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SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

ELASTICITY
In solids, the atoms and molecules are free to vibrate about their mean positions. If this
vibration increases sufficiently, molecules will shake apart and start vibrating in random
directions. At this stage, the shape of the material is no longer fixed, but takes the shape
of its container. This is liquid state. Due to increase in their energy, if the molecules vibrate
at even greater rates, they may break away from one another and assume gaseous state.
Water is the best example for this changing of states. Ice is the solid form of water. With
increase in temperature, ice melts into water due to increase in molecular vibration.
If water is heated, a stage is reached where continued molecular vibration results in a
separation among the water molecules and therefore steam is produced. Further
continued heating causes the molecules to break into atoms.

Intermolecular or inter atomic forces

Consider two isolated hydrogen atoms moving towards each other as shown in Fig As they
approach each other, the following interactions are observed.
(i) Attractive force A between the nucleus of one
atom and electron of the other. This attractive
force tends to decrease the potential energy
of the atomic system.
(ii) Repulsive force R between the nucleus of one
atom and the nucleus of the other atom and
electron of one atom with the electron of the
other atom. These repulsive forces always tend to increase the energy of the atomic
system. There is a universal tendency of all systems to acquire a state of minimum
potential energy. This stage of minimum potential energy corresponds to maximum
stability. If the net effect of the forces of attraction and repulsion leads to decrease in the
energy of the system, the two atoms come closer to each other and form a covalent bond
by sharing of electrons. On the other hand, if the repulsive forces are more and there is
increase in the energy of the system, the atoms will repel each other and do not form a
bond. The forces acting between the atoms due to electrostatic interaction between the
charges of the atoms are called inter atomic forces. Thus, inter atomic forces are electrical
in nature. The inter atomic forces are active if the distance between the two atoms is of
the order of atomic size ≈ 10-10 m. In the case of molecules, the range of the force is of the
order of 10–9 m.
Elasticity
When an external force is applied on a body, which is not free to move, there will be a
relative displacement of the particles. Due to the property of elasticity, the particles tend
to regain their original position. The external forces may produce change in length, volume
and shape of the body.
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This external force which produces these changes in the body is called deforming force. A
body which experiences such a force is called deformed body.
When the deforming force is removed, the body regains its original state due to the force
developed within the body. This force is called restoring force.
The property of a material to regain its original state when the deforming force is removed
is called elasticity.
The bodies which possess this property are called elastic bodies. Bodies which do not
exhibit the property of elasticity are called plastic. The study of mechanical properties
helps us to select the material for specific purposes. For example, springs are made of
steel because steel is highly elastic
Stress and strain
In a deformed body, restoring force is set up within the body which tends to bring the
body back to the normal position. The magnitude of these restoring force depends upon
the deformation caused. This restoring force per unit area of a deformed body is known
as stress. This is measured by the magnitude of the deforming force acting per unit area of
the body when equilibrium is established.
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

Unit of stress in S.I. system is N/m2. When the stress is normal to the surface, it is called
Normal Stress. The normal stress produces a achange in length or a change in volume of
the body. The normal stress to a wire or a body may be compressive or tensile ( expansive)
according as it produces a decrease or increase in length of a wire or volume of the body.
When the stress is tangential to the surface, it is called tangential ( shearing) stress
Solved Numerical
Q) A rectangular bar having a cross-sectional area of 28 mm2 has a tensile force of a 7KN
applied to it. Determine the stress in the bar
Solution
Cross-sectional area A = 25mm2 = 28×(10-3)2= 28× 10-6 m2
Tensile force F = 7KN = 7×103N
7 × 103
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑒 = = 0.25 × 109 𝑁/𝑚2
28 × 10−6
Strain
The external force acting on a body cause a relative displacement of its various parts. A
change in length volume or shape takes place. The body is then said to be strained. The
relative change produced in the body under a system of force is called strain
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀) =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
Strain has no dimensions as it is a pure number. The change in length per unit length is
called linear strain. The change in volume per unit volume is called Volume stain. If there is
a change in shape the strain is called shearing strain. This is measured by the angle
through which a line originally normal to the fixed surface is turned

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Longitudinal Strain: The ratio of change in length to original length
∆𝑙
𝜀𝑙 =
𝑙
Volume strain
∆𝑣
𝜀𝑣 =
𝑣
Shearing strain

In figure a body with square cross section is shown a tangential

force acts on the top surface AB causes shift of Surface by ‘X’ units
shown as surface A’B’ ,thus side DA’ now mates an angle of θ
with original side DA of height h
𝑥
𝜀𝑆 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
ℎ

Solved Numerical
Q) As shown in figure 10N force is applied at two ends of a rod. Calculate tensile stress and
shearing stress for section PR. Area of cross-section PQ is 10 cm2 , θ=30O

Solution
Given cross-section area of PQ = 10 cm2
Now PQ = PRcosθ
10 = PRcos30
10= PR ( √3 /2)
PR = 20/√3 cm2 or 2/√3 m2
Now normal force to area PR will be Fcos30 = 10 ×( √3 /2) = 5√3 N
Tangential force to area PR will be Fsin30 = 10×(1/2) = 5 N
∴ Tensile stress for section PR
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5 √3 𝑁
𝜎𝑙 = = = 7.5 × 103 2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑅 2 𝑚
× 10−3
√3
Shearing stress for section PR

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 5 𝑁
𝜎𝑡 = = = 2.5√3 × 103 2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑅 2 𝑚
× 10−3
√3

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Hooke’s Law and types of moduli
According to Hooke’s law, within the elastic limit, strain produced in a body is directly
proportional to the stress that produces it.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝜆
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where 𝜆 is called modulus of elasticity.
Its unit is N m-2 and its dimensional formula is ML-1T-2.
Depending upon different types of strain, the following three moduli of elasticity are
possible
(i) Young’s modulus: When a wire or rod is stretched by a longitudinal force the
ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain within the elastic limits
is called Young’s modulus
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) =
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Consider a wire or rod of length L and radius r under the action of a stretching
force applied normal to its face. Suppose the wire suffers a change in length l
then
𝐹
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝜋𝑟 2
𝑙
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿

𝐹
2 𝐹𝐿
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) = 𝜋𝑟 = 2
𝑙 𝜋𝑟 𝑙
𝐿
(ii) Bulk modulus: When a solid or fluid ( liquid or gas) is subjected to a uniform
pressure all over the surface, the shape remains the same, but there is a change
in volume. The force perunit area applied normally and uniformly over the
surface is called normal stress. The change in volume per unit volume is called
volume or bulk strain.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝐵) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹
−
𝐵= 𝐴 = − 𝐹𝑉
∆𝑉 𝐴∆𝑉
𝑉
Negative sign indicate reduction in volume
The reciprocal of bulk modulus is called compressibility
1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
(iii) Modulus of rigidity: According to the definition, the ratio of shearing stress to
shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity (η) . in this case the sphape of the
body changes but its volume remains unchanged. Consider the case of a cube

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fixed at its lower face and acted upon by a tangential force F on its upper
surface of area A as shown in figure

𝐹
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴
𝑥
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝜃 =
ℎ
𝐹 𝐹ℎ
𝜂= =
𝐴𝜃 𝐴𝑥

Solved Numerical
Q) A solid sphere of radius R made of a material of bulk modulus B is surrounded by a
liquid in cylindrical container. A massless piston of area A flots on the surface of the liquid.
Find the fractional change in the radius of the sphere (dR/R) when a mass M is placed on
the piston to compress the liquid
Solution
From the formula of Bulk modulus
𝐹𝑉
𝐵= −
𝐴∆𝑉

4 3
𝑉= 𝜋𝑅
3

𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜋𝑅2 𝑑𝑅

4
𝐹 𝜋𝑅3
𝐵= − 3 2
𝐴4𝜋𝑅 𝑑𝑅

𝑑𝑅 𝑀𝑔
=
𝑅 3𝐴𝐵
Q) Find the natural length of rod if its length is L1 under tension T1 and L2 under tension T2
within the limits of elasticity
Solution
From the formula of Young’s modulus
𝐹
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) = 𝐴
𝑙
𝐿
Let increase in length for tension T1 be x and that for tension T2 be y then

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𝑇1 𝑇2
𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑥 𝑦
𝐿 𝐿

𝑇1 𝑇2
=
𝑥 𝑦

𝑇1 𝑦 = 𝑇2 𝑥
But x = L1 – L and y = L2 – L
𝑇1 (𝐿2 − 𝐿) = 𝑇2 (𝐿1 − 𝐿)
On simplification we get
(𝐿1 𝑇2 − 𝐿2 𝑇1 )
𝐿=
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

Q) A copper wire of negligible mass, 1 m length and cross-sectional area 10-6m2 is kept on
a smooth horizontal table with one end fixed. A ball of mass 1kg is attached to the other
end. The wire and the ball are rotated with an angular velocity of 20 rad/s. if the
elongation in the wire is 10-3m, obtain the Young’s modulus. If on increasing the angular
velocity to 100 rad/s the wire breaks down, obtain the breaking stress.
Solution
Given m = 1kg, ω= 20 rad/s, L = 1m ∆L = 10-3 m, A = 10-6 m2
Tension in the thread
T = mω2L = 1×(20)2×1 = 400N
𝑇𝐿 400 × 1
𝑌= = −6 = 4 × 1011 𝑁/𝑚2
𝐴∆𝐿 10 × 10−3
On increasing the angular velocity to 100 rad/s, the wire breaks down then
𝑇 ′ 𝑚 (𝜔 ′ )2 𝐿
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴 𝐴
1 × (100)2 × 1
𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 1010 𝑁/𝑚2
10−6
Q) A cube is subjected to pressure of 5×105 N/m2. Each side of the cubic is shorteed by
1%. Find volumetric strain and bulk modulus of elasticity of cube
Solution
V = l3
Now dV = 3l2 dl
Thus
𝑑𝑉 3𝑙2 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
= 3 =3
𝑉 𝑙 𝑙
Sides are reduced by 1% thus dl/l =- 0.01
Thus reduction in volume = -0.03
Normal stress = Increase in pressure
𝑃 5 × 105
𝐵= − = = 1.67 × 107 𝑁/𝑚2
∆𝑉 0.03
𝑉
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Q) A rubber cube of each side 7cm has one side fixed, while a tangential force equal to the
weight of 300kg f is applied to the opposite face. Find the shearing strain produced and
the distance through which the strained site moves. The modulus of rigidity for rubber is
2×107 dyne/cm2 g = 10m/s2
Solution
Here L = 7cm = 7×10-2 m
F = 300 kg f = 300×10 N
Modulus of rigidity η = 2×107 dynes/cm2 = 2×106 N/m2
As
𝐹
𝜂=
𝐴𝜃

𝐹 𝐹
𝜃= = 2
𝐴𝜂 ℎ 𝜂
3000
𝜃= = 0.3 𝑟𝑎𝑑
(7 × 10 )2 × 2 × 106
−2
𝑥
𝜃=
ℎ
X = hθ
X = 7×0.3 = 2.1 cm

Poisson’s Ratio:
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain. For example, consider a force F
applied along the length of the wire which elongates the wire along the length and it
contracts radially. Then the longitudinal strain =∆l/l and lateral strain = ∆r/r , where r is the
radius of the wire
∆𝑟
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝜎) = − 𝑟
∆𝑙
𝑙
∆𝑟 ∆𝑙
= −𝜎
𝑟 𝑙
For rectangular bar: let b be breadth and h be thickness then

∆𝑏 ∆𝑙
= −𝜎
𝑏 𝑙
∆ℎ ∆𝑙
= −𝜎
ℎ 𝑙

The negative sign indicates that change in length and radius is of opposite sign. Change in
volume due to longitudinal force
Due to application of tensile force, lateral dimension decreases and length increases. As a
result there is a change in volume (usually volume increases). Let us consider the case of a
cylindrical rod of length l and radius r.
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Since V=πr2L
∆𝑉 ∆𝑟 ∆𝑙
∴ =2 + ( 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
𝑉 𝑟 𝑙
From above equations or radius and Length
∆𝑉 ∆𝑙 ∆𝑙
∴ = −2𝜎 +
𝑉 𝑙 𝑙
∆𝑉 ∆𝑙
∴ = (1 − 2𝜎)
𝑉 𝑙
∆𝑙
Longitudinal Strain: 𝜀𝑙 =
𝑙
∆𝑉
∴ = 𝜀𝑙 (1 − 2𝜎)
𝑉
Above equation suggest that since ∆v > 0, value of σ cannot exceed 0.5

Stress –Strain relationship for a wire subjected to longitudinal stress

Consider a long wire ( made of steel) of cross-sectional area A and original length L in
equilibrium under the action of two equal and
opposite variable force F as shown in figure.
Due to the application of force, the length
gets changed to L +l. Then, longitudinal stress
= F/A and Longitudinal strain = l/L

The extension of the wire is suitably measured and a stress – strain graph is plotted

(i) In the figure the region OP is linear. Within a normal

stress, strain is proportional to the applied stress. This
is
Hooke’s law. Up to P, when the load is removed the
wire
regains its original length along PO. The point P
represents the elastic limit, PO represents the elastic
range of the material and OB is the elastic strength.
(ii) Beyond P, the graph is not linear. In the region PQ
the material is partly elastic and partly plastic. From Q,
if we start decreasing the load, the graph does not come to O via P, but traces a straight
line QA.
Thus a permanent strain OA is caused in the wire. This is called permanent set.
(iii) Beyond Q addition of even a very small load causes enormous strain. This point Q is
called the yield point. The region QR is the plastic range.
(iv) Beyond R, the wire loses its shape and becomes thinner and thinner in diameter and
ultimately breaks, say at S. Therefore S is the breaking point. The stress corresponding to S
is called breaking stress.

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Elastic potential energy or Elastic energy stored in a deformed body
The elastic energy is measured in terms of work done in straining the body within its
elastic limit
Let F be the force applied across the cross-section A of a wire of length L. Let l be the
increase in length. Then
𝐹
𝐹𝐿
𝑌=𝐴=
𝑙 𝐴𝑙
𝐿
𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝐹=
𝐿
If the wire is stretched further through a distance of dl, the work done dw

𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 × 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑙
𝐿
Total work done in stretching the wire from original length L to a length L +l ( i.e. from l = 0
to l = l)
𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝑊=∫ 𝑑𝑙
0 𝐿

𝑌𝐴 𝑙2 1 𝑌𝑙 𝑙
𝑊= = (𝐴𝐿) ( ) ( )
𝐿 2 2 𝐿 𝐿

1
𝑊= × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
2
Solved Numerical
Q) The rubber cord of catapult has a cross-section area 1mm2 and total unstrtched length
10 cm. It is stretched to 12cm and then released to project a body of mass 5g. taking the
Young’s modulus of rubber as 5×108 N/m2, calculate the velocity of projection
Solution
It can be assumed that the total elastic energy of catapult is converted into kinetic energy
of the body without any heat loss
L = 12cm = 12×10-2 m , l = 2cm = 2×10-3 m , A = 1mm2 = 10-6m
𝑌𝐴 𝑙2 5 × 108 × (1 × 10−6 ) × (2 × 10−2 )2
𝑈= = =1
𝐿 2 2 × 10 × 10−2

Now K.E of projectile = elastic energy of catapult

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑈
2
1
× 5 × 10−3 × 𝑣 2 = 1
2
V = 20 m/s

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FLUID STATICS
Thrust and Pressure
A perfect fluid resists force normal to its surface and offers no resistance to force acting
tangential to it surface. A heavy log of wood can be drawn along the surface of water with
very little effort because the force applied on the log of wood is horizontal and parallel to
the surface of water. Thus fluids are capable of exerting normal stress on the surface with
it is in contact
Force exerted perpendicular to a surface is called thrust and thrust per unit area is called
pressure
Variation of pressure with height

Let h be the height of the liquid column in a cylinder of cross sectional area A. If ρ is the
density of the liquid, then weight of the liquid column W is given by
W = mass of liquid column × g = Ahρg
By definition, pressure is the force acting per unit area.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − sec𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝐴ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝑃= = ℎ𝜌𝑔
𝐴
dP = ρg (dh)
This differential relation shows that the pressure in a fluid increases with depth or
decreases with increased elevation. Above equation holds for both liquids and gases.
Liquids are generally treated as incompressible and we may consider their density ρ
constant for every part of liquid. With ρ as constant, equation may be integrated as it
stands, and the result is
P = P0 + ρgh
The pressure P0 is the pressure at the surface of the liquid where h = 0

Force due to fluid on a plane submerged surface

The pressure at different points on the submerged surface varies so to calculate the
resultant force, we divide the surface into a number of elementary areas and we calculate
the force on it first by treating pressure as constant then we integrate it to get the net
force i.e FR = ∫P (dA)
The point of application of resultant force must be such that the moment of the resultant
force about any axis is equal to the moment of the distributed force about the axis

Solved Numerical
Q) Water is filled upto the top in a rectangular tank of square cross-section. The sides of
cross-section is a and height of the tank is H. If density of water is ρ, find force on the
bottom of the tank and on one of its wall. Also calculate the position of the point of
application of the force on the wall
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Solution
Force on the bottom of thank
Area of bottom of tank = a2
Force = pressure × Area
Force = Hρga2
Force on the wall and its point of application
Force on the wall of the tank is different at different heights so consider a segment at
depth h of thickness dh
Pressure at depth h = hρg
Area of strip = a dh
Force on strip dF = hρg a dh
Total force at on the wall
𝐻
𝐹 = ∫ ρgah dh
0
H
h2
𝐹 = ρga [ ]
2 0
H2
𝐹 = ρga
2

The point of application of the force on the wall can be

calculated by equating the moment of resultant force about
any line, say dc to the moment of distributioed force about
the same line dc
Moment of dF about line cd = dF (h) = (hρgadh) h = ρgah2 dh
∴ Net moment of distributed forces
H
H3
ρga ∫ h2 dh = ρga
0 3
Let the point of application of the net force is at a depth ‘x’
from the line cd
Then the torque of the resultant force about the line cd =
H2
F𝑥 = ρga 𝑥
2
Now Net moment of distribution of force = Torque
H3 H2
ρga = ρga 𝑥
3 2
2𝐻
𝑥=
3
Hence, the resultant force on the vertical wall of the tank will act at a depth 2H/3 from the
free surface of water or at the height of H/3 from bottom of tank

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Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that if the effect of gravity can be neglected then the pressure in an
incompressible fluid in equilibrium is the same everywhere..
This statement can be verified as follows
Consider a small element of liquid in the interior of the liquid at rest. The liquid element is
in the shape of prism consisting of two right angled triangle surfaces

Let the areas of surface ADEB, CFEB, ADFC be A1, A2, A3

It is clear from figure that
A2 = A1cosθ and A3 = A1sinθ
Also, since liquid element is in equilibrium F3 = F1cosθ and F3 = F1sin θ
now pressure on surface ADEB is P1 = F1 / A1
Pressure on the surface CFED is
𝐹2 𝐹1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐹1
𝑃2 = = =
𝐴2 𝐴1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴1
And pressure on the surface ADFC is
𝐹3 𝐹1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐹1
𝑃3 = = =
𝐴3 𝐴1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴1
So, P1 = P2 = P3
Since θ is arbitrary this result holds for any surface. Thus Pascal’s law is verifiedPascal’s
law and effect of gravity
When gravity is taken into account, Pascal’s law is to be modified.
Consider a cylindrical liquid column of height h and density ρ in a
vessel as shown in the Fig.
If the effect of gravity is neglected, then pressure at M will be equal
to pressure at N.
But, if force due to gravity is taken into account, then they are not
equal.
As the liquid column is in equilibrium, the forces acting on it are
balanced. The vertical forces acting are

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(i) Force P1A acting vertically down on the top surface.
(ii) Weight mg of the liquid column acting vertically downwards.
(iii) Force P2A at the bottom surface acting vertically upwards. where P1 and P2 are the
pressures at the top and bottom faces, A is the area of cross section of the circular face
and m is the mass of the
cylindrical liquid column.
At equilibrium, P1A + mg - P2A = 0 or P1A + mg = P2A
P2 = P1 +mg A
But m = Ahρ
∴ P2 = P1 +AhρgA
(i.e) P2 = P1 + hρg
This equation proves that the pressure is the same at all points at the same depth. This
results in another statement of Pascal’s law which can be stated as change in pressure at
any point in an enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid
and act in all directions.

Characteristics of the fluid pressure

(i) Pressure at a point acts equally in all directions
(ii) Liquids at rest exerts lateral pressure, which increases with depth
(iii) Pressure acts normally on any area in whatever orientation the area may be held
(iv) Free surface of a liquid at rest remains horizontal
(v) pressure at every point in the same horizontal line is the same inside a liquid at rest
(vi) liquid at rest stands at the same height in communicating vessels

Application of Pascal’s law

(i) Hydraulic lift

An important application of Pascal’s law is the hydraulic
lift used to lift heavy objects. A schematic diagram of a
hydraulic lift is shown in the Fig.. It consists of a liquid
container which has pistons fitted into the small and
large opening cylinders. If a1 and a2 are the
areas of the pistons A and B respectively, F is the force
applied on A and W is the load on B, then
𝐹 𝑊
=
𝑎1 𝑎2
𝑎1
𝐹=𝑊
𝑎2
This is the load that can be lifted by applying a force F on A. In the above equation a2/a1
is called mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift. One can see such a lift in many
automobile service stations.

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Buoyancy and Archimedes principle
If an object is immersed in or floating on the surface of a liquid, it experiences a net
vertically upward force due to liquid pressure. This force is called as Buoyant force or force
of Buoyancy and it acts from the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid. According to
Archimedes principle, “the magnitude of force of buoyancy is equal to the weight of the
displaced liquid”
To prove Archimedes principle, consider a body totally immersed in a liquid as shown in
the figure.
The vertical force on the body due to liquid pressure may be found most easily by
considering a cylindrical volume similar to that one shown in figure

The net vertical force on the element is

dF = (P2- P1) A
𝐹 = [(𝑃0 + ℎ2 𝜌𝑔) − (𝑃0 + ℎ1 𝜌𝑔)]𝐴
𝐹 = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝜌𝑔𝐴
𝐹 = ℎ𝜌𝑔𝐴
But volme V = hA
Thus F = Vρg
∴ force of Buoyancy = Vρg = Weight of liquid displaced

Expression for immersed volume of a floating Body

Let a solid of volume V and density ρ floats in liquid of
density ρ0. Volume V1 of the body is immersed inside the
liquid
The weight of floating body = Vρg
The weight of the displaced liquid = V1ρ0g
For the body to float
Weight of body = Weight of liquid displaced
Vρg = V1ρ0g
𝑉1 𝜌
=
𝑉 𝜌0
𝜌𝑉
𝑉1 =
𝜌0
∴ Immersed volume = mass of solid / density of liquid
From above it is clear that density of the solid volume must be less than density of the
liquid to enable it to float freely in the liquid. How ever a metal vessel floats in water
though the density of metal is much higher that the that of eater because floating bodies
are hollow inside and hence displaces large volume. When thy float on water, the weight
of the displaced water is equal to the weight of the body

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Laws of floatation
The principle of Archimedes may be applied to floating bodies to give the laws of flotation
(i) When a body floats freely in a liquid the weight of the floating body is equal to
the weight of the liquid displaced
(ii) The centre of gravity of the displaced liquid B ( called the centre of buoyancy)
lies vertically above or below the centre of gravity of the floating body G

Solved numerical
Q) A stone of mass 0.3kg and relative density 2.5 is immersed in a liquid of relative density
1.2. Calculate the resultant up thrust exerted on the stone by the liquid and the weight of
stone in liquid
Solution
Volume of stone V = mass/density
V = 0.3/2.5 = 0.12 m3
Upward thrust =buoyant force = Vρ0g =0.12×1.2×9.8 = 1.41 N
Weight of stone in liquid = Gravitational force – buoyant force
=0.3×9.8 – 1.41 = 1.53 N or 0.156 kg wt

Q) A metal cube floats on mercury with (1/8) th of its volume under mercury. What
portion of the cube will remain under mercury if sufficient water is added hust to cover
the cube. Assume that the top surface of the cube remains horizontal in both cases.
Relative density of mercury = 13.6
From the formula
𝜌𝑉
𝑉1 =
𝜌0
Here V1 is volume immersed in mercury = V/8 given and ρ0 density of mercury, ρ density
of metal
𝑉 𝜌𝑉
=
8 13.5
ρ=1.725 is density of metal
Now let V’ be the volume immersed in mercury then V-V’ is volume immersed in water
then
Weight of metal = Buoyant force due to Water + Buoyant force due to mercury
V(1.725) g= (V-V’)×1×g +V’×13.6g
V(1.725) = (V-V’)×1 + (V’×13.6)
V(0.725) = 12.6V’
𝑉′ 0.725 1
= =
𝑉 12.6 8
Thus in the second case only (1/18)th of the volume of the cube is under mercury

Q) A rod of length 6 m has a mass of 12kg. If it is hinged at one end at a distance of 3m

below a water surface
(i) What weight should be attached to the other end so that 5 m of rod be submerged?
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(ii) find the magnitude and direction of the final force exerted on the rod exerted by hinge.
Specific gravity of the material of the rod is 0.5
Solution
Since one end is fixed in water we have to calculate moment of force

Moment of force due to weight of rod about point O= Wg(L/2)cosθ

Moment of force due to additional weight about point O =wL cosθ
Moment of force due to Buoyant force(F) about point O = F(l/2)cosθ
Here l is the length of rod immersed in water = 5m And L is total length of rod

Since rod is at rotational equilibrium at equilibrium

F(l/2)cosθ = wL cosθ + Wg(L/2)cosθ
F(l/2) = wL + W(L/2)g --- eq(1)

But F = Vρg
Since 5m is immersed in water thus (5/6) of volume of rod is immersed
Volume of rod = mass/density = 12/0.5 = 24 m3
Thus F = (5/6)×24×1×g = 20g N
Substituting values in eq(1) we get
∴ 20(2.5)g = w(6) + (12)(3)g
50 = 6w + 36
w = 14g/6 = 2.33g N
w = 2.33 kg wt
Now R = W+w-F
R = 12g +2.33g – 20g
R = -5.67g N
R = -5.67 kg wt
The negative sign indicates that the reaction ( vertical) at the hinges acts downwards

Liquid in accelerated Vessel

Variation of pressure and force of buoyancy in a liquid kept in accelerated vessel
Consider a liquid of density ρ kept in a vessel moving with acceleration a in upward
direction. Let height of liquid column be h
Then effective gravitational acceleration on liquid = g +a
Thus pressured exerted at depth h P = P0 + ρ(g+a) h
Similarly if liquid in container moves down with acceleration a
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Then effective gravitational acceleration on liquid = g –a
Thus pressure exerted at depth h, P = P0 + ρ(g-a) h

Also Buoyant force on immersed body when liquid is moving up

FB = Vρ(g+a)
Buoyant force on immersed body when liquid is moving down
FB = Vρ(g+a)
V is volume of the liquid displaced

Shape of free surface of a liquid in horizontal accelerated vessel

When a vessel filled with liquid accelerates
horizontally. We observe its free surface
inclined at some angle with horizontal. To find
angle θ made by free surface with horizontal,
consider a horizontal liquid column including
two points x and y at the depth of h1 and h2
from the inclined free surface of liquid as
shown in figure

Force on area at x = P1A = h1ρg

Pseudo force at y= mass of liquid tube of length L and cross sectional area A ×acceleration
Pseudo force at y=ρ(LA)
Total force at y = P1A + Pseudo force
Force on area at y = h1ρg + ρ(LA)
Since liquid is in equilibrium
Force on area at x = Force on area at y
h1ρg = h1ρg + ρ(LA)
(h1 – h2 ) g = La
From geometry of figure
ℎ1 − ℎ2 𝑎
=
𝐿 𝑔

𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
𝑔
Q) Length of a horizontal arm of a U-tube is 20cm and end of both the vertical arms are
open to a pressure 1.01×103 N/m2. Water is poured into the
tube such that liquid just fills horizontal part of the tube is then
rotated about a vertical axis passing through the other vertical
arm with angular velocity ω. If length of water in sealed tube
rises to 5cm, calculate ω. Take density of water = 103 kg/m3
and g = 10 m/s2. Assume temperature to be constant.

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Solution
when tube is rotated liquid will experience a centrifugal force
thus water moves up in second arm of the U tube.
When centrifugal force + pressure in first arm = force due to
pressure in second closed arm +force due to liquid column
then equilibrium condition is established ---eq(1)

Calculation of force due to pressure in closed tube

Before closing pressure Pi = 1.01×103 N/m2
Volume before closing Vi= 0.1A ( A is area of cross-section)
After closing the other arm Pressure Pf and volume Vf = 0.05A
From equation PiVi = PfVf
(1.01×103)× 0.1A = Pf ×(0.05A)
Pf = 2.02×103
Force due to pressure = (2.02×103)×A
Pressure in first arm = 1.01×103
Calculation of force due to liquid column in second arm
Height of liquid column = 0.05 m
Thus pressure due to column = hρg = 0.05×103×10 =500 N/m2
Force due to liquid column PA= 0.5A
Calculation of centrifugal force
Mass of the liquid in horizontal part = volume ×density = (0.2-0.05)A×103=150A
0.2−0.05
Centre of mass of horizontal liquid from first arm ‘r’ =0.05 + = 0.125 𝑚
2
Centrifugal force = mω2 r = 150A×ω2×0.125 = (18.75A)ω2

Now substituting values in equation 1 we get

(18.75A)×ω2 +(1.01×103)×A =(2.02×103)×A + 500A
(18.75)×ω2 +1.01×103 =(2.02×103) + 500
ω = 8.97 rad/s

Fluid dynamics
Streamline flow
The flow of a liquid is said to be steady, streamline or laminar if every particle of the liquid
follows exactly the path of its preceding particle and has the same velocity of its preceding
particle at every point.

Let abc be the path of flow of a liquid and v1, v2 and v3 be the velocities of the liquid at the
points a, b and c respectively. During a streamline flow, all the particles arriving at ‘a’ will
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have the same velocity v1 which is directed along the tangent at the point ‘a’. A particle
arriving at b will always have the same velocity v2. This velocity v2 may or may not be equal
to v1.
Similarly all the particles arriving at the point ‘c’ will always have the same velocity v3. In
other words, in the streamline flow of a liquid, the velocity of every particle crossing a
particular point is the same.
The streamline flow is possible only as long as the velocity of the fluid does not exceed a
certain value. This limiting value of velocity is called critical velocity.

Tube of flow
In a fluid having a steady flow, if we select a finite number of
streamlines to form a bundle
like the streamline pattern shown in the figure, the tubular region is
called a tube of flow.
The tube of flow is bounded by a streamlines so that by fluid can flow
across the boundaries of the tube of flow and any fluid that enters at
one end must leave at the other end.

Turbulent flow
When the velocity of a liquid exceeds the critical velocity, the path and velocities of the
liquid become disorderly. At this stage, the flow loses all its orderliness and is called
turbulent flow. Some examples of turbulent flow are :
(i) After rising a short distance, the smooth column of smoke
from an incense stick breaks up into irregular and random patterns.
(ii) The flash - flood after a heavy rain.
Critical velocity of a liquid can be defined as that velocity of liquid upto which the flow is
streamlined and above which its flow becomes turbulent.

Equation of continuity
Consider a non-viscous liquid in streamline flow through a tube AB of varying cross section
as shown in Fig. Let a1 and a2 be the area of cross section, v1 and v2 be the velocity of flow
of the liquid at A and B respectively.

∴ Volume of liquid entering per second

at A = a1v1.
If ρ is the density of the liquid, then mass of liquid
entering per second at A = a1v1ρ.
Similarly, mass of liquid leaving per second at B = a2v2ρ
If there is no loss of liquid in the tube and the flow is
steady, then mass of liquid entering per second at A =
mass of liquid leaving per second at B
(i.e) a1v1ρ = a2v2ρ or a1v1 = a2v2
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i.e. av = constant
This is called as the equation of continuity. From this equation v is inversely proportional
to area of cross-section along a tube of flow
i.e. the larger the area of cross section the smaller will be the velocity of flow of liquid and
vice-versa.

Bernoulli’s Equation
The theorem states that the work done by all forces acting on a system is equal to the
change in kinetic energy of the system
Consider streamline flow of a liquid of
density ρ through a pipe AB of varying cross
section.
Let P1 and P2 be the pressures and a1 and a2,
the cross sectional areas at A and B
respectively. The liquid enters A normally
with a velocity v1 and leaves B normally with
a velocity v2. The liquid is accelerated against
the force of gravity while flowing from A to
B, because the height of B is greater than
that of A from the ground level. Therefore P1 is greater than P2. This is maintained by an
external force.
The mass m of the liquid crossing per second through any section of the tube in
accordance with the equation of continuity is a1v1ρ = a2v2ρ = m
Or
𝑚
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 =
𝜌
As a1 > a2 , v1 < v2
The force acting on the liquid at A = P1a1
The force acting on the liquid at B = P2 a2
Work done per second on the liquid at A = P1a1 × v1 = P1V
Work done by the liquid at B = P2a2 × v2 = P2V
∴ Net work done per second on the liquid by the pressure energy in moving the liquid
from A to B is = P1V – P2V
If the mass of the liquid flowing in one second from A to B is m, then increase in potential
energy per second of liquid from A to B is = mgh2 – mgh1
Increase in kinetic energy per second of the liquid.
1 1
𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12
2 2
According to work-energy principle,
work done per second by the
pressure energy = (Increase in potential energy + Increase in kinetic energy) per second
1 1
𝑃1 𝑉 − 𝑃2 𝑉 = (𝑚𝑔ℎ2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 ) + ( 𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 )
2 2

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1 1
𝑃1 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑚𝑣12 = 𝑃2 𝑉 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑣22
2 2

𝑃1 𝑉 𝑚 1 𝑚 2 𝑃2 𝑉 𝑚 1𝑚 2
+ 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝑣1 = + 𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑣
𝑉 𝑉 2𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 2𝑉 2
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Since subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any location on the pipeline, we can write in general

1
𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ + 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
The above equation is called Bernoulli’s equation for steady non-viscous incompressible
flow. Dividing the above equation by gh we can rewrite the above equation as
𝑣2 𝑃
ℎ+ + = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑛𝑎𝑡, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Term h is called elevation head or gravitational head
𝑣2
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2𝑔
𝑃
𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝜌𝑔
Above equation indicates for ideal liquid velocity increases when pressure decreases and
vice-versa

Q) A vertical tube of diameter 4mm at the bottom has a water passing through it. If the
pressure be atmospheric at the bottom where the water emerges at the rate of 800gm per
minute, what is the pressure at a point in the tube 5cm above the bottom where the
diameter is 3mm
Solution
Rate of flow of water = 800 gm/min = (40/3)gm/sec
Now mass of water per sec = velocity ×area × density
40/3 = V1 ×[π (0.2)2]×1
V1 = (333.33/π) cm/sec
Now A1V1 = A2V2 Thus
V2 = (4/3)V1
V2 = (444.44/π) cm/sec is the velocity at height 25cm
Now P1 = atmospheric pressure = 1.01×107 dyne
Now from Bernoulli’s equation
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
2
6
1 333.33 1 444.44 2
1.01 × 10 + 0 + ( ) = 𝑃2 + 1 × 981 × 25 + ( )
2 𝜋 2 𝜋
On solving
P2 = 0.98×106 dyne
Now pressure = hρ0g here ρ0 is density of mercury = 13.6 in cgs system
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0.98×106 = h×980×13.6
H = 73.5 cm of Hg

Q) Water stands at a depth H in a tank whose side walls are vertical. A hole is made at one
of the walls at depth h below the water surface. Find at what distance from the foot of the
wall does the emerging stream of water strike the flower. What is the maximum possible
range?
Solution
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem at point 1 and 2
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
P1 = P2 = P ( atmospheric pressure)
V1 = 0 , h2 = H-h and h1 = H
1
𝜌𝑔𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ) + 𝜌𝑣22
2
𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ
The vertical component of velocity of water emerging
from hole at 2 is zero. Therefore time taken (t) by the
water to fall through a distance (H-h) is given bu
1
𝐻 − ℎ = 𝑔𝑡 2
2
2 (𝐻 − ℎ )
𝑡=√
𝑔
Required horizontal range R = v2t
2(𝐻 − ℎ )
𝑅 = √2𝑔ℎ √
𝑔
𝑅 = 2√ℎ(𝐻 − ℎ)
the range is maximu when dR/dh = 0
1 −1
2 × (𝐻ℎ − ℎ2 ) 2 (𝐻 − 2ℎ) = 0
2
This gives h = H/2
Therefore Maximu range =
𝐻 𝐻
𝑅 = 2√ (𝐻 − ) = 𝐻
2 2
Q) A tank with a small circular hole contains oil on top of water. It is immersed in a large
tank of same oil. Water flows through the hole. What is the
velocity of the flow initially? When the flow stops, what
would be the position of the oil-water interface in the tank?
The ratio of the cross-section area tank to the that of hole is
50, determine the time at which the flow stops, density of oil
= 800 kg/m3

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Solution:
Pressure at hole and pressure at point on the bottom of water is different thus water
flows through the hole
Pressure at point 1 P1 = P0 + hρ0g here h = 15m and ρ0 = 800 kg/m3
Pressure at point 2 is P2 = P0
And potential = 5ρ0g +10ρg here ρ is density of water
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
1 2 1
𝑃0 + ℎ𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃0 + 5𝜌0 𝑔 + 10𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
For continuity equation A1V1 = A2 V2
𝐴1 1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴2 50 1
1 1 𝑣1 2
15 × 800 × 10 + 1000𝑣12 = 5 × 800 × 10 + 10 × 1000 × 10 + 1000 × ( )
2 2 50

𝑣1 2
120000 + 500𝑣12 = 140000 + 500 × ( )
50

1
𝑣12 (500 − ) = 20000
2500
𝑣12 (500) = 20000
V1 = 6.32 m/s

Let x be the height of water column when flow of water is stopped

Applying Bernoull’s equation between point a and x we het
1 1
𝑃0 + 15𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃0 + 5𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑥𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Since velocities are zero
15𝜌0 𝑔 = 5𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑥𝜌𝑔
15 × 800 = 5 × 800 + 𝑥 × 1000
X=8m
Let at any moment of time height of water column be y then level of oil in samll tank is (
15-y) accoding to bernolli’s equation
1 1
𝑃0 + 15𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃0 + (5)𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑦𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2

1 2 1
𝜌𝑣1 = (−10)𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑦𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
av1 = Av2
𝑎 𝑣1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 =
𝐴 50

1 2 1 𝑣1 2
𝜌𝑣1 = (−10)𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑦𝜌𝑔 + 𝜌 ( )
2 2 50
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Neglecting term
1 𝑣1 2
𝜌( )
2 50
1 2
𝜌𝑣 = (−10)𝜌0 𝑔 + 𝑦𝜌𝑔
2 1

1
1000𝑣12 = (−10) × 800 × 10 + 𝑦 × 1000 × 10
2

𝑣12 = −160 + 20𝑦

Differentiating
𝑑𝑣1 𝑑𝑦
2𝑣1 = 20
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
But
𝑑𝑦 𝑣1
= 𝑣2 = −
𝑑𝑡 50
Negative sign since vleocity is decreasing

𝑑𝑣1 −𝑣1
𝑣1 = 10 ×
𝑑𝑡 50

𝑑𝑣1 −1
=
𝑑𝑡 5

−1
𝑑𝑣1 = 𝑑𝑡
5
Integrating

0
−1 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
6.32 5 0
−𝑡
−6.23 =
5
t = 31.15 sec

Venturimeter:
This is a device based on Bernoulli’s principle used
for measuring the flow of a liquid in pipes. A liquid
of density ρ flows through a pipe of cross-
sectional area A. Let the constricted part of the
cross-sectional area be ‘a’. A manometer tube
with a liquid say mercury having a densityρ0 is
attached to the tube as shown in figure

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If P1 is the pressure at point 1 and P2 the pressure at point 2, we have
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝑚𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
Where v1 and v2 are the velocities at these points respectively
1 2 1 2 𝑃2 𝑃1
𝑣 − 𝑣 = −
2 1 2 2 𝜌 𝜌

We have Av1 = av2

𝐴
𝑣2 = 𝑣
𝑎 1
1 2 1 𝐴 2 2 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
𝑣 − ( ) 𝑣1 =
2 1 2 𝑎 𝜌

𝐴 2 2 2(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑣12 − ( ) 𝑣1 =
𝑎 𝜌

𝐴2 2(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑣12 (1 − 2
)=
𝑎 𝜌
2(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
2 𝜌 2𝑎2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑣1 = =
𝐴2 (𝑎 2 − 𝐴 2 )𝜌
1− 2
𝑎
2𝑎2 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑣1 = √ 2
( 𝑎 − 𝐴 2 )𝜌
Volume of liquid flowing through the pipe per second Q = Av1
2(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑎 √
(𝑎2 − 𝐴2 )𝜌

Speed of Efflux
As shown in figure a tank of cross-sectional area A, filled to a depth h with a liquid of
density ρ. There is a hole of cross-section area A2 at the bottom and the liquid flows out
of the tank through the hole A2 << A1
Let v1 and v2 be the speeds of the liquid at A1 and A2. As both the
cross sections are opened to the atmosphere, the pressure there
equals to atmospheric pressure Po. If the height of the free surface
above the hole is h1
Bernoulli’s equation gives
1 1
𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
By the equation of continuity,
A1v1 = A2 v2
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1 𝐴2 2 2 1
𝑃0 + 𝜌 ( ) 𝑣2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 𝐴1 2
2
𝐴2
[1 − ( ) ] 𝑣22 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝐴1
2𝑔ℎ
𝑣2 =
√ 𝐴2 2
1−( )
𝐴1
If A2 <<< A1, the equation reduces to v2 =√(2gh)
The speed of efflux is the same as the speed a body that would acquire in falling freely
through a height h. This is known as Torricelli’s theorem.

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