten-speed gear with l/z in. x 3/32 in. x 15, 17, 19,
21 and 24 teeth multiple free-wheel
Dropped, deep-curved, chromium plated, black handle tape with
cap ends, extended seem
Brakes Calipers, front and rear, light alloy levers and arms chromium
plated, quick release
Gear and l/z in. x 3/32in. ~47 and 50 teeth double chain wheels
cranks
Chair? l/z in. X 3/32in. X 114 links
Peda!s Rat-trap design
Saddle Plastic
TWES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLES MANUFACTURED IN INDIA 7
_._. ---~- ---. -_--.-~--- --- _~._. -_
Accessories Bell, light alloy frame pump, toe clip and side reflector
atld eqlaippnrerzt
(b) Cantilever type
Frame 14 in. x20 in. X 13/d in., American type, flamboyant red finish
with white head decoration and lines, other colour finish to order
Wheels Rims: model 7A, 20 in. ‘4 13/d in., wired-on, 24 x 24 holes
Tires: 20 in. x 13/din., black tread and white sidewall, wired-on
Tubes: butyl seamless tubes with American pattern valves
Spokes: 14 G. plated
Hubs: front, 24 holes with ball retainers; rear, coaster hub brake
l/z in. x l/g in. x 16 teeth sprocket
Hatldle-bar Boyscout 161/z in. bar with model I’ stem (adjustable)
Brakes Rear, coaster hub brake
Mudguards Chromium plated, channel stays front 2-piece; rear l-piece, with
reflector
Gem and l/z in. x l/s in, x 32 teeth, 5 in. oval-section cranks
crateks
Chain l/z in. x l/g in. x 82 links
Pedals 31/d in. white rubber blocks
Saddle Pan type, two-tone vinyl top with spring
Accessories Battery lamp, rear carrier and stabilizers
and equipment
(c) Sports model
Frame 21 in. x 26 in. x 1318 in.; built of best quality steel tubing;brazed
up lugs and cottorless bracket; straight tapered seat and chain
stays brazed up; pump pegs; front fork with plated crown cover;
flamboyant red with gold line
Wheels Rims : model 5, 26 in. x 13/g in., 36 x 36 holes, chromium plated
Tires: 26 in. x 131s in., wired-on, white sidewalls
Tubes: seamless butyl with American pattern valves
Spokes: 15 G., plated
Hubs : thin barrel front hub; 3-speed gear hub with handle grip
control for rear; l/z in. x l/s in. x 18 teeth sprocket
Handle-bar North road pattern, with 1 in. extension stem
Brakes Calipers, front and rear chromium plated
Mudgards Light-weight model chromium plated
Gear and .l/2 in. x l/s in. x46 teeth, with 6112 in. square-section cra&s
cranks
Chain l/z in. x l/s in. best roller chain
Pedals 4 in. white rubber
Saddle Spring seat, imitation leather top, two-tone colour
Accessories Rubber reflector, battery light, touring bag, centre stand, chain
and equipment cover, frame pump and front carrier
Chapter 3
SPECIFICATION OF THE BICYCLE SELECTED FOR THIS

STUDY
The men’s roadster, single-bar, is the most popular bicycle in India and in most
of the developing countries in the Middle East. It is popular because of
its strong construction and it meets the requirements of countries where the
roads are poor. The roadster, therefore, has been selected for this study. (See
figure 1.)
Frame 24 in. men’s roadster model manufactured to IS 623; tubes

electrizresistanie welded to IS 2484 and IS 2037; seat tube ii/g in.
dia. x 20 G.; down tubes 1 in. dia. x 18 G.; top tube 1 in. dia. x
20 G.; head tube 11/a in. dia. x 20 G.; tubes arc provided with
internal liners made from 16 G. MS sheet; lugs are made from
annealed 16 G. MS sheets; bottom bracket shell of malleable
cast iron, made to BS 309 and IS 2107; lugs and BB shell are
pinned and brazed with the tubes
Fork Made to fi 2061; fork blades tapered and oval made from ERW
tapered tube to IS 2484 and IS 2039; fork column either butted
or provided with liners made from 16 G. MS sheet; fork crown
pressed from 16 G. CRCA sheet; crown cover pressed from
brass sheet 22 G., nickel and chromium plated
Wheels Rims : made to IS 624; size 28 in. x 1 l/x in., manufactured from ,
CRCA strip
Spokes and nipples: made to IS 630; spokes made from 1.8 mm
dia. high carbon steel wire; and nipples from free cutting extruded
brass of 3.8 mm dia.; nickel and chromium plated
Tires: size 28 in. x 11/z in., wired-on, black tread
Tubes: made to IS 2415; size 28 in. x 1112in., butyl rubber, seam-
less, with English pattern valves and plate washer, made to IS 532
Hubs: made to IS 629; large barrel of seamless tube ll/la in. x
16 G.; closed ends made from pressed steel 14 G. CRCA sheet;
front hub axle 5116in. dia. x41/2 in., made from bright steel bar;
rear hub axle 3/g in. dia. x 61/p in., made from bright steel bar;
cones made from ENIA steel 11/16 in. dia., case hardened to
600 HV and chemically rust-proofed or blued; steel balls l/d in.
chromium alloy steel, made to IS 2898
8
SPECIFICATION OF THE BICYCLE SELECTED FOR THIS STUDY 9
Luggage carrier
Mudguard Handle -bar

Saddle I
Bell
I 1
Handle
Seat grip Brake
stay
I I.1 I I
Rear
retlector
Rim _
Chain
I Hub
I Fork
J (tront) I
3and Eeand
Crank
Chain
wheel
Figure 3. Men’s rodster, single-bar, bicycle
Handle-b= Made to IS 625, roadster raised pattern; handle-bar ERW bicycle

tube 7/g in. dia. x 16 G., made to IS 2434 and IS 2039; handle-bar
with eye bolts made from 15 mm dia. MS; an,! double lever
(for brakes) made from 10 mm dia. MS; nickel and chromium
plated with celluloid grips
Brake sets Lever rim brakes front and rear for 24 in. frame; front and rear
brake stirrups with tube J/32 in. ID MS L-shaped bell crank
levers made from 14 G. MS sheet; bottom long brake rod made
from 9 G. HB wire; brake shoes made of 18 G. CRCA sheet
and assembled with brake block of moulded rubber; all metal
parts nickel and chromium plated
I
10 BICYCLES
- ___-_ ___---
Mudguards Deep dome section a’/4 in. wide x 11/32 in. high suitable for 24 in.
roadster, made from 24 G. CRCA strip or sheer; with stays
made from 3116 in. dia. MS rod; black enamel finish and gold
lined ; rear mudguard tail painted white and fitted with reflector
Chain wheel Made to IS 1281; joggled chain wheel made from MS sheet
and cranks 3 mm 48 teeth x l/z in. pitch; cranks of forged steel, 7 in. long
in oval section; nickel and chromium plated
Made to IS 627; 112in. pitch xl,/*in., 112 links; inner and outer
plates made from co!d-rolled bright steel strip 1 mm thick and
blued; bushes and rollers heat treated to 600 HV; spring clip
type connecting link made from 1 mm spring steel
Free-wkcel Made to IS 1283; size l/z in. pitch x l/g in. x 18 teeth, free-wheel
body made from ENIA steel forged, and wearing surfaces
hardened to 600 HV; fitted with 108 steel balls, l/g in. dia.,
chromium alloy, made to IS 2898
Pedal Made to IS 628; pedal tubes of ERW 18 G. steel tube 5/g in.
assembly OD, made to IS 2484 and IS 2039, nickel and chromium plated:
pedal axle of ENIA steel and wearing surfaces case hardened
to 600 l-IV; stretcher bars of 4 G. HB wire, fitted with nuts on
both ends; winged dust cap pressed from 18 G. MS sheet, nickel
and chromium plated; ball race made from 14 G. CRCA sheet;
and pedal cone made from ENIA steel and hardened to 600 HV,
fitted with 48 balls 5/32 in. dia. of chromium alloy steel, made
to IS 2898; full rubbers, 4 in., of pyramid or diamond design,
black
Saddle Men’s full roadster size 101/z in. x 8112 in. leather top, three-coil
springs on double wire base, chromium plated.
.
Chapter 4
COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING IN SMALL- AND

LARGE-SCALE SECTORS
The bicycle is an item of mass consumption and is used even in the remote areas
of the country. It is produced in great quantities in both the large- and small-
scale sectors. In both sectors economic production is feasible. In the large-scale
sector thr. cost of production is kept low by mass production; in the small-scale
sector it is kept low by reduced overheads. In the large-scale sector sophisticated
automat.ic plants are used for mass production, but in the small-scale sector,
semi-automatic or single-operation machines are used of a size to give suitable
output. In the large-scale sector most of the parts and components required for
a bicycle are manufxturedin tht- unit itself. In the small-scale sector, on the other
hand, not all of the parts and components are manufactured within the unit.
111the large-scale units, the manufacturing is divided into sections, depending
upon the process. Pressed parts are manufactured in the press shop by presses
capable of mass production. Turned parts are made on automatic machines.
Components such as chains, hubs, free-wheels, spokes and nipples, mudguards
and rims are made in specialized plants. The finishing shops for electroplating,
stove enamelling and heat treatment generally have automatic plants and material-
handling equipment. Assembly shops operate on a line production basis. Inspec-
tion is carried out at every stage of manufacture in accordance with standard
specifications.
In the small-scale units, as stated earlier, the assemblers of complete bicycles
make only a few parts such as frames, forks, seat stays, chain stays, handle-bars
and certain other pressed parts. Electroplatir+, 7 and stove enamelling are done
on comparatively simple equipment. The work pieces are handled manually
or by simple trolleys. The specialized components are bought from large-scale
industries, or specialized small-scale producers, or are imported.
The manufacturing process in the small- and large-scale sectors varies
according to the scale of production, the type of machinery and the equipment
used. The availability of raw materials influences the process of manufacture.
However, for the manufacture of certain specialized components that must,
for economy of scale, be produced itl large numbers, the technologies employed
by both sectors are similar. This is evident from. the fact that many large- and
small-scale units have identical plants for the manufacture of components such
as chains, spokes and nipples. For components such as mudguards, rims and
hubs, the large-scale units have sophisticated automatic plants that operate with
specific types of raw materials only; the small-scale units have made innovations
on the same principles by developing simpler plants. In these plants they can use
11
lq* BICYCLES
easily available raw materials. The following example illustrates the technical
innovation of small-scale units for the manufacture of rims.
-Rim manufacture in the large-scale sector
A cold-rolled steel strip of measured width is fed from a coil into an auto-
matic machine consisting of two sets of forming rollers with a seam-welding
unit between them. The first set of rollers forms the rim beads by curling the
edges of the strip and forming the seam. As the strip passes on, both seams are
automatically welded in the seam-welding section of the plant. The second
set of rollers then forms the rim section and rolls it into a continuous helical
coil. When a sufficient length of this coil is formed, it is taken to the next machine
where the helical coil of rim section is cut into individual rims. The ends of
the rim are then butt-welded in a butt-welding machine forming a complete
circle of rim. The welded joint is cleaned on the inside and outside by profile
grinding wheels. The rim is then re-rolled in a rim m-rolling machine to make
it circular. Spoke holes are then punched in the rim by an automatic punching
machine. Rims are poiished on automatic rim polishing lathes and electroplated
in automatic plating vats.
Rim manufacture in the small-scale sector
In this process, instead of bending a continuous length of cold-rolled steel,

strips are cut from sheets into exact lengths to form single rims. Each strip is
fed into a simple rolling machine that forms the beads (including seam) and at
the same time rolls the rim section and bends it into circular shape. The ends
of the rolled rim are then trimmed to the correct circumference in a trimming
machine and are butt-welded in a butt-welding machine. After cleaning the
inner and outer surface of the rim at the weld joint, the rim is seam-welded in
a seam-welding machine. Next it is made into a true circle in a rim-rolling
machine after which the spoke and inflator holes are punched. The rims are
electroplated on simple equipment. The difference in this method is that steel
strips are cut from sheets instead of from cold-rolleds strips in coils. If cold-rolled
strips in coils are not available, the automatic rim-making machine used by
large-scale industries cannot be used.
In both sectors, therefore, economic production has been established and
the manufacturing processes enable quality standards in production to be achieved.
COST OF PRODUCTION AGAINST CAPITAL INVEST,MENT IN THE

SMALL- AND LARGE-SCALE SECTORS
The costs of production of various parts and components of a bicycle differ

in accordance with the capital investment in the small- and large-scale sectors.
In India, certain items are produced at a lower cost in the small-scale sector,
others at a higher cost. The small-scale bicycle component industry has been
able to keep down the cost of production by using several technical innovations
COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING; IN SMALL- AND LARGE-S(:AI E SECTORS 13
and by having, for cxamplc, a proprietor supervising the operation of his factory.
The overhead is less in the small-scale sector. The technical innovations have
helped to establish economy production of the quantity suitable for the small
scale.
It is difficult to make a prccisc comparison of the costs of production for
components and parts in the small- and large-s&c sectors. However, approsi-
mate costs of production in India in both sectors for certain items have been
estimated and arc listed below in table 2.
YR~DUCTI~N cosr5 FOR BICYCLE COMPONENTS

AND PARTS IN INDIA,1966
Slllnll-scale .~l~ctol L‘7ry-scnlc sector
(Rqwcs) (Rufm'sj
Chains per pair 4.00 4.50

Spokes, nipples and per bicycle 3.25 3.50
washers P/2 gross)
Mudguards per pair 3.00 3.00
Rims each 14.00 14.00
Hubs per pair 5.00 5.50
Chain-wheel and cranks per set 5.00 4.50
Fret-wheels each 3.75 3.50
Pedals per pair 3.00 4.00
BB shells each 1.75 1.50
.
Turned components per set 2.50 2.00
Fork, frame, handlc- 50.00 60.00
bar, pressed parts
The range of costs of production given above in table 2 for small- and
Large-scale sectors depends upon the capital invcstmcnt, the manufacturing
method, the quality of the item and the scale of production. It is thcrcforc im-
pcrdtivc for developing countries to plan their bicycle industry in accordance
with the estimated demand for domestic LISCand for export. The Indian cxpcricncc
indicates that for small countries, the bicycle industry can bc economically planned
within the small;-scale sector. According to the present definition, a small-scale
unit in India is or!c with investment in machinery and equipment up to Rs. 750,000
(us$loo,ooo) irrespective of the investment in land, buildings, working capital
or number of workers employed. Production in either sector can i-,c economic.
Economic production within the small-scale sector is feasible on different
scales of production. Details of manufacturing costs at two levels of production
(one for 25,000 b’lc y c 1es 1?er year and the other for lS,OOO) arc given in chapter 12.
Chapter 5
SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLE PARTS AND CO,MPONENTS
The bicycle is divided into the following sub-assemblies, with each sub-assembly
further divided into groups and then into parts that are designated by code
numbers. Bicycle sub-assemblies and their code numbers are:
1. Frame set, 1000
2. Handle-bar, 2000
3. Rear wheel, 3000
4. Front wheel, 4000
5. Brake set, 5000
6. Transmission, 6008
Figure 2 shows the sub-assemblies and groups with their code numbers.
The first digit of the code number indicates the sub-assembly, the second defines
the group and the last two digits give the parts number. This system of code
numbers can be used to classify parts on job cards, to issue material from. stores,
to identify finished parts and to number them in catalogues. A fifth digit can
be added to this system to identify models.
The details of parts, materials required, number of parts per bicycle, and
prescribed standards for all sub-assemblies are given in tables 3 to 16 below.
The parts in the list are arranged in the order required for the manufacture of
the sub-assembly.
Brake set Transmission

6ooo--
Chain stay Rear hub Front hub

1100 3100 4100
I
Free wheel
3200
Figure 2. Sub-assemblies and groups of the bicycle and their code rtwrfiers
14
SPECLFICATIONS
OF BICYCLE PARTS AND COMPONENTS 15
- _. _-
FRAME SET
Table 3
SUB-ASSEMBLY, FRAME SET 1000 (FIGURE 3)
Qxsntity
Co& No. Nurrre M~~terial Remarks
hf~~/e
_ ...--__-- _ __ .--... -
1001 Bottom bracket 1 Malleable cast iron
1002 Seat tube 1 l’/2 in. x 20 G. IS 24ti4 and IS 2039
ERW steel tube
1003 Seat tube liner 1 20 G. MS sheet
1004 Seat lug 16 G. MS sheet
axaealed
1005 Down tube i l/g in. dia. x 18 G. IS 2484 and IS 2039
ERW steel tube
1006 Down tube liner 16 G. MS sheet
1007 Bottom head lug 16 G. MS sheet
1008 Top tube 1 in. dia. x 20 G. IS 2484
ERW steel tube IS 2039
1009 Top tube liners 2 16 G. MS sheet
1010 Top head lug 1 20 G. MS sheet
annealed
1011 Head tube 1 1114in. dia. x 20 G. IS 2484 and IS 2039
ER.W steel tube
1012 Riveting pins 10 l/g i.1. dia. HB
steel wire
1100 chain stay 1 Details of parts are
given in table 4
1013 Chain stay bolt 318in. dia. BSW Purchased
1014 Chain stay nut 318in. dia. BSW Purchased
1015 Chain stay washer 3is in. dia. MS Purchased
12.00 Seat stay Details of parts are
given in table S
1016 Seat lug bolt 318in. dia. BSW Purchased
1017 Seat lug nut 318in. dia. BSW Purchased
1018 Pump pegs on frame 3116in. dia. MS Purchased
1019 Seat pillar 1 in. dia. x 18 G. Nickel and chromium
ERW tube plated
1020 Bottom ball 1 16 G. CRCA sheet Nickel and chromium
race seating plated
1021 Top ball race 1 16 G. CRCA sheet Nickel and chromium
seating plated
1300 Fork 1 Details of parts are
given in table 6
1022 Crown race 1 40 mm dia. Hardened to 600 HV ;
ENIA steel IS 226 : 1962
16 RJCYCLES
-__
Table .? (continued)
Mclterinl
1023 Chrome steel balls 60 l/g in. dia. MS Purchased

1024 Bottom inner ball 1 40 mm dia. Hardened to 600 HV;
race ENIA steel IS 266: 1962
1025 Top inner ball race 1 40 mm dia. Hardened. to 600 HV ;
ENIA steel IS 226: 1962
1026 Screwed race 1 45 mm dia. Bicycle thread 1.06 mm
ENIA steel pitch; nickel and
chromium plated
1027 Spacing washer 1 40 mm dia. MS Nickel and chromium
plated
1028 Lamp bracket 1 10 G. MS sheet Nickel and chromium
plated
1029 Locking nut 1 40 mm across flats, Bicycle thread 1.06 mm
h,S hexagonal bar pitch ; nickel and
chromium plated
1030 Rear mudguard 1 24122 G. CRCA
sheet or strip
1031 Rear mudguard inner 1. 16 G. MS sheet Spot welded with 1030
bridge at the rear side
1032 Rear mudguard stays 2 3116in. dia. MS Assembled with 1030
and 1031
1033 Rear mudguard tabs 2 16 G. MS sheet Spot and gas welded
with 1032
1034 Stay nuts 2 3/16 in. BSW Purchased; for fixing
with 1031
1035 Rear mudguard clip 1 20 G. MS sheet For fixing on the
bridge of chain stay
1400 Mudguard reflector 1 20 G. MS sheet Purchased
1036 Front mudguard 1 24/22 G. CRCA
sheet or strip
1037 Front mudguard 1 16 G. MS sheet Spot welded with 1036
inner bridge at the rear side
1038 Front mudguard stays 2 3116in. dia. MS Assembled with 1036
and 1037
1039 Front mudguard tabs 2 16 G. MS sheet Spot and gas welded
with 1038
1040 Stay nuts 2 3116in. BSW Purchased
1041 Mud flap 1 Rubber Purchased
1042 Round-head screws, 3 ‘Is in. BS W Purchased
nuts and washers each
1043 Front mudguard 1 J/l6 in. BSW Purchased ; for . fixing
set screw with fork
1044 BB axle 1 25 mm dia. Hardened to 600 HV
ENIA steel
SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLE PARTS AND COMPONENTS 17
--
Table 3 (continued)
Qunrztify
Code No. Nnrrre Mdrrid
d~h!
1045 Loose liner 1 16 G. MS sheet

1046 Steel balls 22 Chromium alloy Purchased
114in. dia.
1047 BB fixed ball cup 1 45 mm dia. Hardened to 600 to
ENIA steel 800 HV
1048 BB adjustable ball 1 40 mm dia. Hardened to 600 to
cup ENIA steel 800 HV
1049 Locking nut 1 50 mm dia. MS IS 226:1962; 24 TPI
(RH) nickel and
chromium plated
Table 4
SUB-ASSEMBLY, FRAME SET 1000. GROUP, CHAIN STAY 1100 (FIGURE 3)
Qmttity
Cod~pNo. NCZMW per Material Remarks
lricyclc
_~
1101 Chain stay tubes 2 7/g in. dia. x 18120 G. One left hand,
ERW tube one right hand
1102 Liners (rear) 2 18 G. MS sheet
1103 Liners (front) 2 18 G. MS sheet
1104 Chain stay bridge 1 18 G. MS sheet
Table 5
SUB-ASSEMBLY, FRAME SET 1000. GROUP, SEAT STAY 1200 (FIGURE 3)
Qrrnntify
Code No. per Material Rrrrrnrks
bicycle
1201 Seat stay tubes 2 sls in. x 20 G. One left hand,

ERW steel tube one right hand
1202 Liners (top) 2 20 G. MS sheet
1203 Liners (bottonlj 2 20 G. MS sheet
1204 Seat stay bridge 1 20 G. MS sheet Gas welded for con-
necting LH and RH
seat stay tubes 1201
Tests for frame made to IS 623 : 1963

Trtrcrlc~ss. The frame be fixed (see figure 3a) on a suitable surface
must
plate with bottom bracket perpendicular to it. The heights of the centrc lines
of the tubes and the chain and seat stays are then measured from the surface
plate. These heights should not vary by more than 5 1.0 mm.
BICYCLES
SUB-ASSEMBLY, FF,AMESET 1000. GROUP, FORK 1300 (FIGURE 3)
Quarlrify
Code No. NmrK! F Material Remarks
bicycle
1301 Fork blade (right) 1 ERW tapered tube

or 16 G. MS sheet
1302 Fork blade (left) 1 ERW tapered tube
or 16 G. MS sheet
1303 Fork blade liners 2 16 G. MS sheet Liner is inserted into
(bottom) the open end of the
fork blades right and
left, before pressing
the end
1304 Fork blade liners 2 16 G. MS sheet
bP>
1305 Fork crown 16 G. CRCA sheet
or strip
1306 Box pieces 16 G. MS sheet
1307 R .YA
. in
s 111~in. dia. Assembled over the
16 G. MS fork column tube in-
side fork crown,
tack welded
1308 Fork column 1 1 in. dia. x 16 G. Threaded 1.06 mm
ERW tube or pitch, bicycle thread
butted column tube;
top 1 in. dia. x 16 G.
and bottom
1 in. dia. x 10 G.
1309 Fork column liner 1 16 G. MS sheet
I.310 Fork crown cover 1 22 G. MS or brass Nickel and chromium
sheet plated
Load test. For this test (see figure 3b) t,he chain stay at the frame should
be clamped on a suitable lug mounted on a bench in such a manner that the top
tube of the frame is horizontal. The head tube should rest on a roller support.
The frame is loaded at the points where the handle-bar and the seat are to be
fitted, with 23 kg and 82 kg weights respectively. The loads are then increased
to 100 kg and 350 kg respectively, the maximum loads kept for two minutes
and released. The frame should not show any deformation at the point E.
Test forjnish. A solid steel ball measuring 13 mm in dia. is dropped from
a height of 1.5 metres on any painted portion of the frame. The area of paint
StiliCk by the steel ball should stand the impact without showing any sign of
tear or peeling.
The frame is kept dipped for one hour in a 5 per cent common salt solution
at the following temperatures: black enamel paint 8OOC; other enamel paints
60°C. The paint must not soften, peel off or show change in colour.
_____ --- ~-
”
c
I
3I
20 UICYCLES
___~---.-.~.- ._..-. .~ ~.~
Tests for fark made to IS 2061: 1962
Loan test. of the fork must be clamped rigidly (see figure 3c)
The stem
with its axis horizontal and the fork ends turned upward keeping the fork crown
clear of the ct,lmp jaws by 8 mm. A vertical load is applied on the fork ends,
where the front wheel axle is to be fitted, so that the load acts on both ends
equally. The load is then increased until it reaches 45 kg and held for 30 seconds.
The fork must not show a permanent set of more than 1.6 mm at the point
of loading.
Eqansiorr test.
distance between the free ends of fork legs, when
The
expanded 13 mm by pushing a mandrel or any suitable device between them,
should not show any measurabie permanent incrcqsc under ordinary methods
of measurement.
Test firjr~ish is the same as for the frame.
HANDLE-BAR
SUB-ASSEMBLY, HANDLE-BAR 2CKKI (FIGURE 4)
Code No. NfWC
2001 Handle-bar tube 1 7/g in. dia, x 16 G.

ERW steel tube
2002 Handle-bar lug 1 14 G. CRCA sheet
2003 Handle-bar stem 1 7/g in. dia. x 16 G.
tube ERW steel tube /
2004 Eye bolts 4 15 mm dia. MS
2005 Eye bolt washers 4 18 mm dia. MS
2006 Eye bolt nuts 4 MS bar l/d in. dia. Inserted into handle-
bar tube for fixing
eye-bolt
2007 Left roller lever 1 10 mm dia. MS
2008 Right roller lever 1 10 mm dia. MS
2009 Roller lever spring 1 16 G. spring steel Purchased
wire
2010 Brake tab front 1 10 G. MS sheet
2011 Brake tab rear 1 10 G. MS sheet
2012 Roller lever 2 10 G. MS sheet
washers
2013 Roller lever nuts 2 318 in. BSW
2014 Brake rod front 1 10 G. HB wire
2015 Brake rod rear 1 10 G. HB wire .
2016 Expander bolt 1 7.94mm x 0.98 pitch For fixing handle-bar
bicycle thread to fork
Tdh 7 (continued)
Qumtity
Code No. Nuw per
bicycle
2017 Expander bolt 1 10 G. MS sheet

washer
2018 Cone 1 71~in. dia. MS
2019 Handle-bar grips 2 Celluloid Purchased
Test for handle-bar IS 625 : 1963

The handle-bar should be fixed on the handle stem (after removing the
expander bolt and cone and the stem plugged in at the point of grip) in such
a manner that the stem is vertical and the clear length between the top of the
straight portion of the handle-bar and the fixing arrangement is 150 mm, as
shown in figure 4a. A load of 45 kg is then applied gradually and simultaneously
on each end of the handle 13 mm from the end, as shown in the figure, and held
for two minutes. The permanent set at the ends of the handle-bar must not
exceed 2 millimetrcs.
REAR WHEEL
SUB-ASSEMBLY, REAR WHEEL 3000 (FIGURE 4)
Qmmtity
per
bicycle
3001 Rim (rear) 1 20/24 G. CRCA Tolerance on circum-

strip or sheet ference as measured
on bead seat +O.SO,
-0.75 mm
3002 Spokes 40 15 G. high carbon Tolerance on length of
steel wire finished spoke
+O.O, -0.8 mm
3003 Nipples 40 Free cutting extruded
brass 3.8 mm dia.
3005 Tape 1 Rayon staple fibre Purchased. Protects the
13.5 mm wide cycle tube from
x 1 mm thick, damage
2/2 twill
3006 Buckle for tape 1 23 G. tin plate
3100 Rear hub 1 Details of parts arc
given in table 9
3007 Washers 40 23 G. tin plate
3200 Free-wheel 1 Details of parts are
given in table 10
3008 Tire 1 28 in. x 1 l/z in. Purchased
3009 Tube with valve 1 To suit above Purchased
Cl’OiSC’S---I z
/\
,Y)
H :
II
z
-
SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLE PARTS ANI> COMPONENTS 23
---___-__ -.-___ __-
I I
(f) (9) Rim section (hl Buckle
-Rim
Figure 4. Hdk-bar, rerzr (itid fiorzt wheel (rear wheel 3000, fiorrt wheel 4000)
Tabk 9
SUB-ASSEMBLY,REAR WHEEL 3000. GROUP, REAR HUB 3100 (FIGURE 5)
Quantity
Coiic No. Nanrc Per Material Remarks
bicycle
-.-.-~~-
3101 Rear hub shell 1 11/16 in. dia. x Nickel and chromium
16 G. seamrless plated
steel tube
3102 Distance piece 1 14 G. MS sheet
3103 Rear hub ball race 2 14 G. CRCA sheet Wearing surface case
cups hardened to 0.2 mm
depth, 600 HV and
polished
3104 Spoke flanges 2 12 G. CRCA sheet RH flange threaded to
fit free-wheel
3105 Rear hub axle 1 J/s in. dia. bright
steel bar
3106 St eel balls 18 l/d in. dia. chromium Purchased
alloy
3107 Fixed cone 1 tl/ih in. dia. Case hardened to
ENL4 steel 0.2 ~m.m deptll,
600 HV chemically
* rust-proofed or blued
3108 Adjustable cone 1 lr/ie in. dia. Case Elrdened to
ENIA steel 0.2 mm depth,
600 HV chemically
rust-proofedorblued
3109 Dust cap washer 14 G. CRCA sheet Nickel and chromium
plated
3110 Nuts 31s in. BSW Purchased
3111 Washers 318in. dia. MS Purchased
3112 Oil clip 25 G. spring steel Tempered and blued
sheet
3133 Chain adjusters l/4 in. dia. MS
3114 Chain adjuster clips 20 G. MS sheet Nickel and chromium
plated
3115 Chain adjuster nuts in. dia. BSW
3116 Purchased
24 BICYCLES
Table 10
SUB-ASSEMBLY, REAR WHEEL 3000.GROUP, FREE-WHEEL 3200 (FIGURE 5)
Quantity
Code No. Name Per Material Remarks
bicycle
3201 Free wheel body 1 7-112in. dia. Forged; wearing sur-

ENIA steel face hardened to
600 HV
3202 Sprocket wheel 1 3114in. dia.
ENIA steel
3203 Free-wheel pawls 2 Cold drawn steel Hardened to 800 HV
0.167 in. wide
3204 Paw1 pins 2 1116in. MS wire
3205 Paw1 springs 2 Spring r+nelO.l67in. Tempered
wide 36 G.
3205 (a) Paw1 washers 2 28 G. steel strip Purchased
3206 Steel balls 108 l/a in. dia. chromium
&OY
3207 Free-wheel cone 2 31/h in. dia. Wearing surfaces hard-
ENIA steel ened to 600 HV;
ball races to be
ftished smooth
Test for rim made to IS 624 : 1961

Coiqwessiot~test.The test is conducted on a suitable device that is capable
of loading the rim in the manner described below. The rim is held between
two supports, keeping the weld at right angles to the line joining the points
of loading. The load is applied to give a vertical compression of 30 kg to the
rim, then slowly increased in steps of approximately 10 kg up to 70 kg, and
held for two minutes before it is released. The rim is taken up and examined
for permanent set on the diameter with a suitable measuring device. The perma-
nent set should not exceed 2.5 millimetres.
Test for hubs

DefZexiorz test. The front and rear hub assemblies are revolved on their
spindles. The concentricity of hub shell and ball race, when gauged at the peri-
phery of the flange, must not be more than 0.3 mm. The rear hub assembly is
revolved on its spindle. When gauged at the periphery of the threaded portion
the concentricity should be not more than 0.3 millimetres.
Test for Gee-wheel

The chain sprocket should stand being compressed diametrically by 5 per
.cent of its internal diameter, without showing cracks or breaks.
The free-wheel when suitably mounted and the chain sprocket rotated,
should not have an axial or radial deflexion of more than 0.2 mm (or 0.008 in.).
The deflexion is measured at the circular edge of the free-wheel.
_____
FRONT WHEEL
Table 13
SUB-ASSEMBLY,FRONT WHEEL 4000 (FIGURE 4)
Quantity
Code No. Name Per Material Remarks
bicycle
____- .~~~-- --___
4901 Rim (front) 1 20/24 G. CRCA Tolerance same as for
strip or sheet 3001
4002 Spokes 32 Same as part No. 3002
4003 Nipples 32 Same as part No. 3003
4004 Washers 32 Same as part No. 3007
4100 Front hub Details of parts are
given in table 12
4005 Tape i Same as part No. 3JJ5
4006 Buckle for tape 1 Same as part No. 3006
4007 Tire 1 Same as part No. 3008
4008 Tube with valve 1 Same as part No. 3009
Table 12
SUB-ASSEMBLY,FRONT WHEEL 4000. GROUP, FRONT HUB 4100 (FIGURE 5)
Quantity
Code No. Name I
ver Material Remarks
bicycle
4101 Front hub shell 11/e in. dia. x 16 G. Nickel and chromium
seamless steel tube plated
4102 Front hub ball 14 G. CRCA sheet Case hardened to
race cups 0.2 mm depth, 600
HVand polished
4103 Spoke flange 12 G. CRCA sheet Nickel and chromium
plated; pressed on
ends of front hub
shell
4104 Front hub axle 1 s/r6 in. dia. bright
steel bar
4105 Fixed cone 1 ll/te in. dia. Case hardened to
600 HV chemically
rust-proofed or blued
4106 Adjustable cone 1 ‘l/16 in. dia. Case hardened to
600 HV chemically
rust-proofedor blued
4107 Steel balls 18 ~/a in. dia. chromium Purchased
alloy steel
26 BICYCLES
Table 12 (continued)
Quantity
coat No. Name Per Material Remarks
bicyck
4108 Dust cap washer 2 14 G. CRCA sheet Nickel and chromium

plated
4109 Washers 2 5116in. dia. MS Purchased
4110 Nuts 2 5116in. BSW Purchased
4111 Oil clip 1 25 G. spring steel Tempered and blued
sheet
The tests Ibr the front rim and hub are the same as for rear rim and rear hub.
BRAKE SET
Table 13
SUB-ASSEMBLY, BRAKE SET 5000 (FIGURE 5)
Quarltity
Code No. Name ver Material Remarks
bhycle
5001 Connector for 3 5/g in. dia. MS

brake tubes
5002 Draw bobs and 3 r/4 in. dia. BSW Purchased
nuts each
5003 Washers 3 114 in. dia. MS
5004 Front brake tube 1 3/32in. ID MS
5005 Brake stirrup 2 7/32in. OD and 5/32 in.
connexion LD MS tube
5006 Brake stirrup 1 front 13 G. MS sheet
1 rear
5007 Stirrup pin 4 4 G. HB wire
5008 Brake shoes 4 18 G. MS cold-rolled
sheet
5009 Brake block 4 Moulded rubber Purchased
5010 Bolts and nuts 4 3116in. dia. BSW Purchased
each
5011 Washer 4 3116in. dia. MS Purchased
5012 Brake clips (outer) 4 18 G. MS cold-rolled Nickel and chromium
sheet plated
5013 Brake clips (inner) 4 14 G. cold-rolled Nickel and chromium
sheet plated
5014 Slotted cheese head 4 3116in. dia. BSW Purchased
screws and nuts each
5016 Rear brake tube 1 3/32 in. ID MS
5017 Tube connector 1 314in. dia. MS
bottom
OF BICYCLE PARTS AND COMPONENTS 27
-
3201
\ 3207
I
(a) Free-wheel 3200
4109
4110 ,410l
4105
4104 ,.,4102
4106.
3115 _ .3114
-\
f3 @
3105
& 3107
&“’ 3113
/’
‘. ‘3112
s 3101
(b) Front hub 4100, rear hub 3100 and parts
5011 5028 -
(c) Bralw set 5000
Figure 5. Free-wheel, hubs, brake set

28 HICY CLES
-----..--_----._ -- __--- ~.
T06k I3 (continued)
_----
Qttmtity
Code No. Narrre Per hlnterial Rcrfrnrks
bicycle
--
5018 Grub screw 1 1;; in. dia. SSW
5019 Brake lever 1 LH 14 G. MS sheet
(bottom) 1RH
5020 Rivets 3 l/g in. dia. MS
5021 Bolt 1 l/z in. dia. MS
5022 Nut 1 l/g in. dia. BSW Purchased
5023 Washer 1 j/a in. dia. MS Purchased
5024 Bottom long brake 1 9 G. HI3 wire
rod
5025 Bell crank 1 LH 14 G. MS sheet
1 RH
5026 Bell crank bolt 1 r/2 in. dia. MS
5027 Bell crank nut 1 i/4 in. dia. BSW Purchased
5028 Bell crank washer 1 l/d in. dia. MS Purchased
5029 Bottom small brake 1 9 G. HB wire
rod
5030 Stirrup brake tube 1 J/32 in. ID MS
TRANSMISSION
Tumble14
SUB-ASSEMBLY, TRANSMISSION 6000 (FIGURE 6j
Qmttity
Code No. Nurtre ver Materid Remarks
bhyde
. ~.-.-_-.--. - ..--- --
6001 Chain wheel 1 3 mm thick MS sheet Thickness of teeth to
be 2.80 to 3.05 mm
6002 RH crank 1 32 mm dia. MS bar Tapped to 20 TPI
Whitworth RH
thread
6003 Cotter pins 2 10 mm dia. MS bar i/4 in. x 26 TPI bicycle
thread
6004 Washers 2 10 mm dia. MS Purchased
6005 Nuts 2 ‘I4 in. x 26 TPI Purchased
bicycle thread
6006 Spring washers 2 7 mm ID x 16 G. MS Purchased
6007 LH crank 1 32 mm dia. MS bar Tapped to 20 TPI
Whitworth LH
thread
6100 Pedals 2 Jetails of parts arc
given in table 15
6200 Bicycle chain 1 Detaiis of parts are
given in table 16
-
Ta6le 35
SUB-ASSEMBLY,TRANSMISSION 6000. GROUP, PEDAL 6100 (FIGLJJE 6)
Quantity
Code NO. Name Per Material Remrks
bicycle
__--___ - .--
6101 Pedal tubes 2 s/S in. OD 18 G. Nickel and chromium
ERW steel tube plated
6102 Ball racer 4 5/s in. OD 14 G. Case hardened to
CRCA sheet 0.2 mm depth,
600 HV on wearing
surface and polished
6103 Pedal rubbers 4 Moulded rubber Purchased
6104 Stretcher bars 4 4G.HBwire
6105 Pedal plates 4 14 G. MS sheet
6106 Pedal axle balls 48 51.12in. dia. chro- Purchased
mium alloy
6107 Pedal axle 1 LH 7/s in. dia. Wearing surfaces case
1 RH ENIA steel hardened to 0.2 mm
depth, to 600 HV.
bicycle thread
0.98 mm pitch for
outer end and
1.27 mm pitch for
crank end. RH
thread used for crank
end for RH axle.
LH thread used for
crank end for LH
axle
6108 Pedal cones 2 11/16in. dia. Case hardened to
600 HV and polished
6110 Nuts 2 5116in. dia. BSW Purchased
6111 Winged dust cap 2 18 G. MS sheet
6112 Stretcher bar nuts 8 3/16 in. BSW Purchased
6113 Spring lock washers 8 3116 in. dia. MS Purchased
Test for chain wheel made to IS 1281: 1958
The crank chain wheel assembly is tested as follows.

The assembly is rigidly fixed in a vertical plane, the crank horizontal.
Weight is then applied on the hole for the pedal spindle. The assembly should
sustain a weight of 227 kg (or 500 lbs) without breaking at the joint, loosening
or showing signs of yielding.
I
-_
I
/
/ I
6601
II I III
(a) Chain wheel and crank 6OOl.6002
Figure 6. Tratwtrissiorz:
-- ~_ ___- -_- ~. - --. .~--~~- --.- -- ---- ~~
6111
6110
\ I
6108,
6104
'6102
(b) Pedal 6109 \
6107
(c) Chain 6200
chnin wheel nnd crarlk, pedal, chair1

32 BICYCLES
Toblc 36
SUB-ASSEMBLY, TRANSMISSION 6000. GROUP, CHAIN 6200 (FIGURE 6)
Qwtity
cone No. Nam Per
bicycle
___ -~
6201~ Inner plates 112 Cold-rolled bright
steel strip 1 mm
thick, 48 to 51 mm
wide in coils
6202 3.3
us11cs 112 Cold-rolled bright Heat trcatcd to hard-
steel strip 0.7 to ness of 600 HV
0.75 mm thick in
coils 5 to 5.5 mm
wide
6203 Rollers 112 Cold-rolled bright Heat treated to hard-
strip soft annealed ness of 600 HV
1 mm thick in coils
55 to 60 mm wide
6204 Outer plates 112 Same as for part 6201
6205 Bearing pins 111 Precision bright drawn
steel wire semi-hard
3.60 mm to
3.68 mm dia.
6206 Spring clip 1 Spring steel 1 mm
thick
6207 Connecting pin 2 Case-hardening steel
wire 3.6 rnrn dia.
Test ibr pedal made to IS 628 : 1963
A minimum of one pedal assembly or 1 per cent of the lot is selected at

random for testing.
The spindle is then subjected to a bend test. The spindle should withstand
being bent until the included angle of the two arms of the deflected axis becomes
170° (or 1ess) un d er 1oa d without breaking or cracking between the two sup-
ports.
Tests for chain made to IS 627 : 1.961
Tensile breakiy had test.

This test is performed in accordance with the
instructions given in the following paragraph. The number of such tests should
be agreed upon by the supplier and the purchaser, but normally should not
exceed one for every 250 chains.
A minimum length of 127 mm, either containing a joint or without a joint,
is cut from the chain; its ends are attached to the shackles of the testing machine
in such a manner that the pull is applied axially. The shackles are designed to
--____
allow universal movement. The minimum breaking load should not be less
than 820 kg.
PYOO~ loud test.
The full length of the chain, when subjected to a load of
270 kg, should not show any permanent set.
Specifications for finish of parts
Several parts such as frame, fork, chain stay, seat stay, mudguards are to
be stove enamelled. The handle-bar, brake set, rims, hubs, steering head parts,
chain wheel and cranks, pedal parts, crown covers, spokes and nipples are to
be electroplated. The general specifications for enamelling and electroplating
arc given below.
Enamebg
All enamelled parts should be thoroughly cleaned by sand-blasting, shot-

blasting or pickling to free them of rust, scale and oily substances. They should
then be chemically rust-proofed (bonderized), stove enamelled, and finally
polished to a glossy finish.
Electroplating
All electroplated parts should bc nickel coated to a minimull 0.015 mm

thickness and then chromium plated to a minimum 0.0003 mm thickness. All
parts should be polished bright or alternatively bright plated.
Chapter 6
MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A

COMPLETE BICYCLE
In the small-scale sector there are two types of economicallyviable unit: (n) units
manufacturing parts such as frames, or pressed parts and assembling complete
bicycles under their own brand name; and (6) units manufacturing items such
as rims, free-wheels, chains, spokes and nipples.
The units in category (b) are the suppliers to the small-scale assemblers,
the large-scale manufacturers and the replacement market. The details of manu-
facturing processes and machines used by these units are given in chapter 7 and
the ancillary relationship is discussed in chapter 8.
The details of manufacturing processes, the machines used and the estimated
costs for a typical unit falling under category (a), with a yearly, single-shift
capacity of 25,000 bicycles arc given below in table 17.
Parts to be manufactured
Frames, chain stay and seat stay, fork, handle-bar, pressed parts (seat pillar,
bottom ball race seating, top ball race seating, lamp bracket, brake set).
Parts to be obtained from ancillary units
Turned components, mudguards, rims, free-wheel, chain, BB shell, hubs,

spokes and nipples, chain whee: and crank.
Parts to be purchased from market

.
Tires, tubes, bolts, nuts, screws, washers, springs, handle-bar grips, acces-
sories, etc.
Table 17
ESTIMATED COSTS AND DESCRIPTIONOF MACHINES FOR A PLANT

WITH A YEARLY, SINGLE-SHIFTCAPACITY OF 25,000RICYCLES'
Unit cost Section cost

Descriptionof machines
(Rupees) (Rupees)
1. Manq%cturing shop 205,000

One guillotine shearing machine, power operated for
shearing 36 in. wide, 3116in. thick MS sheet. . . . . . . 5,000
Two double action power presses with electric motor,
60-ton capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30,000
34
MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMI’LE’IE UICY(:LE 35
Tnbk 17 ~&timed)
_-. ~-_____-.---- -__-...- ~. .~ --

Two power presses with electric motor, 40-ton capacity
Two power presses with electric motor, 20-ton capacity
One power press with electric motor, 5-ton capacity
Two special-purpose tube cutting lathes, capacity up
to 2 in. dia. pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,(100
One pipe-threading machine with revolving die head
for threading fork column .................... 5JlOO
One special-purpose fork collar turning machine ... .5,000
One had lever shearing and bar cropping machine,
up to 318 in. dia. rods MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
One power hacksaw with electric motor, capacity 6 in.
roundbar ................................... 8,.000
Two bench type drilling machines with motor, capa-
city l/z in. dia. in steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
Two pedestal drilling machines with motor, capacity
11/d in. dia. , . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20,000
Two motorized double-ended grinders, 8 in. dia. x
J/d in. grinding wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,OOf1
One motorized double-ended pedestal grinder, 12 in.
dia. x 11/d in. grinding wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . 2,Oi)O
One automatic wire straightening and cutting machine
with electric motor, capacity 4 G. to 16 G. wire . . 5,000
Two frame assemb!y fixtures (see figure 7) . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Two fork assembly fixtures and fork blade bending
fixtures (see figure 7) . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
One seat stay welding and assembly fixture . . . . . . . . 1,000
One chain stay welding and assembly fixture . . . . . . . 1,000
One set of lugs for welding jigs . . . , . . . , , . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Two handle-bar bending fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
Two handle-bar lever bending fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Three portable electric drills, capacity l/d in. dia. in
steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
One flexible-shaft grinder, 41/z in. x J/a in. grinding
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..r............ 1,000
One frame testing stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
One fork testing stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
One handle-bar testmg stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
Hand tools measuring instruments, cutting tools. . . . 10,000
Press tools; one set of dies for each of
frame lug brake parts
chain stay handle-bar parts
seat stay seat pillar
fork parts top and bottom ball race . . . . . 30,000
2. Brazing and welding section 41,000
One oil-fired dip-brazing furnace with pre-heater (for
frames)...................................... 10,000
BICYCLES
Table 2 7 (continued)
Unit cost Secfiori cost

Descriptionqfmnchirres
(Rq~ees) (Rupees)
One oil-fired dip-brazing furnace with pre-heater (for

forks) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000
One electrolytic de-brazing tank (for removing ex-
cess brass sticking to the brazed joint) . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000
Three oxy-acetylene gas welding sets with two torch
setseach .................................... 12,000
One spot-welding machine capable of welding a com-
bined thickness of3/16 in. MS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000
3. Enarrrelling section 54,000
One set of 7 bonderizing tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000
One low-pressure vertical type steam boiler for heat-
ingtanks .................................... 8,000
Two enamel dipping tanks and hanging jigs (one tank
for primer coat and one for final coat). . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
One set of oil-fired muffle type enamelling oven with
fume exhaust, thermo-couples and pyrometer for
indicating stoving temperature and equipped with in
and out trolleys and rail for loading and unloading
components.................................. 30,000
4. E1ectropkatirt.gsectiotl 67,300
(a) Nickel ylatirig otrtfit
One plating rectifier 7.5 volt 1000 amperes. . . . . . . . . 12,000
Two bright nickel-plating tanks, 8 ft x 4 ft x 3 ft MS,
rubber lined . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
One filter press, capacity 1000 gallons/h . . . . . . . . . . . 6,000
One air agitation equipment . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,500
Three silica-clad electric immersion heatersi 5 kW _ . . 1,500
Two silica-clad electric immersion heaters, 3 kW . . . 800
One dull nickel plating tank, 8 ft x 3 ft x 3 ft, rubber
lined. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
One swilling tank, 8 ft x 3 ft x 3 ft MS, rubber lined 1,500
(b) Chromiwr-plating ou tf;t
One plating rectifier 7.5 volt 1000 amperes. . . . . . . . . 12,000
One chromium-plating tank 6 ft x 3 ft x 3 ft, lead-
lined with glass reinforcement, fitted with exhaur 8,000
Two MS lead-lined tank for drag out rise, 2 ft ‘r:
2ftx3ft . . . . . . . . . . ..*........................ Loo0
Twoswillingtanks,2ftx2ftx3ft .............. 1,000
Two silica-clad electric immersion heaters, 5 kW . . . 1,000
(c) Polishing shop
One double-ended polishing lathe with 5 hp motor . 2,000
Two double-ended polishing lathes with 3 hp motor. 3,000
Two double-ended polishing lathes with 2 hp motor. 2,500
Exhaust to extract dust from polishing shop . . . . . . . . 6,000
MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMPLETE BICYCLE 37
Sectioncost
(Rupees)
- _~.__~ .~----. ~-
5. Tool TOOW and heat treatment shopa 277.000
One heavy-duty tool room lathe with electric motor
and standard equipment, length of bed 8 ft , height of
centresgin................................... 40,000
One centre lathe with electric motor and all acces-
sories, length of bed 6 ft, height of centres 71/z in. 12,000
One shaping machine with electric motor, universal
vice and other standard accessories, length of stroke
24in. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000
One universal milling machine complete with vertical
milling attachment, slotting attachment, universal
milling attachment, machine vice, universal swivel
vice, circular table and dividing head, table size
26in.xl2in. ,............................... 60,000
One pedestal-type drilling and tapping machine with
electric motor, capacity in steel 11/d in. dia. . . . . . . 1O,O!N
One bench-type drilling machine with electric motor,
l/z in. dia. in steel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
One motorized double-ended bench grinder, 6 in.
dia. x 1 in. width grinding wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,0(K)
One universal cylindrical grinding machine with
standard equipment and accessories, 8 in. x 20 in.. . 30,000
One tool and cutter grinder complete with standard
equipment and accessories, 8 in. x 16 in. . . . . . . . . . 15,000
One surface grind machine complete with standard
equipment and accessories, 10 in. x 27 in. . . . . . . . . 15,000
One band sawing and filing machine with standard
equipment and accessories, 16 in. dia. of saw wheel
andI4in.throat ............................. 12,000
One transformer-type electric welding set, 30 - 300
amperes ..,................................. 4,000
One electrical heat treatment furnace, 20 in. x 12 in. x
9 in., maximum working temperature 1400 OC . . . . 20,000
One tool room tempering furnace, 18 in. dia. x 20 in. 12,000
Two quenching tanks for heat treatment. . . . . . , . . . . 2,000
One Rockwell hardness tester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000
Two fitting benches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Precision instruments, hand tools and cutting tools. . . 20,000
- ---.-
GRAND TOTAL 644,300
a This room will have space for manufacture of dies etc. required by other units. A
tool room with machines and equipment could be located as a common facility centre in
a functional industrial estate for bicycles.
3x
a Reversible spindle special-purpose tapping

machine, duplex type (for threading BB
shells)
b Frame assembly fixture
C Fork assembly fixture
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE AND ASSEMBLY

MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMPLETE UI(:Y<:LE 39
-
Seat lug 1004, bottom head lug 1007, top head lug 1010. Cutting strips
from sheets, blanking, forming, first-stage bending, inserting mandrel and
second-stage bending, gas welding, grinding and cleaning, reaming holes to
size
Scat tube liner 1003, down tube liner 1006, top tube liner 1009, liner 1103.
Cutting strips from sheets, blanking, bending to U-shape; inserting mandrel
and bending round shape.
Riveting pins 1012. Wire straightening and cutting to length.
Chain stay tubes 1101, seat stay tubes 12C’A. Cutting tube to length, slitting
tube end, pressing tube to oval shape and forming, inserting liners and pressing
ends flat, punching slot or hole, trimming ends to shape, welding pressed ends
(spot and gas welding).
Liners 1102, 1202 and 1203. Cutting strips from sheet; blanking.
Chain stay bridge 1104, seat stay bridge 1204. Cutting strips from sheet;
piercing hole and blanking, bending U-shape, inserting mandrel and pressing.
The LH and RH chain stay tubes and the bridges arc welded together in
position using the welding fixture. The fixture consists of two spacer blocks
for holding the tubes of chain stay and seat stay at the correct distance at both
ends and locating them, with a locating block for bridge and clamping arrange-
ment. A trunnion arrangement for rotating facilitates welding in all positions.
The bridge is gas welded with stay tubes and the assembly is removed after
the welded joint is cooled. The joint is then cleaned.
Assembly of frame
Rivctirlty 011 the jktwe orrd bmrirrg.

The frame is assembled using a fixture
consisting of a locating pin and clamp for BB shell and locating V blocks with
clamps for the tubes mounted on a suitable base plate.
The tube liners are inserted into their respective tubes. The top tube is
assembled with seat lug, top head lug and clamped on the frame assembly fixture.
The seat tube is then inserted through the seat lug into the BB shell and clamped.
The bottom head lug is assembled on to down tube and this is in turn inserted
into the BB shell and clamped on the fixture. The head tube is then inserted
through top head lug and bottom head lug. The assembly is properly adjusted
and all tubes firmly clamped. Holes are drilled through all lugs, BB shell and
tube ends. Pins are inserted through these holes and riveted thus keying all
tube ends with lugs and BB shell. The assembly is taken out of the fixture and
the chain stay (with a dummy distance piece fixed at the hub end for maintaining
the correct distance between the chain stay blades) is inserted into the BB shell
lugs. A dummy seat stay is then bolted onto the frame in its proper position.
This keeps the frame in the same alignment as in the final assembly during dip-
brazing. After drilling and riveting the chain stay to BB shell, the frame joints
40 (:I1:s
HI(JY
are dip-brazed. The excess brass at the joints is either f&d out or dc-brazed
by an electrolytic method.
Filrishirrq.The frame and seat stay are finished by stove ename!hng. ?nrious
operations comrected with enameliing consist of hot dip dc-greasing, phosphnting
or bonderizing and coating with enamel by dipping. Three coats of enamel
are applied; one primer coat and two finishin, 0 coats. The primer coat is stovc-
baked and well rubbed for roughing the surface before applying the second
and final coats. After stoving the final coat, the frame and seat stay are polished
and lined. Transfer labelling is applied by hand to frx the monogram on the
frame.
Firral assembly. Other parts such as bottom ball race seating, top ball BB
axle, loose liner, steel balls, BB frxcd ball cup, BB adjustable ball cup, locking
ring and BB lubricator are then assembled with the frame.
2. Fork
Fork blades 1301, 1302. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, bcndiug U-
shape, inserting shaped mandrel in the U-bend and pressing, joint welding
(gas welding), inserting bottom liner 1303, pressing end flat, slot cutting flattened
end, bottom end edges welding (gas welding).
Fork blade liners 1303. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking.
Fork blade liners 1304. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, bending U-shape,
inserting mandrel and bending round.
Fork crown 1305, fork crown cover 1310. Cutting strips from sheet, blank-
ing, drawing, trimming edges.
Box pieces 1306. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking.
Ring 1307. Cutting tube to length, de-burring.
Fork cohmln liner 1309. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, bending
TJ+hape; inserting mandrel and bending round.
Assembly of fork
Weldit!q arid brazing. The fork is assembled using the fork assembly fixture.
This consists of a spacing and locating block for the fork blades at the bottom
end, a locating block for fork colunln and clamping arrangement. A trunnion
arrangement facilitates tack welding in all positions.
The top liners are inserted into the fork blades which are then positioned
in the fork assembly fixture and clamped. The fork crown is put over the blades
and the fork column, ring and box pieces are then positioned and tack welded.
The fork is removed from the fixture; a dummy distance piece is inserted bc-
tween the fork blades at the bottom end. The crown joint is then dip brazed.
hlANUI;A(;TURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY 01. A (:OMPI.ETI-: UI(:Y(.I.l! 41
Excess brass sticking to the joint is rc-moved by de-brazing. The fork blades
are then bent to shape in the fork blade frsturc.
Fiuislrirlg. Tl le f or k is stove cnamcllcd in the sanlt~ ~vay :IF rht: fr;~mc and
lined. The crown cover is nickel and chromiunl plated and assembled over the
fork crown.
3. Handle-bar
Handle-bcu tube 2001, handle-bar stem tube 2003. Cutting tube to length,
de-burring, cutting slot at the bottom end of stem tube.
Handle-bar lug 2002. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, drawing, trimming
edges, piercing holes for draw bolt and seem tube, bending U-shape, inserting
mandrel and bending round, joint welding (gas welding), cleaning the welded
joint, reaming holes for handle-bar tub=.
Left roller lever 2007, right roller lcvcr 2008. Cutting rod to lcngtli; flatten-
ing ends, bending, nickel aud chromium plating.
Brake tabs front 2010, brake tabs rear 2011. Cutting strips from sheet,
blanking, piercing holes, forming, nickel and chromium plating.
Brake rod front 2014, brake rod rear 2015. Wire strnightcning and cutting
to length, forming eye at one end, nickel and chromium plating.
Asserrrbly $ hrrdlc-hr
Bmxirl,y nrrd bwdiq. The handle-bar tube (in straight condition) and stem
tube are nssrmb!ed and brazed. The brazed joint is cieaned by lrand filing. Ho!cs
for qe bolts arc drilled. Handle-bar is bent by using the hndle-bar bending
fixture in two operations.
Finishirraq nrrdjknl mserr~b~y. The handle-bar is nickel and chromium plated.
The other parts s~~clz as levers, eye bolts, brake tabs, brnkc rods, expander cone,
expander bolts and grips arc then assembled with the handle-bar.
4. Pressed parts including brake parts
Seat pillar 1019. Cutting tube to length, forming ends by pressing, nickel
and chromium plating.
Bottom ball race seating 1620.
Top ball race seating 1021. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking and cupping,
forming flange, piercing bottom, nickel and chromium plating.
Lamp bracket 1028. Cutting strips from sheet, piercing and blariking,
bending, nickel and chromimn plating.
Front brake tube 5004, rear brake tube 5016, stirrup brake tulle 5030.
Cutting tube to length, de-burring.
42 BICYCLES
_- .~.
Brake stirrup 5006. Cutting strips from sheet, piercing holes, bending,
forming.
Stirrup pin 5007. Wire straightening and cutting to size, de-burring, nickel
and chromium plating.
Brake shoe 5008. Cutting strips from sheet, piercing hole., blanking, forming,
nickel and chromium plating.
Brake clips outer 5012, brake clips inner 5013. Cutting strips from sheet,
piercing and blanking, forming, bending, nickel and chromium plating.
Brake lever bottom 5019, bell crank 5025. Cutting strips from sheet, piercing
and blanking, bending, nickel and chromium plating.
Bottom long brake rod 5024, bottom small brake rod 5029. Wire straight-
ening and cutting size, forming eyes at ends, nickel and chromium plating.
Assembly of brake set
The front brake tube, brake stirrup and connector for brake tube are as-
sembled and brazed. The brazed joint is cleaned and the part is nickel and chro-
mium plated. All brake parts are supplied loose, but assembled at the time of
selling the complete bicycle.
5. Assembly of complete bicycle
In the manufacturing unit, the complete bicycle as sold to a consumer is

not assembled. The frame, fork, and handle-bar are assembled as described in
this chapter. These, along with the other parts purchased from ancillary units
or elsewhere, are supplied in kit form to the market. This facilitates transport
and prevents damage during transit. The complete bicycle with accessories is
assembled at the selling point.
MACHINES AND EQUIPMENT FOR A LOWER SCALE OF

PRODUCTION
The details of machines and equipment needed for a plant with a yearly
capacity of 15,000 bicycles has been listed in table 18, taking into consideration
the use of cheap labour wherever economically possible. This should help the
planning of bicycle manuficture in developing countries where labour is cheap
and the demand for bicycles is not great. Another consideration is the limited
capital icvestment in such countries. Machines that could be replaced by manual
labour using hand tools have been omitted from the list. Similarly, wherever
possible hand-driven machines have been substituted for power driven machines.
Adp%:late care has been taken to see that quality is not affected by such replace-
:nent. Keeping capital cost low has been the chief consideration; manual labour
has been suggested where it could efficiently replace an operation done by
machine.
MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMPLETE BICYCLE 43
__-~-__ -___ - __
Table 18
ESTIMATED COSTS AND DESCRIPTION OF MACHINES FOR A PLANT

WJTH A YEARLY, SINGLE-SHIFT CAPACITY OF 15,000 BICYCLES
.-
Unit cost
Desaiptio!l of machines (Rnpees)
One guillotine shearing machine, treadle operated for

shearing 36 in. wide 36 G. sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
One double-action power press with electric motor,
60-ton capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,000
One power press with electric motor, 4O-ton capacity 12,500
Two double-sided heavy duty flypressch, No. 8 . . . . 4,000
Two flypresses No. 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
One special-purpose fork collar turning machine . . . 5,000
One hand lever shearing and bar cropping machine,
capacity 3116in. MS sheet, 318 in. dia. MS rod . . . . 3,500
Two frame assembly fixtures , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Two fork assembly fixtures and fork blade bending
fixtures. . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
One seat stay welding and assembly fixture . . . . . . . . 1,000
One chain stay welding and assembly fixture . . . . . . 1,000
One set of lugs for welding jigs . . . . . . . . . , . . . .. 2,000
Two handle-bar bending fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
Two handle-bar lever bending fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Three portable electric drills, capacity l/h in. dia. in
steel........................................ 1,500
One flexible shaft grinder, 41/z in. x 3/a in. grinding
wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
tine frame testing stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
One fork testing stand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
One handle-bar testing stand , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
Hand tools, measuring instruments, cutting tools. . . . 10,000
Press tools ; one set of dies for each of
frame lug brake parts
chain stay handle-bar parts
seat stay seat pillar
fork parts top and bottom ball race . . . . . . . 30,000
2. Brazing and tveldirzg section 16,000
Two oxy-acetylene gas welding sets with two torch
sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,000
One spot-welding machine capable of welding a com-
bined thickness of3/16 in. MS . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 8,000
3. Enamelling section 49,000
One set of 7 bonderizing tanks . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000
One low pressure vertical type steam boiler for heat-
ingtanks..................................., 8,000
Two enamel dipping tanks and hanging jigs (one tank
for primer coat and one for final coat). . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
C’tlit cost Scctim coxt
(Rrrpees) (R~pxi)
__.~. ~--- -~~ ..~
One oil-fired muffle-type cnamelling oven with fume
exhaust, thermo-couples and pyromctcr f& indicnt-
ing stoving temperature and cquippcd with in and
out trolleys and rail for loading and unloading
components. .........,. ..................... 25,000
4. E/ecfruplcrting secfiorl 49,151)
(a) Nickel ylnhg wt.fit
One plating rectifier, 6 volt 500 ampcrcs. . . . . . . . . _ . s,c I()(1
One bright nickel plating tank, 8 ft b: 3 ft x 3 ft MS,
rubber lined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . 2,000
One filter press, 75thgallon capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,000
One air agitation equipment . . . . . . . _ . __ . . . . _ _ . . . . 3,501)
Two silica-clad electric immersion heaters, s kW. . . . 1,000
One silica-clad electric immersion heater, 3 kW . . . . 30( I
One dull nickel plating tank, 8 ft Y 3 ft x 3 ft, rubber
lined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
One swilling tank, 8 ft s 3 ft u 3 ft MS, rubber lined. . 1,500
(b) Clrrurrriwrr ylntirlg cmtjt
One plating rectifier, 6 volt 500 ampcrcs. . . . . . . . . . x,c)OO
One chromium plating tank 6 ft Y 3 ft Y 3 ft, !ead-
lined with glass reinforcement fitted with exhaust .
One MS lead-lined tank for drag out rinse, 2 ft Y
2 fts3 ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One swilling tank, 2 ft X 2 ft I*:3 ft . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . .
One silica-clad electric immersion heater, 5 kW. . . . .
(c) Pdislrir~g drop
One double-ended polishing lathe with 5 hp motor . 2,ouo
One double-ended polishing lathe with 3 hp motor . 1,501)
One double-ended polishing lathe with 2 hp motor . 1,250
Exhaust fan to extract dust from polishing shop. . . . . 4,000
5. hkdzirle drop 46,500
One centre lathe with accessories and electric motor,
length of bed 6 ft, height of centres 71/z in. . . . . . . 12,OU 1
One shaping machine with electric motor and acccs-
sories, 24 in. stroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,000
One pedestal-type drilling and tapping machine with
electric motor, 11/d in. dia. in mild steel . . . . . . . . . 10,000
One bench-type drilling machine with electric motor,
l/z in. dia. in steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
One motorized do;lblc-ended pcdcstal grinder,
lZin.X11/4in. ............................... 2,00( 1
One motorized double-ended bcn:h grinder, 8 in. ?;
lin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..*......... 1,500
Precision instruments, cutting tools and hand tools. . . 5,000
Fitting benches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
GRAND TOTAL 263,150
Chapter 7
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS BY

ANCILLARY UNITS
The bicycle components for which individual economic units can be established
are : chains ; spokes, nipples and washers; mudguards ; rims; hubs; free-wheel;
chain-wheel and cranks; pedals; turned components; BB shells; and saddles.
The details of machinery and processes for manufacturing these items are
Ascribed in this chapter.
CHAINS
Capacity and cost of plant
Capacity, one shift, 150,000 chains; total cost Rs. 500,000.
Details of plant
1. One double-arm 40-ton blanking press with coil reel and electrical
accessories for blanking inner and outer plates; number of strokes per minute,
110; length of stroke, 25 mm; table size, 370 x250 mm; space between arm,
540 mm; tool carrier size, 305 x 170 mm; strip feed maximum, 70; motor,
2 hp, 1420 rpm.
2. Four open front 20-ton piercing presses with drum feeding attachment
for piercing, marking and chamfering inner and outer plates, with motor and
electrical accessories; number of strokes per minute, 100; maximum up-stroke,
220 mm; adjustable stroke, lo-60 mm; depth of stroke, 160 x80 mm with
32 mm and 60 mm hole size; motor 1.5 hp, 950 rpm.
3. One double-arm, double-acting 4O-ton blanking and drawing press

with reel and strip feeding arrangement and electrical accessories similar in
specification to item No. 1 above but fitted with a 2.5 hp, 1420 rpm motor;
used for blanking and drawing the collets.
4. Two horizontal coining and piercing presses with tool agitator feed for
collets; number of strokes, 120 per min; motor 1.5 hp, 1420 rpm; used to flatten
and punch collet bottoms.
5. Two horizontal bush-making machines with complete tools, strip

feeding arrangement and reel for making bushes up to 10 mm outer dia. ; number
of strokes 100 per min; motor 1.5 hp, 1420 rpm.
45
46 BICYCLES
6. One pin cropping and centring machine for pins up to 6 mm dia. x

23 mm long; fitted with tools and run off reel, wire straightening dcvicc and
mechanism for indenting pins at the end; number of stroker, 360 per min;
motor 1.5 hp, 1420 rpm.
7. One pin edge rolling machin e used for slight rounding of edges of
the pins and to ensure uniform dia.; suitable for pins 3-8 mm dia. ~8.25 mm
long.; fitted with agitator feed; complete with. tools; motor 0.5 hp, 1420 rpm.
8. One single spindle automatic lathe 15 mm bar capacity fork pins; to be
used for connecting or locking links with spring clip fastener; standard outfit
and accessories, cams, collet chuck, electric motor.
9. One tiltable, barrel-shaped retort furnace, electrically heated; maximum
temperature 950°C; for carburizing and carbonitriding; flexible discharge
arrangement attached to the furnace body; temperature control and standard
accc:sories.
10. Two sets of quenching equipment consisting of two quench tanks,
adaptable to the above furnace for oil or water; material collecting basket;
cooling device for oil or water.
I?. One salt bath, rectangular pot furnace, clcctrically hcatcd; automatic
temperature control; maximum temperature 65OOC; working tempcraturc
350-480" C, 24 kW (for blueing).
12. One tilting-type tumbling barrel (for de-burring chain parts) with
cam-controlled lifting device and 0.5 hp motor; main drive by a 1.5 hp motor,
15-30 rpm; capacity 30 gallons.
13. Four tumbling barrels with protection hood and quick-acting door
locks, octagonal shape 24 in. dia. x 32 in. long with about 65-gallon capacity;
driven by a 2 Jp motor (for dc-‘burring).
14. One Rockwell hardness tester with standard accessories.
15. Two plate stacking and sorting machines with hopger-type agitator
feed; driven by 0.5 hp motor for sorting inner and outer plates and stacking
into wire forks (one machine for outer plates and one for inner plates).
16. One automatic chain assembly machine with feeding devices for
inner and outer plates; rollers, bushes and bearing pins, provided with tools
capable of assembling l/z in. pitch chains; 3 hp motor.
17. Two plate setting and riveting machin.es with 1.5 hp, 1000 rpm motor
(used for setting the plates and the pins correctly, controlling the external width
of the chain, riveting the pins and subsequently loosening ,the chain links).
18. Two foot presses for straight and joggled connexion links.
19. One chain proof-loading and testing machine suitable for stretching
and load testing of the complete assembled chain.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIAI.IZI:.1~ COMPONENTS 13s AN1:lI LARY UNl-l-S 47
.
-. -. __-
20. Tools and gauges
For outer plates:

(n) Five-fold bl,-mk ing tools to be used with machine No. 1 ;
(1)) Intcrchnngeablc piercing, chamfering and marking on tool to
be used with machine No. 2;
(c) Two-fold blanking tool for counccting link to be used lvith
machine No. 1 ;
(n) Piercing tool for connecting link to be used lvith machine No. 2.
For inner plates:

(n) Five-fold blankingL tool to be used \vith machine No. I ;
(b) Intcrchangcablc piercing tool to be used Lvith machine No. 3;
(c) For spring clips: multi-stage tool for the lock spring of connecting
link to be used with machine No. 1 ;
(n) For rollers: five-fold blanking drawing tool fx roller cups
(collets) to be used with nmhinc No. 1 ;
(~1) Flattening and piercing tool fcx collcts to be used \vith nlachinc
No. 4.
For bushes :
((1) Cutting-off and end-forming tool to be used with nlachinc No. 5;
(11) ~cncral tools and instruments;
(c) One set of gauges for controllin g chain parts diincnsions.
Manufacturing operations
Inner plates 6201, outer plates 6204. Multiple blanking front strip, dc-
burring, piercing, dc- burring, blueing.
Bushes 6202. Cutting strips, curling over nlandrcl, heat treating.
Rollers 6203. Blanking from strip nnci cupping, Aattcning bottom, piercing
bottom, de-burring and heat treating.
Bearing pins 6205. Wire straightening and cutting to size, indenting ends,
v
rolling, heat treating.
Spring clip 6206. Blanking, piercing and blueing.
Connecting pin 6207. Turning and cutting to size, heat treating.
Assembly of chain
The inner and outer links arc automatically sorted and stacked on wire
forks through a plate stacking and sorting machine fitted with hopper feed.
The chain is then asscmblcd on an automatic chain nsscnlbly machine. It is
rivctcd by a special plate setting and riveting machine.
48
SPOKES, NIPPLES AND WASI-IERS
Capacity, 80,000 gross per year; cost approsimatcly lb. 250,000.
Details of plant
1. OIK automatic universal spok.c machine, suitable for manufacturing

bicycle spokes up to 121/z in. long x 13 G.; complete with gear box, fly wheel,
V belts, built-in clutch device, wire straightening and cutting device, equalizing
dcvicc, hc?d upsetting and bending stages, thread rolling mechanism, built-in
counter and automatic lubrication, clcctric motor, switch gear, etc.
2. OIIC automatic nipple blank machiuc (horizo::ta! siug!c stroke: cold
header) with wire straightening and feeding rollers, pressurized automatic
lubrication, built-in counter, header die, ejector pin, electric motor and switch
gear; capable of forming nipplcd blanks from brass wire up to 4 G.
3. 011~ automatic nipple finishing nlachitic suitable for drilling, threading
square milling slotting nipple blanks in ten stages; complete with hopper feed
systc111, magazine, blank holder jaws, gear box, automatic lubrication, indexing
mcchanisn~, electric motors, switch gear and other accesszries.
4. Oiic autonlatic p3wcr press, ccccntric type, with auto-roll feed system
ruld electric motor.
(n) Either one motor generator or 011~ rectifier set for supplying
power at 12 volt, DC 250 amperes with amnctcrs, voltmctcr and
regulator ;
(/I) Two barrel plating equipments for clcctroplating wire spokes
with reduction gear, non-metallic barrel of round cross section,
pulleys, corncctors, immersion heaters; complctc in all respects
for briglit clcc troplating spokes;
(c) Two barrel plating outfits for electroplating brass nipples and
washers;
(L!) Two electroplating outfits for copper-plating brass nipples and
washers;
(e) One dc-greasing equipment;
(f’) One drying centrifuge for nipples and washers.
Spokes 3002 and 4002. Wire straightening and cutting to length, upsetting
head, head bending, thread rolling and electroplating.
Nipples 3003 and 4003. Cold heading and cutting, drilling, tapping, milling
(square), slotting and electroplating.
Washers 3007 and 4OO4. Piercing, blanking, forming and electroplating.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS SY ANCILLARY UNITS
MUDGUARDS
Capacity, 150,000 per year ,* cost, npprosiniatcly Rs 150,000.
Details of plant
1. One power driven guiliotinc shearing machine 48 in. i: 16 G.

3
-. One double roll strip roller with &ctric motor.
3. One hopper for automatic feeding of sized strips to the gang punching
press.
4. Oilc gang punching press with cicctric motor.
5. One mudguard rolling machine with roilcr feed arrangcmcnt and
electric motor.
6. Two power prcsscs with clcctric motor; 15-ton capacity.
7. ~nc spot-welding machine for weidin, (7 a maximum combined thick-
ncss of 3116in.
8. One gas welding set.
9. One wire straightening and cutting niachinc; capacity up to ‘14 in.
dia. wire.
10. One automatic thread rolling machine with feeding arrangcmcnt.
11. One set of de-greasing and phosphating tanks.
12. One oil-fired mLiCflc furnace for stove cnamclling with tempcraturc
control and trolleys.
13. One set of dipping tanks for cnamclling.
Mauufacturing operations
Rear mudguard 1030, front mudguard 1036. Cutting strips from sheet,
piercing holes, bead rolling, rolling mlldguard, folding ends and forming reflec-
tor seat.
Rear mudguard inner bridge 1031, front mudguard inner bridge 1037.
Cutting strips from sheet, piercing and blanking, and forming.
Rear mudguard stays 1032, front mudg:lard stays 1038. Wire y,traightening
and cutting, de-burring, and thread ;zJling.
Rear mudguard tabs 1033, front mudguard tabs 1039. Cutting strips from
sheet, piercing and blanking, forming and bending.
Clip 1035. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking and forming.
Assembly and finishing
The inner bridges and clips arc spot welded with rear mudguard and front
mudguard. Tabs are asscmblcd over stays and tack- and gas-welded. All compo-
iients arc phosphated and stove cnamelled.
50 BICYCLES
--_~ ..~~
- -
RIMS
Capacity, 100,000 per year; cost, approximately Rs. 300,000.
Details of plant
1. One power-operated rotary shearing machine with electric motor;

capacity, 10 G.
2. One strip ro!ling and cutting machine with motor.
3. One rim rolling machine with one set of rollers for forming the bead
and another set for forming the rim section with motor.
4. One rim cutting press with motor.
5. One butt welding machine.
6. One rim weld joint D orinder inside and one for outside.
7. Two seam welding machines.
8. One rim re-rolling machine.
9. Three power presses with motor, lo-ton capacity.
10. One rim load testing fixture.
11. Four rim polishing lathes.
12. One set of electroplating cquipmcnt for bright nickel and chromium
plating.
The manufacture of the rims has been described in chapter 4.
HUBS
Capacity, 50,000 pairs of hubs per year; cost, approximately Rs. 300,000.
Details of plant
1. One double-action power press with motor; 75-ton capacity.

3 Two power presses with motor; 5O-ton capacity.
L.
3. Two power presses, with motor; 25-ton capacity.

4. One single-spindle automatic lathe, 1 in. capacity.
5. Five single-operation lathes with collet attachment, motorized; 11/zin.
capacity.
6. Two drilling machines with motor; 11/z in. capacity.
7. One special purpose single-operation lathe with rotating spindle at
both ends and fixed central vice to turn two ends of tube simultaneously.
8. One milling machine, horizontal bench model with motor and acces-
sories.
9. One tapping machine; l/z in. capacity.
10. One thread-rolling machine with motor; l/z in. capacity.
11. Five arbor presses, l-ton capacity.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONFNTS BY ANCILLARY UNITS 51
__--- ----- -~ --
12. One marking press, hand operated.

13. One hand fiy press No. 6.
14. One guillotine shearing machine, power operated, 36 in. x 10 G.
15. One bar-cropping machine, power operated; ‘12 in. capacity.
16. One toolroom lathe 6 ft, with motor.
17. One shaping machine with motor; I.8 in. capacity.
18. One pillar-type drilling machine, with motor; 1 in. capacity.
19. One bench-type drilling machine with motor; l/z in. capacity.
20. One bench-type vertical milling machine with dividing head and
motor.
21. One tool post grinder, motorized; 6 in. wheel.
22. One double ended grinder bench-type, motorized; 8 in.
23. Salt bath fiLlmace for case-hardening cones and cups, tempcraturc
950°C; depth of pot 24 in., dia. of pot 24 in.; with prehcatc:- tempera-
ture 600 OC.
24. One set of electroplating equipment with polishing lathes for bright
25. Tools, equipment, fixtures.
26. Precision instruments, gauges, hand tools.
Rear hub shell 3101, front hub shell 4101. Cutting tube to length, dc-
burring, turning internal and outside diameter, punching oil hole, marking.
Distance piece 3102. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, bending U-shape,
inserting mandrel, bending round.
Rear hub ball race cups 3103, front ball race cups 4102. Cutting strips from
sheet, blanking, drawing cup, punching bottom, turning outside diameter,
facing collar, heat treating and polishing with emery paste.
Spoke flanges rear hub 3104, spoke flanges front hub 4103. Cutting strips
from sheet, blanking, drawing cup, flattening flange, punching bottom, turning
flange rim, facing flange, punching holes (for spokes), counter-sinking holes,
threading (right hand flange of rear hub only).
Rear hub axle 3105, front hub axle 4104. Cutting rod to length, chamfering
ends, thread rolling, rust-proofing chemically.
Fixed cone rear hub 3107, adjustable cone rear hub 3108, fixed cone front
hub 4105, adjustable front hub 4106. Drilling, form turning ball race, cutting
off to size, chamdering, tapping thread, milling flats, marking, heat treating,
rust-proofing chemically.
Dust cap washer rear hub 3109, dust cap washer front hub 4108. Cutting
strips from sheet, punching hole and blanking.
Oil clip rear hub 3112, oil clip front hub 4111. Cutting strip, blanking,
bending, hardening, tempering and blueing.
Chain adjuster rear hub 3113. Cutting bar to length, chamfering one end,
stamping other end, punching eye hole, thread rolling.
Chain adjuster clips rear hub 3114. Cutting strips from sheet, punching
hole and blanking, forming.
52 ilI(:Y(:L.l:\
Assembly of hubs
The distance piece is inscrtcd into the hub shell (in CLSCof’ rcnr hub 0dyj.
The bail race cups are pressed in, at both ends of hub shell. The spoke flanges
are pressed ,m the hub shells at both ends. The axle is thcrcnftcr inscrtcd. steel
balls are fllied in and cones assembled. The dust caps arc presser4 in and elcctro-
plated. Nuts, washers, spring clips 31-e then fitted.
FREE-WHEEL
Capacity, 100,000 free-wheels per year ; cost, approsiiiintcly 1~s. 400,OiM).
Details of plant
1. one double-sidcc! Lmiping press \vith clcctric motor; IOO-ton cnpa-

city.
2. One power press with clcctric motor; 50-ton capacity.
3. One power press with electric motor; IO-ton capacity.
4. C;nc drop hammer with clcctric motor; 1/2-tori capacity.
5. Cj,lc oil&-cd furnace for USC with drop hammer.
6. Eight single-operation chucking lathes for fSng and turning with
electric motor; chucking capacity 4 in.
7. Three special purpose threadin g lathes with rcvcrsiblc spindle with
clcctric motor; chucking capacity 4 in.
8. One vertical ram-type bench milling machine with electric motor
and accessories.
9. One vertical ram-type bench milling machine with motor and acccs-
sories.
10. One rot:11 surface grinder, dia. of work table 20 in.; with motor and
accessories.
11. One bench drilling machine with motor; */z in. capacity.
12. One salt bath carburizing furnace, temperature 900*C; dia. of pot
24 in., depth of pot 24 in.; with preheater.
13. One muffle-type annealing and tempering furnace, temperature
65OOC; size of chamber 12 in. x 10 in. x24 in.
14. One Rockwell hardness tester.
15. One hand-operated screw press for marking.
16. One vertical-type broaching machine, capacity of 21/z in. dia. internal
broaching.
17. Tools and dies, other equipment and fixtures.
18. Precision measuring instruments and hand tools.
Free-Lvhtcl body 3201. Hot punching hole, drop forging to shapc~, nnncnling,
one si,dc 6xmg,. boring internal diameter, second side facing, turning outside
diameter, milling slot, milling all seating, threading, rust-proofing chemically.
(The material used for this is the slug obtain& from hot punching of sprocket
wheel blank.)
Sprocket wheel 3202. Hot blanking and punching, drop forging to shape,
annealing, boring internal diameter, turning outside diamctrr, one side facing,
second side f&ing, finishing teeth flange, machining ball grooves, punching sprocket
teeth, shaving teeth, broaching internal teeth, hut trcnting, rust-proofing
chemically.
Free-wheel pawls 3203. Blanking, drilling, heat treating.
Paw1 pin 3204. Cutting wire to six.
paw1 spring 3205. Blanking, forming, heat treating.
Paw1 washer 3205 (a). Blanking, de-burring.
Free-wheel cones 3207. Blanking, punching internal diamctcr, drop forging
to shape, annealing, surface grinding, boring, internal thrcarling, drilling pin-
spanner holes, turning and finishing out~idc: c4iamctcr, marking, heat treatiilg,
rust-proofing chemically.
Assembly of free-w heel
In assembling the fret-wheel, one of 1-11~free-wheel cones is rivctcd to

the free-wheel body. The free-wheel paw1 is then fixed with pa\vl pin spring
and washers. Balls and the other cone arc nsscmblcd thcrcaftcr.
CHAIN WHEEL AND CRANKS
Capacity, 100,000 picccs per year; cost, npprosimntcly Rs. 35(~,000.
Details of plant
1. Onu +l!otinc shearing machine, 45 in. :< j/16 in. thickness, with
electric motor.
3
I. One power hacksaw with electric motor; 6 in. dia. round capacity.
3. One power press with motor; lOO-ton capacity.
4, One power press with motor; 6%ton capacity.
5 One oil-fired furnace; 3 ft x 2 ft x 18 in. for forging.
6. One pneumatic hammer with motor; l/d-ton capacity.
7. One drop-forging hammcr, with motor; l-ton capacity.
8. One oil-fired muffle-type annealing furnace, 3 ft x 1 l/z ft x 2 ft depth.
9. One set of sand-blasting equipment.
10. One drilling and tapping machine geared, with motor; 1 in. capacity.
11. Four single-operation special purpose lathes for turning and king.
54 BICYCLES
.____~~--. -~.~ ----...-~-.
13. Tools, dies, equipment, fixtures.
14. Precision instruments, hand tools, gauges.
Chain wheel 6001. Cutting strips from sheet, punching centre hole, blanking,
forming joggle, punching design and trade name, punching sprocket teeth.
RH crank 6002, LH crank 6007. Cutting bar to length, pre-forging to rough
shape, drop forging to shape, annealing, sand-blasting and cleaning, drilling
centre holes, turning and facing both sides, tapping, drilling cotter hole.
Assembly of chain wheel and cranks
The RH crank is riveted to the chain wheel; <his is then electroplated with
the LH crank.
PEDALS
Capacity, 100,000 pairs of pedals per year; cost, approximately Rs. 180,000.
Details of plant
1. One power-operated guillotine shearing machine, 36 in. x 10 G.

2. One power hacksaw machine; 6 in. round capacity.
3. One power press; 40-ton capacity.
4. One single operation special purpose tube cutting lathe with motor;
1 in. capacity.
5. One single spindle automatic lathe with motor; 1 in. capacity.
6. One drilling and tapping machine pedestal-type, with motor; 1 in.
capacity.
7. One special purpose lathe with collet attachment, 4-way tool post
and self opening die-head on tail-stock; collet capacity 3112 in.
8. One special purpose lathe with collet attachment, 4-way tool post
and self opening die-head on tail stock; collet capacity 1 in.
9. One milling machine bench-type, with motor and accessories.
10. One pneumatic hammer with die-forging attachment; 1 cwt capacity.
11.. One oil-fired furnace, 2 ft x 1 ft x 1 l/z ft depth.
12. One oil-fired salt bath carburizing furnace, temperature 950°C,
2 ft depthx 18 in. dia. of pot; with preheater temperature 6OOOC.
14. Tools, dies, equipment, fixtures.
15. Precision instruments, gauges, small tools.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY UNITS 55
- .-. ---~
Manufhuring operations
Pedal tubes 6101. Cutting tube to length, de-burring, electroplating.

Ball-races 6102. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, drawing cup, punching
bottom, heat treating, polishing.
Stretcher bars 6104. Turning one end, threading, cutting off, turning other _
end, threading.
Pedal plates 6105. Cutting strips from sheet, punching holes, blanking,
de-burring, electroplating.
Pedal axles 6107. Cutting bar to length, forging to shape, annealing, turning,
threading, milling flats, milling slot, heat treating, rust-proofing chemically.
Pedal cones 6108. Drilling, form turning ball race, cutting off, tapping,
milling flats, heat treating, rust-proofing chemically.
Winged dust caps 6111. Cutting strips from sheet, blanking, drawing and
forming, punching hole, electroplating.
Assembly of pedals
The ball race cups are pressed into the pedal tube. Pedal axle is inserted
into the pedal tube and steel balls are put in; the cone is screwed on. The pedal
plates, winged dust cap, stretcher bars, rubbers and nuts are then assembled.
TURNED COMPONENTS
The items for which the plant details have been given in figure 8 are: crown
race 1022; bottom inner ball race 1024; top inner ball race 1025; screwed race
1026; locking nut 1029; BB axle 1044; BB fixed cup 1047; BB adjustable ball
cups 1048; locking nut 1049; cotter pin 6003; washer 6004; nut 6005; and spring
washer 6006.
Capacity, 60,000 sets of turned components per year; cost, approximately

Rs. 500,000.
Details of plant
1. One single spindle automatic screw machine with accessories; 2112 in.
bar capacity.
2. Two single spindle automatic screw machines with accessories; 2 in.
bar capacity.
3. One milling machine, bench-type, with accessories and motor.
4. One drilling machine, bench-type, with motor; l/z in. capacity.
5. One automatic cycle, centreless grinding machine, maximum work
dia. 2 in. with hopper feed attachment.
6. One hydraulic marking press.
7. Two oil-fired salt bath furnaces; 2 ft dia. ~2 ft depth, temperature
950°C, with preheater temperature up to 600°C.
BICYCLES
b
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY UNITS
57
_~-____-.- .~.__- --.--..__
58 BICYCLES
8. One Rockwell hardness tester.

9. One barrel plating equipment for bright nickel and chromium plating.
10. One centre lathe, 6 ft length of bed, 61/zin. height of centres; motorized
with accessories.
11. One tool and cutter grinder, 8 in. x 16 in.; attachments.
12. One tool grinder for carbide tipped tools.
13. Precision instruments, gauges and tools.
Ail the parts are machined. Heat treatment is given to all parts except
spacing washer, locking nut and locking ring which are electroplated after
machining. BB axles are ground after heat treatment. All heat-treated parts
are rust-proofed chemically.
BB SHELLS
The bottom bracket shells are generally of malleable cast iron. The un-
machined castings are bought from specialized malleable iron foundries, because
it is not economical to set up a small capacity malleable iron foundry for the
production of BB shells.
Capacity, 100,000 BB shells per year; cost, approximately Rs. 80,000.
Details of plant
1. One special purpose chamfering and facing lathe with work holding
fixture in the centre for clamping BB shell.
2. Two special purpose horizontal drilling machines, duplex type, with
centrJ work holding fixture.
3. Two reversible spindle special purpose tapping machines, duplex type,
with central holding fixture. (See figure 7.)
4. Two drilling machines, pedestal type; 11/z in. capacity.
5. One drilling and tapping machine, bench-type; l/z in. capacity.
6. Tools, equipment, fixtures.
The unmachined casting is clamped on the char&ring machine and the two
ends are faced and chamfered. It is then mounted on the duplex drilling machine
and both ends are drilled. On the tapping machine both ends are thereafter
threaded (right hand and left hand),
The other holes into which frame tubes are fitted are drilled and reamed
on the pedestal-type drilling machine. The hole for the oil cup is drilled and
tapped on the bench-type drilling and tapping machine.
MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY UNITS 59
--__-~ ___.. -.--.--
SADDLES
Capacity, 40,000 saddles per year; cost, approximately Rs. 150,000.
Details of pht
1. One power-operated leather splitting machine, 24 in. width.

2. One hydraulic leather clicking press, 8 in. stroke; motorized.
3. Two hydraulic moulding presses, 8 in. stroke platen size 16 in. x 16 in.
with pump motor and electrical heating arrangement; 80-ton capacity.
4. Two leather-buffing ar.d finishing machines with exhaust.
5. One spring coiling machine.
6. One air compressor with spraying equipment.
7. One guillotine shearing machine, 36 in. x 10 G., power operated.
8. One power press; 40-ton capacity.
9. One set of electroplating equipment for bright nickel and chromium
plating with polishing lathe;
10. one hand lever rod cropping machine up to 3/g in. dia. of rod.
11. Wire bending fixtures.
12. Tools, dies, instruments, brass moulds.
The leather is split in the splitting machine for uniform thickness. Saddle
blanks are cut on the clicking press. The saddle tops are moulded in the hydraulic
moulding press with electrically heated moulding dies. The holes are then
punched and saddles coloured, bu%ed and finished. The sheet metal and wire
parts are made on the other machines and electroplated. The saddle top and other
parts are then assembled.
BICYCLE ACCESSORIES
Besides the various parts and components discussed in this chapter and
earlier, several accessories are required for bicycles. Economically viable units
for each of such accessories can be set up in the small-scale sector. The accessories
used are of several types, designs and specifications. Complete details of these
accessories, their manufacture, pl:.lts, machinery required and so on are beyond
the scope of this paper and would provide the subject matter for another paper.
However, a list of accessories and various types and designs is given below:
1. Luggage carrier
(a) solid steel wire frame with stays and spring grip and foldable
side wings
(b) pressed steel frame with rod stays
(c) strip steel frame and rod stays
(d) steel tube frame with tubular stays and spring grip
BICYCLES
2. Single side stand

(u) single side stand with rod prop
(b) single side stand with pressed steel prop
3. Centre stands filled either to hub spindle or chain stay neck
. (a) rod prop type
(b) pressed steel type
4. Double side stands
(a) pressed steel, pick-up type with spring lock
5. Gear cases or chain covers
(a) full gear cases
(b) half gear cases
(c) quarter chain covers
6. Cycle bells
(u) double dome-type chime bell, brass or steel
(13) ding-dong bell: single dome brass or steel
. (c) spoke bells
7. Air horns
(u) straight air horn. with rubber bulb and metal clip
(b) double note air horn
8. Electric siren horns
9. Fork guards
(4 straight pattern
(4 curved pattern
10. Lighting sets

(a> electric dynamo lighting set, 12-volt or 6-volt types
(b) dry battery type electric lighting sets
(c) oil lamps
11. Mud flaps

(a) plastic
(b) rubber
12. Back reflecting mirrors

13. Pumps
(u) foot pumps
(b) frame pumps
14. Locks
(u) side locks for front or rear wheel
(6) ring locks
(c) combination chain or cable locks
.
MANrTFACTURE OF SPECIALIZED COMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY UNITS 61
15. Mascots
different shapes
16. Rear reflectors
Ii’. Touring bag and baskets
18. Cycle tools

(LZ) spanners
(b) eight-way box wrench
(c) spoke wrench
(d) pliers
(4 tire lever
(j”) gear puller
(q) handle-bar puller
(h) wheel building stand
19. Trade mark label plates

Chapter 8
THE SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM AND THE FUNCTIONAL

INDUSTRIAL ESTATE FOR THE BICYCLE INDUSTRY2
The details of manufacture of a complete bicycle have been discussed in chapter 6,

and the manufacture of components in ancillary units is discussed in chapter 7.
This chapter considers the subcontracting system in reference to ancillary
relationships between large- and small-scale firms and joint production pro-
grammes in functional industrial estates. To obtain a clear concept of these
relationships, it is necessary to review the general aspects of these systems.
THE SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM
General concept
Because of its decentralized character, the subcontracting system has techno-

economic advantages, helping the over-all development of industries. Under
this system, several economically viable small-scale units are set up to make
the components, parts and sub-assemblies required in the end product. The
small-scale units may work either in the same area as the large-scale unit or
elsewhere. Some large-scale units have established ancillary industrial estates to
accommodate subcontracting units.
Advantages
The main advantages of the subcontracting system are: (a) All parts and
components required for the end product need not be produced under one
roof by a large-scale unit. (b) A complex organization both from the technical
and administrative points of view is not required by the large unit. This mini-
mizes many problems such as labour unrest. (c) The risks of business fluctuations
and obsolescence of machinery are minimized; modernizing the plant is possible
without many problems. (d) R esearch and quick adoption of new technology
allow greater specialization by subcontracting units. (e) Entrepreneurial talent
and the latent financial resources can be better tapped in ancillary units. (f> Large-
scale units are in a position to concentrate on sophisticated items where greater
skill and invest,anent are necessary.
2 Subcontracting and ancillary are used as synonymous words in India.
62
THE SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM AND THE FUNCTIONAL INDUSTRIAL ESTATE 63
- --___ __......, _ ..
Methods of negotiations and the role of the government
Under the subcontracting system, ancillary units make direct negotiations

with the large-scale units for supply of components. In some cases proprietors
of subcontracting firms were either working in some section of the main industry
or are otherwise known to the large firms. These relationships serve as an in-
direct means to create the confidence of the large firms in the ancillary units.
The large-scale firms provide designs, drawings and standard specifications to
the subcontracting units and sometimes help to supply them with raw materials.
Inspection of components in ancillary units is also done by the large firms both
during and after manufacture. It is, however, necessary for the government to
play a positive role and establish policies for the development of ancillary indus-
tries so that they may have a continued relationship and proper assistance from
the large units. Otherwise, if the large-scale units start producing parts them-
selves or break contracts, the ancillary units may suffer badly.
Requirements of ancillary units
There are certain requirements for the proper development of small sub-
contracting units. Parent units must offer long-term contracts dnd provide
technical know-how, designs, drawings and so cn co the small-scale units.
Payment should be made to small-sca!e uuits on time. If payments are delayed
or if contracts are not on a long-term basis, the ancillary industries may suffer
greatly. On the other hand, for the proper functioning of ancillary units it is
also necessary that competent entrepreneurs be given the subcontracts.
Ancillary development in India
The Ancillary Industries Development Programme has been in force on a

regular basis in India since 1960 and it has been proved that the Sole of these
industries in the industrial development of the country is vital. In India, an an-
cillary industrial unit is defined as follows :
“Unit which produces parts, components, sub-assembly and tooling for
supply against known or anticipated demand by one or more large-scale
units manufacturing or assembling complete products and which is not a
subsidiary to or controlled by any large-scale unit in regard to the negotiat-
ings of contract for supply of its goods to any large-scale unit. This shall
not, however, preclude an ancillary unit Cram entering into an agreement
with a large-scale unit giving it the first option to take over the former’s
output.”
Units set up primarily for the replacement market also fall within this
definition. Normally a small-scale unit is one in which the investment in the
form of machinery and equipment does not exceed Rs. 750,000, irrespective
of the number of workers employed. For an ancillary small-scale unit the ceiling
of investment on machinery and equipment is Rs. 1 million. This higher ceiling
of-investment entitles a small-scale ancillary unit to take advantage of numerous
facilities from governmental and non-governmental agencies, including :
64 BICYCLES
-__ ---.-.--..- ~-_-.- ..- ._. ~-.-. -.... -... .
(a) Technical assistance from the Central Small Industries Organization

through the Small Industries Service Institutes and extension centres
located in every state in India.
(6) SUPPlY o f machinery under the hire-purchase schcmc of the National
Small Industries Corporation, a Government of India undertaking.
This corporation provides machines on a hire-purchase basis after an
initial payment of 20 per cent of the cost of the machine, the balance
paid in instalments over a period of five to seven years.
(c) Allotment of factory sheds in the industrial estates.
Sixteen types of industry including the bicycle industry have been selected
for development of ancillary industrial units in India. This indicates that the
Government of India has recognized the potential of ancillary development
in the bicycle industry. It has also set up a special ancillary committee that co-
ordinates the work of large-scale units with that of small-scale ancillary units.
Since 1962 many subcontracting units have been developed with the assistance
given by the central and state Govcrmnent.
FUNCTIONAL INDUSTRIAL ESTATES
A functional industrial estate is set up for the production of a particular

item, with several ancillary units forming a cluster around the central unit.
Under this scheme the small-scale ancillary units supply manufactured parts
and components to the central unit. The advantage is that sevpral ancillary units
in one industrial estate can conveniently share facilities such as tool rooms and
testing laboratorics- 3. It is also easy to supply raw materials to the units and
collect finished goods. The inspection and quality control of products also
become easier.
SUBCONTRACTING IN THE BICYCLE INDUSTRY4
The bicycle industry offers excellent opportunity for subcontracting. In

India, this industry is well established on these lines and there is a close relation-
ship between, on the one hand, the large- and small-scale units manufacturing
complete bicycles, and on the other hand, the ancillary units. The ancillary
units produce about 75 per cent of the complete bicycle and also supply the
replacement market.
3 Joint production programmes may also be organized for small-scale industries located
outside of an industrial estate. They are, however, particularly effective when organized
within a functional industrial estate. A publication on the organization of functional industrial
estates is being prepared by the secretariat of UNIDO.
4 The subcontracting system in Japan is of interest since a large number of small-scale
units have been developed under this system. Subcontracting units receive a regular flow
of raw material, are assured of markets for their products, and can obtain uidance and even
financial assistance from the parent companies. This makes it possible Bor subcor_tracting
units to manufacture parts at low cost. It is estimated that about 75 per cent of the bicycle
manufacturing industry in Japan falls under subcontracting. There are certain disadvantages
THE SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM AND THE FUNCTIONAL INDUSTRIAL ESTATE 6’3
A q Assembly units-”
S = Small - scale
ancillary units
Three types of plan for setting LIP bicycle units both in the large-scale and
small-scale sectors, using subcontracting and the functional industrial estate,
are discussed below. The raw materials required, ulanufacturing processes, plants
and equipment necessary for all parts and components have been stated under
chapters 5, 6 and 7.
Plan A. Setting up large-scale units using subcontracting
Ph B. Setting LIP small-scale units using subcontracting
Plan C. Setting up a ftmctional industrial estate for bicycle manufacture
to this system because the parent enterprises generally exercise a dominant role over the
subcontractors, are prone to determine for their own advantage prices, terms of payment
and other dealings, and resist long-term contracts. Subcontracting units may be exposed
to a reduction of their profit without notice and to delayed payments. To safeguard the
interests of subcontracting units, the Governm.ent of Japan has passed laws whereby parent
companies must sign written contracts and make payments for deliveries within a specified
time. The Government has helped subcontractors to develop and modernize their units
by supplying them with: technical assistance and guidance by teams of experts, special
training for managers of subcontracting units, and machinery for modernization and im-
provement of quality.
66 BICYCLES
----..-- ___.- .-~~------. __~ _
Plan A. Setting up large-scale units using subcontracting
1. Output of bicycles per year for each plant: 150,000 men’s bicycles;
25,000 women’s bicycles; 25,000 sports model bicycles.
2. Items to be manufactured in the factory: frames, forks, chain stays,
seat stays, pressed parts; turned parts; handle-bars, mudguards, hubs,
free-wheels.
3. Items to be obtained from ancillary units: rims, chains, pedals, spokes
and nipples, BB shells, chain wheel and cranks, saddles.
4. Items to be purchased from specialized manufacturers5: tires and tubes,
steel balls.
Figure 9 illustrates this relationship.
For an adequate supply of a particular item, a large-scale unit may have to

place orders with more than one ancillary unit. On the other hand, the ancillary
units may supply items to more than one large-scale unit; this is advantegeous
to both. The large-scale units receive the benefit of competitive price and are
assured a regular supply of components as they have more than one ancillary
supplier. Similarly the ancillary units do not depend only on one large-scale
unit for orders but can obtain a good price for quality products from several
large-scale units.
The disadvantage of the above system is that large-scale units can suddenly
stop their orders .to the ancillary units. Also, ancillary units may hamper the
production programme of large-scale units by not supplying components on
schedule. To overcome this drawback, both units must enter into a firm contract
for a sufficiently long period of time.
Locatiorr. The large units may be set up near metropolitan cities which
are the main marketing centres. Ancillary units may be dispersed within a radius
of 100 kilometres to take advantage of cheap labour, land and locational benefits.
Plan B. Setting up small-scale units using subcontracting
Output of bicycles per year for the plant: 15,000 men’s roadster bicycles
(single bar); 5,000 men’s roadster bicycles (double bar) and carrier modei;
3,000 women’s roadster bicycles; 2,000 children’s bicycles.
Items to be manufactured in the factory, items to be obtained from ancillary
units, and items to be purchased from the market or from specialized manu-
facturers will be the same as in chapter 6.
The subcontracting relationship of large- to small-scale units, and the
relationship of small-scale units to ancillary units is shown in, figure 10 below.
The small-scale units and the ancillary units under this plan can be located in
a town.
s These specialized units also work for industries other than the bicycle industry.
I
I
,::../.
THB SUBCONTRACTING SYSTEM AND THE FUNCTIONAL !NI)USTRIAL ESTATE

~___-
Figure 10. Dicrgrctrfrof relntiotdlip of srrroll-scolc writs to nncilhry writs
Plan C. Setting up a h~ctional industrial estate for bicycle manufacturers
The annual output of each central assembly unit, the items to be manu-
factured in the central unit and those to be obtained from ancillary units will
be the same as in Plan B except for the following :
The central assembly units and ancillary units will be in the same industrial
estate;
Independent process-oriented units for electroplating, cnamelling, heat
treatment and so on can be set up as specialized units;
All parts must be sold by the ancillary units to the central assembly units
as a primary obligation;
The pricing of parts made by ancillary units is calculated by cost-study
allowing for a futed percentage profit.
In this type of estate, the industry can be actively assisted by the government
in several ways :
Setting UP design and prototype development centres;
Providing a tool room for common service to manufacture dies, jigs,
fixtures and so on;
Providing a testing laboratory for quality control;
Establishing raw material depots;
Providing institutional agencies for financial and marketing help ;
Constructing the sheds in functional industrial estates.
BICYCLES
Figure 11 gives a plan of a functional industrial estate for making bicycles.
3 El
3
4
12
13
7
k,}
3..
15
Bxyclc assembly
Free-wheel unil
10. Spokes. nipples and washers
11. Mudauards
12. ElccTroplating
4. Chains 13 Enrmelling
5. 86 5hcll unil
6. Hubs 14. Design, dcvrlopmrnl
and tool room nntrr
7. Chain wheel and crank unil 15. Raw malerirls
8. Turnrd components
9. Rims
Figure 13. Layout of R functiorta2 industrial estate fir the rrrnriufuctureof bicycles
Chapter 9
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, QUALITY CONTROL AND

INSPECTION FOR HOME AND EXPORT
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
In the bicycle industry the manufacture of components in accordance with

standard specification is desirable to achieve interchangeability of parts and
components. In the early stages of bicycle manufacturing in India, some large-
scale units manufactured parts and components in accordance with their own
company standards, and some units used British Standard Specifications. The
industry soon felt the need to establish national standards of quality in the manu-
facture of parts and components as well as interchangeability. The Indian Stand-
ards Institution therefore took up the work of establishing standards.
Standard specifications formulated by the Indian Standards Institution

The Indian Standards Institution has published 22 standards for the various
parts and components of the bicycle including the glossary of terms used in the
bicycle industry. A list of the standards is given in table 19 at the end of this
chapter. These standards include almost all the important parts in which inter-
changeability is desirable. Thus the industry has been encouraged to manufacture
colmponents of quality standards.
The Indian Standards Institution is in the process of revising some existing
standards and formulating new ones. Draft standards have been prepared for
saddles, bicycle cotter pins, washers and nuts. The Indian bicycle standards
being revised at the time of writing include: rim tapes and buckles; cranks and
chain wheel; free-wheel and chains; bottom bracket assembly; components
(axle, adjustable cup, fixed cup and 1oc k’in g nut), The following will be stand-
ardized: mudguards; sports cycles; and method of sampling for bicycle compo-
nents.
The Indian Standards Institution has established a mark scheme, awarding
the ISI mark for items that are manufactured to IS1 specifications. Manufacturers
may approach the Indian Standards Institution if they have the necessary equip-
ment to manufacture components according to the Institution’s specifications.
After inspection and approval, the IS1 mark may be stamped by manufacturers
on their products. This mark gives assurance to the consumer that the product
has been manufactured in accordance with quality standards. The Indian Standards
Institution charges a nominal fee to manufacturers for the use of its mark. Insti-
tution officers visit the manufacturing units periodically to satisfy themselves
that the products are being manufactured according to their standards. Some
manufacturers of bicycle components have the IS1 mark on their products.
69
70 BICYCLES
-___ ~ __.-._.
__-.---- .----.-.--~_-~~
QUALITY CONTROL
The extent of quality control exercised by the manufacturing Lmits depends

upon the raw materials, the type of machinery and equipment, the skill of the
labour and the specification followed. In addition to the specifications for the
end product, specifications have been prescribed for the raw materials that go
into its manufacture. The type of plant and machinery used by both the large-
and small-scale units is such that by and large there is no difficulty in making
parts to standard. Manufacturers of parts and components, therefore, have
introduced quality control at all stages of manufacture and testing is done at
all stages to maintain it. The Central Small Industries Organisation has been
playing a significant role in giving technical assistance enabling the adoption
of quality control methods at all stages of manufacture in small-scale units.
Material testing facilities have been provided at various places for this purpose.
INSPECTION FOR THE HOME MARKET
There is no compulsory inspection prescribed for the bicycle in the home

market. But, where purchases are made by the Director General of Supplies
and Disposals for government departments, inspection is carried out in accor-
dance with the Indian Standards Specifications. Where standards are not avail-
able, the inspection wing of this dcpartmcnt has its own standards. It is not
essential for a manufacturer to have the IS1 mark on his goods but ehc items
should meet the standards set by the Director General of Supplies and Disposals.
In some states, such as Punjab where the manufacture of bicycles and bi-
cycle components is concentrated, the state Government has introduced a quality
marking system by which a “Q” mark is given to commodities made in accor-
dance with the standards prescribed by the state Government. The facility is
given to several small-scale units and the products of these units are found more
acceptable to consumers since they bear an assurance of quality. Also for quality
marking, the national standards prescribed by the Indian Standards Institution
are being introduced wherever possible.
INSPECTION FOR EXPORT
At present there is no compulsory inspection for bicycles or parts that are

exported. Manufacturers are aware of this, but they do produce quality goods
in accordance with the standard specifications. The need for quality control
and inspection before export has, however, been realized by the Government
of India and steps have been taken to implement such a scheme. Under this
scheme components and bicycles will be inspected in accordance with the specifi-
cations of the ISI or another agency prescribed by the Government. Inspection
will be carried out by theExport Inspection Agencies at Cochin, Madras, Calcutta,
Bombay and Delhi, which will be authorized to give certificates before export.
Manufacturers will be required to exercise quality control at all stages during
the manufacture of their product.
STANDARD SPECIF[CATIONS,QUALITY CONTROL AND INSPECTION FOR HOME AND EXPORT 71
-_- -- -___ -~---. --__
Even though there is no compulsory inspection before export, the bicycles

and parts that are exported from India have, by and large, been widely accepted,
and the increase of exports is an indication that their quality is satisfactory.
However, the scheme of inspection before export will benefit the industry’ arid
give confidence to the consumers abroad. Compulsory inspection before export
will make the bicycle industry more quality conscious.
Table 19
INDIAN STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR BICYCLES AND PARTS
LSI Specijcntion t~~rm!wrs Title of specificutiorr
IS 532: 1964 Bicycle tube valves

IS 623: 1963 Bicycle frames
IS 624: 1961 Bicycle rims
IS 625 : 1963 Bicycle handle-bars
IS 626: 1963 Bicycle seat pillars
IS 627 : 1961 Bicycle chains
IS 628 : 1963 Bicycle pedal assembly
IS 629: 1953 Bicycle hub assemblies
IS 630: 1961 Bicycle spokes and nipples for spokes
IS 960: 1958 Bicycle rim tapes and buckles
IS 11311
Bicycle bottom bracket assembly components
IS 1134)
IS 1281: 1958 Bicycle cranks and chain wheels
IS 1282: 1958 Bicycle cotter pins, washers and nuts
IS 1283: 1958 Bicycle free-wheels
IS 2039: 1964 Steel tubes for bicycle and allied purposes
IS 2061: 1962 Bicycle front forks
IS 2415: 1963 Bicycle rubber tubes
IS 2484: 1964 Dimensions of steel tubes for bicycle purposes
IS 2898: 1965 Chromium alloy steel balls
IS 2973 : 1964 Bicycle steering head assembly
IS 3404: 1966 Ladies’ bicycle frames
IS 3798 : 1966 Glossary of terms used in the bicycle industry
EXPORT
The bicycle industry of India has made a significant contribution to the country’s
export of light engineering product;. India is now exporting bicycles and bi-
cycle parts to several countries in Africa, the Far East, the Middle East, the
United Kingdom and the United States. The industry faces competition from
countries such as the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan and the United King-
dom, but the quality of its exports and its competitive position have enabled
it to enter the world market.
Export performance
The export of bicycles started in 1956-1957 when the value of exports

by the industry was Rs. 0.21 million, but there has been a gradual increase
since then. In 1966-1967 the figure rose to Rs. 13.33 million. During this
period the export of bicycle parts also grew substantially. Parts such as chains,
spokes, saddles, free-wheels, rims, steel balls, tires and tubes are the major items
of export. A graph indicating the export of bicycles and bicycle parts from
1956 to 1967 is given in figure 12. The industry aims at an export target of
Rs. 5fi million by the end of 1970-1971.
Foreign market
Indian bicycles and parts find a good market in Afghanistan, Hong Kong,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Nigeria, Peru, the Sudan,
Syria, Thailand, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, the United States
and Zambia. In the Middle East countries, the most popular Indian bicycle is
the roadster model-single bar and double bar. This model is the most popular
in developing countries because it is strongly built and can be used in places
where roads are poor. Countries such as the United States, however, prefer
sports models. To cater to this preference, India has manufactured sports models
with the special features required by these countries. Recently, Indian bicycles
have even been exported to the United Kingdom from whom India imported
almost all its bicycles only a decade ago.
Channels of export
The Engineering Export Promotion Council gives assistance and guidance

to bicycle exporters through its regional offices inindia and in other countries.
Bicycles are exported through established export houses, and merchant exporters,
and by manuLcturers directly. The merchant exporters handle mainly the
72
‘_ ‘_ ’
“::,,:.,
)‘,,
EXPORT 73
export business of small-scale manufacturers. In some places, state-owned small

industries corporations also export for small-scale industries. The Central Small
Industries Organisation gives special assistance to small industrialists to enter
the export market. The Cycle Manufacturers’ Association of India has created
a cycle export pool to assist its members in finding export markets.
Export aid for small-scale industries (EASI Scheme)
To give special assistance to small-scale units, the Government of India

started the .EASI Scheme. This scheme, which is operated through the State
Trading Corporation of India, boosts the export of commodities including
bicycles and bicycle parts.
Under the scheme, the Small Industries Service Institutes locate a few
competent manufacturers for the particular item on the basis of capacity, quality
and quantity of production; price, finish and packaging of the product; and
business reputation and keenness to export. If a product is thought to be suitable
for export, a small team of officers representing the scheme visits the factory
and selects the production. If the packaging is not appropriate, the scheme
arranges for a new design and printing of top cl,rs~ packaging and presentation
material.
Essentially the scheme brings together manufacturers and foreign buyers
because the small-scale manufacturer is not normally in a position to locate a
buyer and negotiate export business. Under the scheme, a manufacturer rcceivcs
all the assistance needed to become a competent exporter; the Small Industries
Service Institutes give free technical assistance to f3l the gap. The small-scale
manufacturer also receives assistance to import raw materials and machinery for
his industry. Cash assistance is available to the manufacturer who exi)orts the
products.
Competitive position in the world market
According to information available to the authors, the countries that offer

keen competition to India on the world market are: China (mainland), the
Federal Republic of Germany, France, Japan, the United Kingdom and Yugo-
slavia. Because of the large number of models they manufacture, Japan and
European countries have the advantage over India in such markets as the United
States. Yugoslavia offers strong competition, particularly in Indonesia, and the
competition from China (mainland) is mostly in the Middle East. In order
to meet competition from these countries, India has taken steps to introduce
new models.
Another factor that influences the competitive position of Indian bicycles
is PiXC.
. As raw materials are the biggest factor in determining the cost of a
bicycle, a country having the raw materials at competitive prices is at an ad-
vantage. Efforts are being made to make raw materials available to the bicycle
industry of India at international prices. This effort should help to improve
India’s competitive position on the world market.
BICYCLES
Millions
14.0
12.0
10,o
%O
6.0
_~
.-I-.
__/
4.0
-~
I----
I
2.0 --
’ -.+-
; --i--l
I I
! /
I
1
-
-
i- I
ILL
1. 1956- 1959. MO- 1961. 1962. 1963- 1964. IS65
l.J
1 ’ 1 9 t959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966i 1967
i igure 12. Export of bicycles ad parts- India, 3956 to 1967
Prospects
The various measures undertaken and continuous improvement in the

quality of Indian bicycles will help to increase the export volume in the near
future. Bicycle manufacturers in India have also made collaboration agreements
with entrepreneurs of other countries and manufacturing units have been esta-
blishcd in countries such as Ceylon. An increasing demand is being received
to set up similar units in developing countries in Africa. This will further help
the export of bicycle parts.
The bicycle industry, !$erefore, promises to be a substantial foreign exchange
earner in the future.
Chapter II
COMPARISON OF PRODUCTIVITY IN THE LARGE- AND

SMALL-SCALE SECTORS
The most efficient size for an industry depends on the nature of the industry.
The basic industries such as iron and steel are predominantly large, but the
consumer industries, for example those producing bicycles, sewing machines
or electric fans, may be either large- or small-scale.
Determination of optimum size of units
It is difficult to determine the optimum or most efficient size for manufac-

turing units on the basis of theory. Optimum size can at best be determined
by the measurement of cost and the technical or other benefits to be derived
from various possible sizes. Factors that commonly influence optimum size are:
technology, finance, managerial talent, market, and other external reasons.
Technical innovations play an important role. For each stage of technology
there is an optimum size in terms of equipment and production. This factor
has been largely responsible for achieving efficiency and productivity in the
small-scale bicycle industry in India.
Concept of productivity
Productivity in an industry has a comprehensive meaning that includes

the optimum use of available resources and the elimination of all forms of waste.
Productivity is a function of the cost price of a commodity as determined by the
sum of the cost of each resource put into the production of that commodity.
Productivity is measured as the ratio of achievement in the form of output
of goods to the effort put in, in terms of real resources. Profitability, however,
is not the measure of productivity.
The important resources from a productive point of view are men, material, -
machines and management. The accent on productivity varies from country
to country. In industrially developed countries where human resources are
costly and scarce, the accent is on mechanization and automation. In developing
countries, on the other hand, there is no shortage of manpower for industry
but rather a shortage of materials and equipment. The emphasis in such cowtries
should be on economic application of scarce materials and fuller use of available
machinery. In these countries, the techniques of production should not be the
same as those in advanced countries but thould be selected and adapted to suit
the local social, economic and technological environment.
75
76 BICYCLES
-- __~~~~ ~-.~
Productivity in the bicycle industry in India
The factors mentioned above have influenced the bicycle industry in India,
both in the large- and small-scale sectors. Even where large-scale bicycle manu-
facturers have collaborated with foreign firms, their plants are not identical to
those of their counterparts abroad; instead they have been adapted to make
use of available resources, particularly manpower. In the small-scale sector
there is a higher proportion of manpower employed and simple machines with
technical innovations used.
COMPARISON OF LEVELS OF PRODUCTIVITY IN THE LARGE-

AND SMALL-SCALE SECTORS
In comparing levels of productivity, the main difficulty arises in selecting

a standard of measurement. The suitability of any standard of measurement
depends upon the significance of “t:fficiency”, which may differ according to
its context. It may be measured as iabour productivity if output per worker is
the unit of measurement. 16 however, efficiency means “securing greatest
results at least cost”, the cost of production per unit of output becomes the
standard of measurement. In a wider sense efficiency may mean employment
opportunities and raising the standard of living for the workers, lower prices
for consumers and greater returns to investors. As these objectives are often in
conflict, it is difficult to evolve a common standard of efficiency.
In the analysis of productivity in comparing the large- and small-scale
sectors of the bicycle industry, the coefficients of measurement used are :
Cost of production per unit of output
Output per worker
1
Investment per worker
Comparison of cost of production per unit of output
The manufacturing processes and techniques of production in the large-

and small-scale sectors have been discussed in chapter 4. According to current
methods of production in both sectors, bicycle manufacturing has been divided
into the following groups of parts and components to compare the relative
cost of production:
(a) Frames, forks, chain stays, seat stays, pressed parts, handle-bars;
(b) Mudguards, h u b s, chain wheel and cranks, turned components, BB
shells, rims ;
(c) Chains, spokes and nipples.
(a) Frames, J&S, chain stclys, seat stays, yressed parts, hurr&-bars. The main
factors influencing cost of production in the manufacture of parts under this
group are men and materials. The comparison of levels of productivity indicates
that the cost of production of parts in this group will be almost the same in
both sectors. Large-scale units use costlier materials but less manpower; small-
scale units use more manpower and cheaper, easily available raw materials.
COMPARISON OFPRODUCTMTYIN THELARGE-AND SMALL-SCALE SECTORS 77
_- __- _ ~~_~.__
For example, for the manufacture of fork biades, tapered ERW tubes are used
by large-scale units. In the small-scale sector, the raw material used is MS sheets
from which tubes are made by the unit itself. In this process the small-scale
unit uses cheaper, easily available raw material but employs more manpower.
By virtue of their: scale of production this can be done only in the small-scale
sector. Management costs are lower in small-scale units compared to large-
scale ones. The small-scale units benefit by this saving and by using cheaper
materials. Large-scale units benefit by lower costs of labour and their larger
scale of production.
(b) Mdgtrurds, h u 6 s , c h uirz wheel and crutzks, turtd components, BB shells, rim.
The main factors influencing cost of production in the manufacture of parts
under this group are machines and materials. The costs of production of compo-
nents in this group are more for small-scale units than for large-scale ones because
manpower does not play as significant a role as in group A. The scale of pro-
duction and types of machine influence the cost of production. Large-scale
units have the advantage of sophisticated machines; small-scale units use semi-
automatic or single-operation machines. To some extent, the disadvantage of
the small-scale units is compensated by cheaper materials and technical innovations
as shown in the example of rim manufacture. However, if it is economic, small-
scale ancillary units are set up to use the same types of machine as large-scale
units. Production costs in such units are lower as a result of smaller overhead.
(c) Chains, spokes and nipples. The main factors influencing the cost of pro-
duction in this group are machines, materials and management costs (overhead).
The machines and materials used by both sectors are identical. However, pro-
duction costs are lower in small-scaie units compared to large-scale units because
of lower overhead..
A typical anaiysis of the elements in the cost structure of a bicycle is set
out below in table 20.
Tuble 20
ELEMENTS IN THE COST STRUCTURE OF A BICYCLE
Elerrmt ofcost Per cent oftotal cost
Raw materials and finished parts in-

cluding tires and tubes a......... 59.4
Labour and establishment . . . . . . . . . . 8.3
Other direct charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.8
Depreciation and overhead . . . . . . . . ‘3.8
Return on capital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4
Excise duty . . . . . 1. . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 7.3
-^__
TOTAL 100.0
This analysis indicates that in a bicycle the cost of raw materials is by far
the highest cost element. As it is necessary to use only the proper raw materials,
waste in all forms should be avoided, Attention should be given to increasing
BICYCLES
the productivity of labour. Such measures should ultimately reduce the unit
cost of production, particularly in small-scale units where high productivity
will bring more benefit.
Comparison of capital investment and output per worker
A typical analysis of the capital investment and output per worker in the
bicycle industry is given below in table 21.
Table 21
ANALYSIS OF THE CAPITAL INVESTMENT AND OUTPUT PER WORKER
Total capital Iwestmetit per Output per

No. of tvorkcrs
FiWZ itwestment worker worker
ettlploycd
(Rupees) (Rqees) (Rupees)
Lurpsia I-c
Firm A 19,625,OOO 1,042 18,834 17,066
Firm B 1,302,OOO 349 3,730 10,522
Sdl-de
Firm C 104,000 54 1,922 4,431
Firm D 45,000 16 1,156 3,106
The above table indicates that output per worker is related to investment
per worker. Higher investment per worker results in higher output. In countries
where high output per worker is the primary objective, the small- and large-
scale sectors must use the same type of plant and equipment to achieve equal
production. In this case, however, the sub-contractors should be tied by direct
ancillary relationships w’ith the assembly units for consumption of their output.
SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PRODUCTIVITY IN SMALL-

SCALE UNITS
The following measures are suggested to improve productivity in the

small-scale units :
1. Educate entrepreneur-managers to plan and organize various aspects
of management making use of scientific and technical equipment and
adopting modern management practices.
2. Train workers to increase their productivity.
3. Train entrepreneur&managers in the essentials of financial management
such as cost and budget control.
4. Use raw materials to best advantage.
5. Reduce rejections by proper methods of quality control.
6. Use of work study to achieve optimum use of resources.
7. Adoption of proper production planning and control.
8. Fuller utilization of machinery and equipment.
Chapter 12
COST OF MANUFACTURING A COMPLETE BICYCLE
Bicycle manufacturing costs may be non-recurring or recurring.
NON-RECURRING COSTS
Non-recurring, or capital, costs include the costs of land, buildings, machi-

nery and equipment, office equipment and transport. Because land and building
costs differ widely from place to place, for the purpose of this paper the costs
used for land and buildings are the average costs prevailing in industrial towns
and medium-sized cities in India. The average cost of land used is Rs. 1.00 to
Rs. 1.50 per ft 2; the average cost of construction is Rs. 15.00 to Rs. 20.00 per ft2.
The cost of machinery and equipment also vary depending upon the type,
quality and capacity. The cost assumed here is for machinery of good quality
and suitable to the scale of production.
The cost of office equipment and conveyances depend upon the size of the
manufacturing unit, the number of staff and transport needs.
RECURRING COSTS
Recurring, or operating, costs include the costs of raw materials and com-
ponents, labour and overhead.
Raw materials and components
The cost of basic raw materials varies little within a country. The cost
of components, however, may vary slightly depending upon the location of
the ancillary unit manufacturing the components. In the bicycle industry the
cost of raw materials and components form a substantial part of the total cost;
therefore the extent to which waste is controlled and the kind of process used
both influence manufacturing costs. Certain processes require comparatively
costly raw material; for others cheaper raw material may serve the purpose.
The factors governing the choice of material are the scale of production and
type of machines used.
79
80 BICYCLES
Table 22
NON-RECURRING AND RECURRING COSTS FOR PRODUCTION OF

25,000 BICYCLES, 1966: SCHEME 1 (MEDIUM-SIZED CITY)
Unit costs Total costs

(Rupees) (Rupees)
Nomrecurrirlg costs
(a) Lnrzd 36,000 ft2 at P.S. 1.50 per ft2 ............ 54,000
(b) &hiding nreu (fi2)
Manufacturing shop .................. 4,000
Brazing and welding section. .......... 2,500
Enamelling section .................. 2,500
Electroplating section ................ 3,000
Machine shop ....................... 1,500
Stores .............................. 3,000
Office space. ........................ 1,500
Total 18,000
Total cost of construction at Rs. 20 per ft2 ...... 360,000
(c) i%chitrery und eqcriprrrent (as listed in chapter 6,
table 17) ................................. 413,800
Manufacturing and processing shops ............ 367,300
Machine shop”. .............................. 46,500
(d) Office equigrrrerztnnd corweyme ................. 73,200
TOTAL NON-RECURRING PXT 901,ooO
Recurririg costs per nronth

(a) Lobotrr ..................................... 14,300
Salary for one works engineer ................ Loo0
Salary for one foreman ....................... 600
Salary for three supervisors ................... 1,200
Salary for fifteen skilled workers (tool and die
makers, machine operators, electroplaters, enam-
euers, painters, etc.) at Rs. 250 per month. .... 3,750
Salary for thirty semi-skilled workers at Rs. 175
per month.. .............................. 5,250
Salary for twenty unskilled workers at Rs. 125
per month ................................ 2,500
(b) Raw rnnterinZsatzd components .................. 229,250
Cost of raw materials for the items under manu-
facturing programme as given in chapter 6 at
Rs. 35 per bicycle including consumable stores,
chemicals, etc. ............................ 73,000
Cost of components and parts to be purchased
from ancillary units and market as given in
chapter 6 at Rs. 75 per bicycle. .............. 156,250
COST OF MANUFACTUIUNC A COMPLETE BICYCLE 81
--
TAle 22 (continued)
-.- ____---__- ---. -.- .._
Chit costs Tota: costs
(Rupees) (Rrrpees)
-. __.___-.
(c) Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,600
Salary for one managing director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,200
Salary for one office manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
Salary for two sales officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
Salary for one accountant .................... 400
Salary for two clerk-storekeepers. .........,.... 500
Salary for one stenographer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Salary for three peons and watchmen .......... 450
Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Interest on working capital at 9 per cent per year. . fi(JOo
Depreciation on fixed assets
Building at 5 per cent per year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
Machinery and equipment at 10 per cent per year 4,000
Maintenance of plant and machinery . . . . , . . . . . . 1,000
Labour welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,~
Miscellaneous office expenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,000
Marketing, advertising. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,000
Packing and forwarding .......... ........... 6,000
TOTAL RECURRINGCOSTS PER MONTH 275,150
Working capid fir three ruottths

Lnbour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,900
Raw rrrnterinls . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .’. . . . . . . 690,000
Ovcrhend (except interest and depreciation) .......... 60,300
TOTAL WORKING CAPITAL FOR THREEMONTHS 793,200
Totnl rearrrirrg rrrntruficturirrgcosts per year 3,310,800

Lnbour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . , . . , 171,600
Raw rrraterinls . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . , , . 2,760,OOO
Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379,200
Mfmufic~t4ringcost (reccrwirrgj per bicycle approximately . 132
a Machine shop has been substituted for tool room and heat treatment shop since it
has been suggested that the latter be located as a common service facility centre in a func-
tional industrial estate.
Labour
The cost of labour may vary considerably in different parts of a country.

The scale of production and the type of machines used influence labour costs.
For example, if a power press is used, the labour cost per unit of production
will be less than for the same job done on a hand press. However, whether to
use a power press or hand press depends upon the quantity of work and the
prevailing wage ratc=s.
82 BICYCLES
Overhead
The recurring costs in this category are salaries of staff, electricity, water,
interest on working capital, depreciation on fixed assets, maintermncc of plant
and machinery, labour welfare, miscellaneous office expenses, marketing and
advertising, packing and forwarding. Overhead charges vary considerably
depending upon the type and organization of the unit, its size and capital costs.
The location of a unit influences the amount of money spent for electricity,
water, marketing, advertising, salaries of staff, etc.
In the following two schemes given below in tables 22 and 23, the cost of
manufacturing complete bicycles at d&rent leve!s of production have been
detailed. Both SCh emes are suitable for the small-scale sector.
In working out the schemes, the following factors have been taken into
consideration :
(u) The units will manufacture all parts and components given in chapter 6,
and will buy from ancillary units or the market the other-compo-
nents and parts mentioned in chapter 6;
(6) The production capacity under scheme 1 will be 25,000 bicycles per
year; under scheme 2, 15,000 bicycles per year;
(c) The lower scale of production envisages the USC of cheap labour and
simple machines with technical innovations. In both schemes the cost
of raw materials and purchased components is the same;
(d) Scheme 1 will be run by a private limited company;
Scheme 2 will bc operated as a proprietary concern.
Tclbk 23
NON-RECURRING AND RECURRING COSTS FOR PRODUCTION OF
15,000 BICYCLES, 1966: SCHEME2 (SMALL-SIZED TOWN)
Unit cods Total costs

(Rtyces) (Rlrpees)
- --...----. -__--. .~- -.--.. -- ..- .._---__-~~ _
hTorr-rccwrirrgcosts
(a) Lorld 24,OOOft~atRs.1.OOperft~ ............ 24,000
(b) Buildkrg ureu (fi2)
Manufacturing shop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,500
Brazing and welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
Enameliing section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,500
Electroplating section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Machineshop ....................... 1,500
Stores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,000
Office space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,000
---._ .-
Totai - 12,000
Total cost of construction at Rs. 15 per ft2 . . . . . . 180,000
(c) Machinery nrzd equiyrrerrl (as listed in chapter 8,
table18) ................................. 263,150
(d) Office equipment rwd corweyarrcc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,000
- . ..- - ._..
TOTAL NON-RFWRRING COST 517,150
COST OF MANUFACTURING A COMPLETE BICYCLE 83
-__ ___- _. - -.- ~~ -. .- ~~
Unit costs Total costs
(Rupees) (Ii irpees)
- ~--._.--. _.~__..~ -~ --.- - _ - ..~ -.~ -
Recurriqd cost per rrrorzth
(a) Labow ...................................... 12,200
Salary for one foreman ....................... 750
Salary for 3 supervisors ...................... i ,200
Salary for ten skilled workers at Rs. 250 per month 2,500
Salary for thirty semi-skilled workers at Rs. 175
per month ................................ 5,250
Salary for twenty unskilled workers at Rs. 125
per month ................................ 2,500
(b) Raw rmzterials und components .................. 137,500
Cost of raw materials for items under manu-
facturing programme as given in chapter 6 at
Rs. 35 per bicycle ......................... 43,750
Cost of components and parts to be purchased
from ancillary units and market as given in
chapter 6 at Rs. 75 per bicycle .............. 93,750
(c) Overhead ................................... 23,750
Salary for one manager (proprietor) ........... 1,000
Salary for one office manager ................. 500
Salary for two sales officers ................... 800
Salary for one accountant .................... 400
Salary for one clerk-storekeeper. ............... 250
Salary for one typist. ......................... 200
Salary for three peons and watchmen .......... 450
Electricity. .................................. 500
Water .... ................................. 1%
Interest on working capital at 9 per cent per year 3,750
Depreciation on fixed assets
Building at 5 per cent per year .............. 750
Machinery and equipment at 10 per cent per year 2,500
Maintenance of plant and machinery ........... 750
Labour welfare .............................. 750
Miscellaneous office expenses ................. 3,000
Marketing, advertising. ....................... 4,000
Packing and forwarding ...................... 4,ooo .-
TOTALRECURRING COSTS PER MONTH 173,450
Working cnpitd fir three rrronths 496,350
Labour ......................................... 36,600
Ruw wuteriuls ................................... 412,500
Overhead (except interest and depreciation) .......... 47,250
Total renrrring mmufactcrrirlg cost per year 1,985,400
Lubour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146,400
Raw rnuteriuls . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,650,000
Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189,000
Manufacturing cost (recurring) per bicycle : approxiinately 133
Chapter 13
MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION
The bicycle has proved to be, beyond doubt, an essential vehicle in both urban
and rural areas, particularly for people of low and middle income groups. It
is highly desirable, therefore, that bicycles be well dislributed wherever they
are needed. To achieve this type of distribution, sales organizations must be
well-knit throughout a country.
Distribution pattern followed by the large-scale sector
The pattern of distribution followed in the large- and small-scale sectors

of India is not the same. Most of the large-scale units have regional offices in
a few towns. These centres are at Delhi, Ludhiana, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
Through the regional offices bicycles are supplied to authorized dealers in each
state who either xl1 the bicycles directly or supply to sub-dealers or retailers.
Most of the sales to consumers are through retail shops selling scvcral brands
of bicyc!es. Sales are made by dealers, sub-de&-s and retailers on a commission
basis. The distribution of bicycle parts, components and accessories that arc
manufactured by the large-scale units follow almost the same pattern.
Distribution followed by the small-scale sector
The pattern of distribution in the small-scale sector is not uniform. Some

small-scale units appoint agents on a regional basis who, in turn, through dealers
and retailers, book orders for bicycles. Manufacturers fill these orders directly
to the dealers and retailers. Booking of orders by regional agents and sales through
dealers and retailers is also on a commission basis. The output of some small-
scale units does not warrant regional agents. These units have their own sales
representatives who book orders with dealers and retailers. They may also have
their own retail shop at the factory.
Future prospects of marketing and distribution
The Indian bicycle industry has not yet faced any problem of marketing
because the demand for bicycles has been met by the supply. This may not
continue, however, and industrialists should therefore study the basic functions
of marketing and distribution. A programme of instruction in distribution,
marketing and management appears to be needed now for successful operation
in the future. Instruction is needed at all levels-for retailers, wholesalers, and
manufacturers-and should include training in scientific storage, transportation
and financial management. Realizing this need for instruction, the Central
84
Small Industries Organisation, through the network of small industries service
institutes in each state, has organized short and long courses in management in
which “distribution education” is an important subject.
As the bicycle market becomes more consumer oriented, sales can be in-
creased through instalment buying; improvement in the quality of the product;
new designs and models; exhibitions of small-scale industry products; and
marketing through state small industries corporations with permanent displays
of bicycles and parts in their showrooms.
.
/! Chapter 14
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The contribution of small-scale ind qustries

I to the production of bicycles as dis-
cussed in this report leads to the following conclusions :
1. Among light engineering commodities, the bicycle is one of the best

suited for production in both the small- and large-scale sectors.
2. In the large-scale sector sophisticated and automatic plants make the
industry capital-intensive. In the small-scale sector more manpower
and comparatively simple machines are used.
.J. Bicycle components are highly suited for production in economically

viable subcontracting units.
4. Complete bicycles can be manufactured by units making only a few

parts themselves and obtaining the rest from co-operating small-scale
units. j’
5. The manufacture of bicycles is technically and economically feasible

in a functional industrial estate.
6. A bicycle industry can be started with the manufacture of only a few

simple parts and components and the rest imported.
7. Basic raw materials can be imported initially until these materials arc
produced within the country to replace the imported ones.
8. The bicycle is a suitable commodity to earn foreign exchange through

export. New models and designs should be introduced frequently to
meet the requirements of foreign markets.
9. Standardization of parts and quality control during manufacture are

needed to ensure interchangeability and product quality.
10. Basic technical skills in sheet-metal working, tool making, electro-

plating, enamelling and heat treatment are needed to start the industry.
11. A high level of productivity should be assured through optimum use
of raw materials and proper training of workers.
12. Financial assistance in the form of hire-purchase of machinery and

liberal credit will accelerate the growth of the industry.
86
CONCLUSIONS AND Rl3COhtMEWDATIONS 87
-
Recommendaliotis
The following recommendations are based on the Indian experience :

1. Bicycle manufacturing can be started in developing countries on the
basis of phased production. Initially the industry can import specialized
items and manufacture simple ones. Gradually imports are reduced
with a view to reaching self-sufficiency. Under a three-phase programme,
the imports would be phased as follows :
Phase 1. Free-wheels, BB shells, hubs, rims, chains, spokes and, nipples,
tires and tubes, steel balls;
Phase 2. Free-wheels, BB shells, hubs, tires and tubes, steel balls;
Phase 3. Tires and tubes, steel balls, BB shells.
2. Suitable tariff protection should be ensured where necessary to get the
industry started.
3. Subcontracting units should be utilized wherever possible for the manu-
facture of components to develop specialization.
4. Functional programmes, preferably on industrial estates, should be set
up to manufacture bicycles.
5. Basic raw materials should be imported by the government if necessary.
Later these raw materials should be produced, if possible, by the country
itself to help make the industry self-sufficient.
6. In planning the development of the bicycle industry, consideration
should be given to reserving capacity in both the large- and small-
scale sectors. This would evidently be necessary if the product were
to be manufactured in both sectors.
7. The government should help the growth of the industry by:
Providing designs and developing bicycle prototypes;
Training workers in basic skills;
Training entrepreneur-managers for industrial management, finan-
cial management and market management ;
Providing common facility centres such as tool rooms and testing
laboratories;
Providing tecbnicai expertise to plan and guide the industry on
technical matters ;
Providing raw material depots;
Supplyjng machinery on a hire-purchase basis;
Impbrting components for distribution to the manufacturers
initially;
Constructing functional industrial estates.
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SMALL-SCALE MANUFACTUIUNG STUDIES, No. 1

A Case study of Indian Experience

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION

This publication is the first in a series on the contribution of small-scale industries

Chapter 3. INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN BICYCLE IN

Chapter 2. TYPES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONSOF BICYCLES MANUFACTURED

Chapter 3. SPECIFICATION OF THE BICYCLE SELECTEDFOR THIS STUDY .... 8

Chapter 4. COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING IN SMALL- AND LARGE-SCALE

Chapter 5. SPECIFICATIONSOF BICYCLE PARTS AND COMPONENTS ...... 14

Chapter 6. MANUFACTURE OF PARTS AND ASSEMBLY OF A COMPLETE BICYCLE . 34

Chapter 7. MANUFACTURE OF SPECIALIZEDCOMPONENTS BY ANCILLARY WITS 45

Chapter 9. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, QUALITY CONTROL AND INSPECTION

Chapter 10. EXPORT ......................... 72

Chapter 11. COMPARISON OF PRODUCTIVITY IN THE LARGE- AND SMALL-SCALS

Chapter 12. COST OFMANUFACTURING A COMPLETE BICYCLE ........ 79

Chapter 13. MARXETINGANDDISTRIBUTION ............... 84

Chapter 14. CONCLUSIONS ANDRECOMMENDATIONS ............ 86

The following abbreviations are used in this paper:

Gallons referred to in the text are imperial gallons of 4.546 litres.

INTRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN

ZJtility and place of the bicycle in the economy

The bicycle is a cheap and speedy means of personal conveyance. Although

Development of the bicycle industry in Iudia

Growth in the small-scale sector

Contribution of small-scale industries

Small-scale industries have made a substantial contribution to bicycle pro-

INSTALLED CAPACITY AND ACTL: PRODUCTION OF BICYCLE

It is anticipated that by 1970/1971 there will be a yearly demand for 3 million

TYPES, DESIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLES

Bicycles produced in India

The following types of bicycle arc manufactured in India:

Bicycles produced in other countries

In Japan several types of bicycle arc produced in addition to those made

Raleigh Industries Ltd, England, has developed a small-wheeled bicycle

Chaill guard ~~11double-sided; single-sided or half chain covers; quarter chain

Bicycles produced in India

Bicycles made in Japan

The specifications of a few types of bicycle produced in Japan are given

SPECIFICATION OF THE BICYCLE SELECTED FOR THIS

Frame 24 in. men’s roadster model manufactured to IS 623; tubes

Mudguard Handle -bar

Figure 3. Men’s rodster, single-bar, bicycle

Handle-b= Made to IS 625, roadster raised pattern; handle-bar ERW bicycle

COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING IN SMALL- AND

-Rim manufacture in the large-scale sector

Rim manufacture in the small-scale sector

In this process, instead of bending a continuous length of cold-rolled steel,

COST OF PRODUCTION AGAINST CAPITAL INVEST,MENT IN THE

The costs of production of various parts and components of a bicycle differ

YR~DUCTI~N cosr5 FOR BICYCLE COMPONENTS

Slllnll-scale .~l~ctol L‘7ry-scnlc sector

Chains per pair 4.00 4.50

SPECIFICATIONS OF BICYCLE PARTS AND CO,MPONENTS

Brake set Transmission

Chain stay Rear hub Front hub

_-. ~-___-.---- --...- ~. .~ --