A LEXICAL APPROACH

INTRODUCTION

A lexical approach in language teaching refers to one derived from the belief that the building
blocks of language learning and communication are not gramar, functions, notions, or some other
unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that is, words and particularly multi-word combinations.
The Lexical Approach reflects a belief in the centrality of the lexicon to language structure, second
language learning, and language use, and in particular to multi-word lexical units or “chunks” that
are learned and used as single items. The lexical approach is a way of analysing and teaching
language based on the idea that it is made up of lexical units rather than gramatical structures.

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

The Lexical Approach views language as a system of structurally related elements for the coding of
meaning. Traditionally, the elements of the system included lexical items as well as gramatical
units. The lexical approach adds another level of “structure” namely multi-word units.

Chomsky’s theory of language emphasized the capacity of speakers to create and interpret
sentences that are unique and have never been produced or heard previously.

The role of collocation is also important in lexically based theories of language .

The lexical approach doesn’t downplay the importance of grammar in language use or in language
teaching. Rather, the point is that language ability requires not only the ability to produce
language through syntactic generation (via grammatical competence) but also the ability to use
lexical chunks in appropriate situations. The students need mastery of both abilities to use
language well.

Drawing on research on first language learning, chunks are also believed to play a role in language
acquisition. They constitute a significant proportions of the data which learners use to develop
their grammatical competence.

THEORY OF LEARNING

Lewis proposed the following account of the learning theory assumed in his initial proposal for a
lexical approach.

 Encountering new learning items on several occasions is necessary but sufficient condition
for learning to occur.

 Noticing lexical chunks or collocations is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
“input” to become “intake”.

 Noticing similarities, differences, restrictions, and examples contributes to turning input

into intake, although formal description of rules probably doesn’t help.

 Acquisition is based not on the application of formal rules but on an accumulation of

examples from which learners make provisional generalizations.
DESIGN

The goal of the Lexical Approach is to develop learners’ awareness and use of lexical chunks as an
important feature of naturalistic language use. A related goal is for learners to develop strategies
for identifying and learning the chunks that they encounter is spoken and written texts.

Lewis’ advice is therefore to help students develop strategies for the recognition and the recording
of chunks they encounter not just in, but outside the classroom too: what is essential is that the
teacher equips the students with search skills which will enable them to discover significant
collocations for themselves.

THE SYLLABUS

The proponents of the lexical approach recommend, for lowerlovel students , direct teaching of
the chunks that accur most frequently in the kinds of texts students engage with in their learning,
and that language corpora can be a source of information for this strategy. The syllabus will
therefore consist of an organized record of the chunks learners have encountered in different
written and spoken texts through a retrospective syllabus.

According to WILLIS the lexical syllabus not only subsumes a structural syllabus, it also indicates
how the structures which make up a syllabus should be exemplified.

The lexical syllabus is based on the most common words and phrases in the north american
spoken segment of the Cambridge english corpus.

TYPES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

Activities used with the Lexical Approach include activities, training in text chunking , as well as
activities to enhace the remembering of chunks. Such activities can be included in any course and
not necessarily one based on the Lexical Approach.

 AWARENESS ACTIVITIES

These are activities that facilitate the noticing of chunks. an example is the use of corpora, a
resources that is particulary useful in revealing collocation restrictions. An other example are the
kinds of displays that appear in text materials.However, the difference between how the
vocabulary items “predict” and “forescat” are used and how they collocate is not easy expalin.

 TRAINING IN THE TEXT

Chunking exercises seek to raise awareness of chunks and how they operate.

 MEMORY-ENHANCING ACTIVITIES

This is an umbrella term for diverse mental operations , beyond mere noticing, that a learner may
perform with regard or the form of words and phrases.

 RETELLING

The students take part in retelling activities, where they summarize or retell what they have read
but attempt to use the same chunks that appeared in the text.
TEACHER ROLES

Teachers have several roles in the lexical approach the teacher is to be a language analyst, capable
of recognizing multi-words units in texts , able to asses which ones are important enough to
justify sustained attention in class.

 Lewis(1993) suggest that teacher talk is a major source of learner input in demostrating
how lexical phases are used for different fuctional purposes.

 wills(1990) propose the teachers need to understand and manage a classroom

methodology based on stages composed of task, planning and report , the task cycle
recommended for the task-based language teaching.

The teacher as “KNOWER” and concentrate instead on the idea of the learner as “DISCOVERER”
(wills 1990:13).

LEARNER ROLES

The learner assumes the role of data analyst constructing the students own linguistic
generalizations based on examination of large corpora of language samples taken from “real
life”.Hovewer, the learner needs training in how to use the concordancer effectively.

Teaching assistance will be necessary to lead the learner for example ,through the different stages
of lexical analysis such as observation, classification and generalization.

Learner are also encouraged to monitor their own learning of chunk and to review chunks they
have encountered for example, through the use of a vocabulary notebook.

THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

• Materials and teaching resources to support the approach.

1. Coursebook that include a focus on multi-word units in the syllabus, such as the
touchstone series.

2. Corpus- informed materials such as mccarthy and odell 2004.

3. Corpora. professors and students can access.

• It is a broad set and structure of real examples of use of the language.

• for example:

• Other example:

• of a useful corpus in the bank of english, which forms part of the Collins corpus- a 650
million Word corpus used in the preparation of the cobuild dictionaries.

At present the books do not make much research reference or make reference to the
corpus. Because those who buy the books do a lot of research. This makes the writers no
longer innovate.
PROCEDURE

The LA [Focus Lexical] in its current form proposes activities in the classroom and exercises that
increase students' awareness of the importance of fragments.

The central strategy is pedagogical fragmentation; Its essence is the encouragement of students
to notice fragments.

Lewis

Recognizes that the number of lexical phrases that qualify as good learning objectives far
exceeds those that can be acquired in a normal and non-intensive language course.

 His advice is to help students develop strategies for the recognition and registration of
fragments in L2 samples they find, not only in the classroom, but also out of it.

WOOLARD

• Woolard (20o0) suggests that teachers should reexamine their textbooks for
placements, adding exercises that explicitly focus on lexical phrases. They must also
develop activities that allow students to discover the placements themselves, both in
the classroom and in the language outside of the classroom. Woolard (200o: 35)
comments:

Placement learning is an aspect of language development that is ideal for independent language
learning. In a very real sense, we can teach students to teach themselves. The assignment is
primarily a matter of noting and recording, and the trained students should be able to explore
the texts by themselves.

Hill (2000).suggests that classroom procedures involve.

a. Teaching individual placements.

b. Raising student awareness of placements.

c. Expanding what students already know by adding knowledge of placement restrictions

to vocabulary.

d. Store collaboration through encouraging students to maintain a lexical notebook.

CONCLUSION

• The state of learning in language teaching has been greatly improved thanks to
developments in lexical and linguistic theory, work in corpus analysis and recognition of
the role of multi-word units in learning and communication Languages. However, the
lexicon still refers to a single component of communicative competence.
Cooperative Language Learning

Introduction

• Cooperative Language Learning is part of a more general instructional approach, known as

Collaborative or Cooperative Learning.

• Cooperative Learning is an approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative

activities involving pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom.

Approach
Theory of language

• Language is a resource for expressing meaning

• Language is a means of expressing different communicative functions.

• Language is a mean of interpersonal and social interactions

• Language is a resource for carrying out tasks.

Theory of Learning

Learning results from conversational interaction.

This theory is based on the assumption that as learners seek to achieve meaning, they engage in a
joint process of negotiation of meaning, during which various communicative strategies.

Language Learning is a sociocultural process.

This theory of learning, derived initially from Vygotsky (1935, 1978)

Cooperative Language Learning overlaps with sociocultural learning theory by attempting to

build an environment that fosters mutual aid

Abdullah and Jacobsb (2004) suggest that Cooperative Learning promotes interaction in the
following ways.

1. The literature on CL recommends that students who are different from each other
according to the variable of proficiency become groupmates.

2. In CL, teachers can encourage more negotiation for meaning by allowing groups to try to
sort out their own communication difficulties without teacher intervention, although
teachers do stand ready to help, if, after trying, groups remain deadlocked or confused.

3. CL activities provide a context in which students may be more likely to interact than in a
whole class setting.

4. SLA researches proposes that group activities can encourage students to interact to each
other.
 Design

Objectives

• Develop critical thinking skills

• Develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction activities.

The Syllabus

• CLL does not assume any particular form of language syllabus, since activities from a
variety of curriculum orientation.

TYPES OF LEARNING AND TEACHING ACTIVITIES

Johnson Olsen & Kagan Coelho 1992

1992

Cooperative Key Elements Cooperative Learning  Olsen & Kagan.

Tasks Three-step interview,
Learning Groups
Think-pair share,
Numbered heads.
 Formal  Positive Interdependence  Team practice
from common
 Informal  Group Formation
input
 Cooperative Base  Individual Accountability
 Jig Saw
Groups
 Social Skills
 Cooperative
 Structuring and Projects
structures

Learner Roles

1. The primary role of a learner is a member of a group who must work collaboratively on
task with other group members.

2. Pair grouping is the most typical CLL format, pair tasks in which learners alternate roles,
involve partners in the role of tutors, checkers, recorders and information sharers.

Teacher Roles

1. The theacher has to create a highly structured and well-organized learning environment in
the classroom

2. An important role of the teacher is that facilitator of learning

The role of intructional materials

• Materials play an important part in creating oportunities for students to work

cooperativevely. The same materials can be used in other types of lesson, but variations
are required in how the materials are used.

• Materials may be specially designed for CLL learning, modified from existing materials, or
borrowed from other disciplines.

Procedure

• The procedure for a CLL lesson follows from going throught the steps involved in
determinating the lesson obejective and choosing appropiate cooperative activity types
for teaching and learning.

The procedure works in the following ways:

1. The teacher assign students to pairs with at least one good reader in each pair.

2. Student A describes what he or she is planning to write to Student B.

3. This procedure is reversed, with Student B describing what she or he is going to write and
Student A listening and completing an outline of Student B’s ideas, which is given to
Stiudent B.

4. The students individually research the material the need for their compositions.

5. The students work together to write the first paragraph of each composition to ensure
that they both have a clear start on their composition.

6. The students write their conpositions individually.

7. When the students have completed their compositions, they proofread each other’s
compositions.

8. The students revise the compositions.

9. The students then reread each other’s compositions and sign their names to indicate that
composition is error-free.
Conclusion

The use of discussion groups, group work, and pair work has often been advocated in
teaching both languages and other subjects.

In CLL, group activities are the major mode of learning and are part of a comprehensive
theory and system for the use of group work in teaching.

Group activities are carefully planned to maximize student’s interaction and to facilitate
students’ contributions to each other’s learning.

Proponents of CLL stress that it enhances both learning and learners’ interaction skills.
Natural
approach

According with tracy terrell (1977) this was an attempt to develop a language teaching proposal
that incorporated the "naturalistic" principles researchers had identified in studies of second
language acquisition.

Traditional approaches are defined as "based on the use of language in communicative situations
without recourse to the native language.

In the Natural Approach there is an emphasis on exposure, or input, rather than practice;
optimizing emotional preparedness for learning; a prolonged period of attention to what the
language learners hear before they try to produce language; and a willingness to use written and
other materials as a source of comprehensible input.

Approach Theory of language

• Krashen and Terrell see communication as the primary function of language, and since
their approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities, they refer to the Natural
Approach as an example of a communicative approach.

• The Natural Approach "is similar to other communicative approaches being developed
today" (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 17).

• What Krashen and Terrell do describe about the nature of language emphasizes the
primacy of meaning. The importance of the vocabulary is stressed, for example, suggesting
the view that a language is essentially its lexicon and only inconsequently the grammar
that determines how the lexicon is exploited to produce messages

• Language is viewed as a vehicle for communicating meanings and messages. Hence

Krashen and Terrell state that "acquisition can take place only when people understand
messages in the target language (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 19).

• Krashen and Terrell claim that the natural approach is based on an empirically grounded
theory of second language acquisition, which has been supported by a large number of
scientific studies in a wide variety of language acquisition and learning contexts" (Krashen
and Terrell 1983: 1).

• The theory and research are grounded on Krashen's views of language acquisition, which
has been collectively refered to as Krashen's language acquisition theory. Krashen's views
have been presented and discussed extensively elsewhere (e.g., Krashen 1982).
THE ACQUISITION/LEARNING HYPOTHESIS

• The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis claims that there are two distinctive ways of
developing competence in a second or foreign language. Acquisition is the "natural" way,
paralleling first language development in children.

• Acquisition refers to an unconscious process that involves the naturalistic development of

language proficiency through understanding language and through using language for
meaningful communication.

• Learning, by contrast, refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are
developed. It results in explicit knowledge about the forms of a language and the ability to
verbalize this knowledge. Formal teaching is necessary for "learning" to occur, and
correction of errors helps with the development of learned rules. Learning, according to
the theory, cannot lead to acquisition.

The monitor hypothesis

The acquired linguistic system is said to initiate utterances when we communicate in a second or
foreign language. Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system. The Monitor Hypothesis claims that we may call upon
learned knowledge to correct ourselves when we communicate, hut that conscious learning (i.e.,
the learned system) has only this function.

Three conditions limit the successful use of the monitor:

1. Time: There must be sufficient time for a learner to choose and apply a learned rule.

2. Focus on form. The language user must be focused on correctness or on the form of the output.

3. Knowledge of rules: The performer must know the rules. The monitor does best with rules that
are simple in two ways. They must be simple to describe and they must not require complex
movements and rearrangements.

Natural order hypothesis

According to the Natural Order Hypothesis, the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a
predictable order. Research has shown that certain grammatical structures or morphemes are
acquired before others in the acquisition of English in the first language, and a similar natural
order is found in the acquisition in the second language. Errors are the signs of naturalistic
development processes, and the errors that occur in students.
The input hypothesis

The Input Hypothesis claims to explain the relationship between what the learner is exposed to of
a language (the input) and language acquisition. It involves four main issues.

• First, the hypothesis relates to acquisition, and not to learning.

• Second, people acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond their
current level of competence.

Third, the ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; rather, it "emerges" independently in
time

Fourth, Comprehensible input refers to utterances that the learner understands based on the
context in which they are used as well as the language in which they are phrased.

The effective filter hypothesis

• Krashen sees the learner's emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely
passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition.

• he hypothesis is built on research in second language acquisition, which has identified

three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables related to second language acquisition:

 Motivation

 Self-confidence

 Anxiety

Design

The natural approach "is for beginners and is designed to help them become intermediates." It has
the expectation that students will be able to function adequately in the target situation. They need
not know every word but their production does need to be understood. They should be able to
make the meaning clear but not necessarily be accurate in all details of grammar. (Krashen and
Terrell 1983: 71).

Krashen and terrell (1983) approach course organization from two points of view. First, they list
some typical goals for language courses and suggest which of these goals are the ones at which
the natural approach aims.
The second point of view holds that "the purpose of a language course will vary according to the
needs of the students and their particular interests" (krashen and terrell 1983: 65).

In a Natural Approach class, Teacher talk focuses on objects in the classroom and on the content
of pictures, as with the Direct Method. Learners are not required to say anything until they feel
ready, but they are expected to respond to teacher commands and questions in other ways. The
teacher talks slowly and distinctly, asking questions and eliciting one-word answers. Charts,
pictures, advertisements, and other realia serve as the focal point for questions, and when the
students' competence permits, talk moves to class members.
Learner roles

Learners' roles are seen to change according to their stage of linguistic development. Central to
these changing roles are learner decisions on when to speak, what to speak about, and what
linguistic expressions to use in speaking.

• In the pre-production stage students "participate in the language activity without having
to respond in the target language" (krashen and terrell 1983: 76).

• In the early-production stage, students respond to either-or questions, use single words
and short phrases, fill in charts, and use fixed conversational patterns

In the speech-emergent phase, students involve themselves in role play and games, contribute
personal information and opinions, and participate in group problem

teacher roles

First, the teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input in the target language. The
Natural Approach demands a much more center-stage role for the teacher than do many
contemporary communicative methods.

Second, the Natural Approach teacher creates a classroom atmosphere that is interesting, friendly,
and in which there is a low affective filter for learning

Finally, the teacher must choose and orchestrate a rich mix of classroom activities, involving a
variety of group sizes, content, and contexts.

The Rol of instructional material

The primary goal of materials in the Natural Approach is to make classroom activities as
meaningful as possible by supplying "the extra-linguistic context that helps the acquirer to
understand and thereby to acquire" (Krashen and Terrell 1983: 55).

The primary aim of materials is to promote comprehension and communication. Pictures and
other visual aids are essential, because they supply the content for communication. The selection,
reproduction, and collection of materials places a considerable burden on the Natural Approach
teacher

Conclusion:

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation
and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in non-formal
settings. In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as
well as the provision of the right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary and
sufficient conditions for successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. This has led
to a new rationale for the integration and adaptation of techniques drawn from a wide variety of
existing sources. Like Communicative Language Teaching, the Natural Approach is hence
evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in
the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes and meaningful practice
activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Introduction

 According to Van den Branden (2006) Task- Based Language Teaching(TBLT) refers to the
use of tasks as “an approach to language education in which students are given functional
tasks that invite them to focus primarily on meaning exchange and to use language for
real-world, non-linguistic” some of its proponents, present it as a logical development of
communicative language teaching, since it draws on several principles that formed part of
the CLT movement from the 1980s for example:

 Activities that involve real communication are essential for language learning.

 Activities in which language is used for carryig out meaningful tasks promote learning.

 Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process.

Approach

 Theory of Language

TBLT is motivated primarily by a theory of learning rather tan a theory of language. However,
several assumptions about the nature of language can be said to underlie current approaches to
TBLT. These are:

 Language is primarily a means of making meaning.

 Language is means of achieving real-world goals.

 Lexical units are central in language used and language learning.

 Spoken interaction is the central focus of language and the keystone of language
acquisition.

Language use involves integration of skills.

Theory of Learning

 TBLT shares the general assumption about the nature of language learning underlying
communicative language teaching, however, it draws more centraly on SLA theory, and
many of its proponents describe it from a cognitive perspective.

 Language Learning is determined by learner internal, factors.Learning is promoted by

activating internal acquisition processes.

The goal of Teaching is to actívate these processes.

 Language learning is an organic process.

 A focus on form can facilitate language learning.

 Negotiation of meaning provides learners with opportunities for provision of

comprehensible input and modified output.

Tasks provide opportunities for learners to “notice the gap”.

 Interaction and communication through tasks provides opportunities for scaffolded

learning.

 Task activity and achievement are motivational.

 Learning difficulty can be negotiated and fine- tuned for particular pedagogical purposes.

Design

According to Van den Branden (2006) Advocates of TBLT propose that it is suitable for designing
courses at all levels from Young learners to adults, and published accounts of course designs for
learners of different ages. also according to Long and Crookes(1993), should be based on a careful
analysis of the real – world needs of learners.

It means that Tasks that inform a TBLT syllabus are chosen on the basis of the extent to which
they provide for meaningful negotiation and interaction around content and activities that are
motivating and meaningful to young learners, such as information gap tasks,problem-solving
tasks,and games. In other words it will consist of "pedagogic tasks" rather than "real - world tasks "

The Syllabus

 The syllabus in TBLT takes a very different form from a conventional language syllabus
,which typicall specifies such things as language structures, functions,topics, themes,
macro – skills .

 According to Nunan (1909)sugests that a task - Based syllabus can be developed with two
types of tasks:

 1.Real world Tasks

 2. Pedagogical Tasks
 What are the student and teacher roles in TBLT?

Students Says

teacher Says Teacher Does Student Does

Why?

Presents task Primes students with Students speak among Students prepare either Provides practical
key vocabulary and themselves to organize a written or oral report linguistic skill building.
constructions and complete task. to present to class. When tasks are familiar
Students present final to students, they are
task (sometimes orally). more likely to be
engaged and motivated.
Students learn
languages through
problem-solving.

Learner Roles
Teachers Roles

The role of instruction materials

 Procedure

 According to Willis (1996) Describe a more detailed sequence of pre-task, while-task, and
post-task activities and divides this sequence into a pre-task focus on the task cycle, and a
language focus.
TEXT- BASED INSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Text-based instruction is an approach that is based on the following principles:

• Teaching explicity about the structures and gramatical features of spoken and written
texts.

• Linking spoken and written texts to the social and cultural contexts of their use.

• Designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts

• Providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for maningful
communication through whole texts.

APPROACH

THEORY OF LANGUAGE

 Texts occur in relation to different genres of discourse

As a mentioned earlier, the notion of genre also plays an important part in the theory of
language underlying TBI. The situations, contexts, purposes, audiences, and relationship that
are involved when we use language account for patterns and norms of language use and result
in different genres of discourse.

SPOKEN DISCOURSE WRITTEN DISCOURSE

Public announcement and instructions Books, fiction and non-fiction

Public speeches, lectures, presentations, sermons Magazines

Entertainment( drama, shows,songs) Newpapers

Sports conmentaries( football, criket, etc.) Textbooks

Interpersonal dialogues and conversations Comic strips

 Language is a social process

According to Halliday “language arises in the life of the individual through an ongoing
exchenge of meaning with significant others.

 Texts have distinctive patterns of organization and distinctive linguistics features

Texts are constructed of words and sentences, but they function in communication as units.
They may consist of a single Word, a sentence, or much longer constructions, and they reflect
recognizable and conventional patterns of organization.

THEORY OF LEARNING

 Learning is facilitated by explicit knowledge of language

 Learning is facilitated by the study of authentic models and examples

Students are presented with authentic examples of different text-types, and these are used to
display and model the features of different kinds of texts.

Design

 Objectives

The targets of a text-based course are associated with the situation the student might be when he
speaks the target language and the type of writings within those contexts. Hence, the starting
point in developing course objectives is an analysis of learner.

Needs and of the learning context in order to identify the genres of discourse and the associated
text-types the course will focus on.

Goal

The learner will:

 Understand the purpose of casual conversation in Australian workplace culture.

 Know which conversation topics are appropriate in Australian workplaces.

 Recognize and use the elements of a casual conversation.

 Recognize and use conversational chunks such as comments, descriptions, or recounts.

 Take turns appropriately within simple exchanges.

 Use language appropriate to casual conversation.

 Build pronunciation and paralinguistic skills and strategies, specifically in the areas of
intonation and gesture.

 The syllabus
Feez, as mentioned in Richards and Rogers, suggests that the syllabus in a text-based approach can
be initiated from a number of different perspectives and that one unit might be designed around a
topic, while the next is designed around a particular text-type.

 Topics and related contexts of use.

 Text-types and related language features.

 Skills and strategies.

 Activities.

Types of learning and teaching activities

Activities used in TBI are varied and relate to the different stages of a text-based unit of work as
well as the type of text in focus, which could be either a spoken or a written text. Activities
typically focus on building the context for a text. Teacher-led activities as well as pair and group-
based activities will all be used, but central to all of them is a focus on the nature of an authentic
text.

 Learner roles

Learners learn in TBI both through the support and guidance of the teacher and through the use of
rules and patterns to creating texts related to their needs. They use teacher-provided models to
create texts of their own. They learn through a process of collaboration and guidance until they
reach a level where they can function independently without the teacher’s support.

 Teacher roles

The teacher is actively involved in the development of the course in TBL and sometimes might
need the collaboration of colleagues to prepare the course, since the course in TBL is not
something prepared in advance.

 Developing a syllabus based on learners’ needs;

 Selecting suitable texts as the basis for the course;

 Sequencing elements of the course;

 Modeling processes of deconstructing and constructing appropriate texts;

assessing students’ progress in understanding and mastering different text-types.

 The role of instructional materials

Materials play an important role in TBI since example of authentic spoken and written texts
provide the basis for teaching and learning. Texts can be obtained from a variety of sources; from
the real world, from the internet, from the media or from students themselves, that is, from their
work, study and other non-pedagogical contexts.
  Procedure

Feez (1998) gives the following description of procedures used I a text-based lesson or series of
lessons. Recall that texts may be spoken or written and different to the discourse context in which
they are used.