Chapter 3: Cable Characteristics: 3.1 Components of Twisted Pair Cable

Cable Characteristics
Chapter 3: Cable Characteristics
Data with information moves from one network device to another device
through networking cable. Networking cable is the transmission medium to
transmit data from one end to another end. Different types of cables are
available, which are commonly used with LANs. Selection of the type of cable
for a network depends upon the network’s topology, size, protocol and
expenditure also. For developing a successful network, it is important to
understand the different characteristics of all types of cables and how they are
related to a particular type of network.
3.1 Components of Twisted Pair cable
A twisted pair cable is made from bundled twisted pairs [1] as shown in the
fig 3.1.
Fig 3.1: Twisted-pair construction
The components of a twisted pair cable are:
• Conductor wires
The twisted signal wires are normally solid copper conductors but can be
stranded. A twisted pair cable may contain multiple twisted pairs. Common
A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 76

sizes are 2, 4, 7, 15, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300 or 400 pairs. Several pairs twisted
around each other with color coded binder tapes form a cable unit or a binder
group. A cable is made of numbers of binder groups wrapped around each
other. The size of the cable determines the total number of groups and the
number of pairs in each binder group.
• Insulation
Each of the conductors in a twisted pair cable is surrounded by a color
coded insulating layer. Color coded insulation helps to identify the pair and to
ensure the correct polarity. The A-leg is marked White, Red, Black, Yellow or
Violet in sequence to identify which group of five pairs. The B-leg is
consecutively coded Blue, Orange, Green, Brown and Slate.
• Sheath
The sheath of the cable is made of polyvinylchloride (PVC) or polyethylene
(PE), in which the wire cables are encased.
3.2 Co-axial cable components
A co-axial cable has the following concentric or co-axial components [1] as
shown in the fig 3.2.
• Carrier wire
A carrier wire or signal wire usually made of copper is in the center of the
cable. The wire is normally solid but may be stranded. The diameter of the wire

is an important factor which determines the attenuation of the signal over
distances.
Fig 3.2: Co-axial cable components
• Insulation
There is an insulation layer consisting of a dielectric material around the
signal wire.
• Foil shield
There is a thin foil shield around the dielectric. Normally, the foil shield
consists of aluminum bonded to both sides of a mylar tape.
• Braid shield
The insulation and foil shield are surrounded by a braid or mesh conductor
which is made of copper or aluminum. The braid conductor is normally

connected to ground. The earthed braid shield together with any foil shield
protects the signal wire from EMI and RFI.
• Sheath
The outermost cover which provides the physical protection for the cable is
usually made of polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
3.3 Fiber Optic cable components
A fiber optic cable has the following components [1]:
• Core
The core is that part of an optical fiber which carries the light signal. For
multimode cable, the most common core sizes are 50µm and 62.5µm. For
single mode cable, core size is 8.5µm.
• Cladding
The part cladding is a protective layer of optical fiber surrounding the core
with a slightly lower refractive index than of the cladding. Typical cladding
diameter is 125µm.
• Fiber-optic coating
The coating is a plastic layer surrounding the cladding, which helps to
increase the cable strength, thereby decreasing likelihood of breaking the fiber.
This layer protects the core and the cladding in the operating environment.

• Buffer
A buffer can protect the fiber from all the stresses applied to the cable,
isolating the fiber from these stresses. A buffer can be of two types: loose buffer
and tight buffer.
• Strength members
Strength members of an optical fiber are strands of some very tough
materials which provide tensile strength for the cable. Examples of such
materials are steel, fiberglass or Kevlar with their own advantages and
disadvantages.
• Cable sheath
The outer casing of a fiber-optic cable is called the sheath providing primary
mechanical protection.
3.4 General Cable characteristics
There are two general cable characteristics, which are of most interest.
They are attenuation and bandwidth [2].
• Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the
medium. The longer the signal travels, the more energy it loses.

The unit used to calculate the loss (or gain) of power during the
transmission of a signal is decibel (dB).
dB = 10 log10(Pr /Ps) -------(3.1)
where, Pr is received signal power
Ps is transmitted signal power
Since, ∝ , dB =20 log10(V2 /V1) ------(3.2) also.
The dB will be negative if we lost power, positive if we gained power and
exactly the same if there is no change of power.
• Bandwidth
Bandwidth is a measure of network performance. In networking, the term
bandwidth is used in two contexts.
# Bandwidth in hertz, which refers to the range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass. It is
generally expressed in KHz (kilohertz), MHz (megahertz).
# Bandwidth in bits per second, which refers to the speed of transmission of
bits in a channel. It is generally expressed in Kbps (kilo bits per second), Mbps
(mega bits per second), Gbps (giga bits per second).
Different types of cables support different bandwidths.

3.5 Copper Cable Characteristics
3.5.1 Transmission line theory for copper cable
The transmission characteristics of copper cable can be understood by
using transmission line theory. According to transmission line theory, any
copper cable has four basic parameters [3]. These four basic parameters are
also called primary line constants. The primary line constants describe the
characteristics of copper cable in terms of the electrical properties of the copper
lines. All other parameters can be derived from the primary line constants and
they are called secondary line constants and are more generally applicable.
The following table 3.1 gives the four primary line constants with their
symbols and units.
Table 3.1: Four primary line constants
Name Symbol Unit Unit symbol
Resistance R ohm per Ω/m
meter
Inductance L henries per H/m
meter
Capacitance C farads per F/m
meter
conductance G Siemens S/m
per meter

Resistance and inductance are properties of the copper conductor and
both of them are series elements of the line. Capacitance and Conductance are
properties of the dielectric material and they are shunt element of the line.
To give a true representation of a circuit, the four line constants can not be
simply represented as lumped elements, they must be described as distributed
elements. For that the elements must be made infinitesimally small so that each
element is distributed along the line as shown in the fig. The infinitesimal
elements in an infinitesimal distance ‘dx `are given by,
= lim → ( )= ------ (3.3)
= lim → ( )= ----- (3.4)
= lim → ( )= ----- (3.5)
= lim → ( )= ----- (3.6)
Fig 3.3(a) represents the equivalent circuit of a transmission line using
distributed elements.
Now series impedance Z and shunt admittance Y elements are represented
as,
=( + ) = ----- (3.7)
=( + ) = ----- (3.8)
Fig 3.3(b) represents a transmission line using generalized distributed
impedance and admittance elements.

Fig 3.3(a): Equivalent circuit of a transmission line
Fig 3.3(b): Transmission line with generalized distributed impedance and admittance
elements
3.5.2 Secondary line constants
Secondary line constants are derived from primary line constants [3]. They
are:
• Characteristic impedance
The most important electrical characteristic of a copper cable is its
characteristic impedance (Z0). Z0 is the input impedance considering the length
of the cable as infinite. It is a complex quantity. Mathematically, characteristic
impedance is expressed as

Z0 = /
Or, Z0= ( + !")/(# + !$) ------- (3.9)
where, Z= R+jωL (Ω/m) = series impedance per unit length
Y= G+jωC (S/m) = shunt admittance per unit length
• Propagation Constant
The propagation constant is another important characteristic of a copper
cable. It is also a complex quantity. It is mathematically expressed as,
%=√ ------ (3.10)
The real part of propagation constant is called the attenuation constant ‘α’ and
is measured in nepers per length. The quadrature part is called the phase
constant ‘β’ and is measured in radians per unit length. Thus,
% = ( + ) ------ (3.11)
For Twisted Pair Cable,
%≈ !$ ----- (3.12)
!$
(≈+ ,
------ (3.13)
!$
)≈+ ,
----- (3.14)
- ≈ +.!$ = +,!$ − .+,!$ ----- (3.15)

For co-axial cable,
% ≈ .!√"$ ----- (3.16)
"#0 $ 1
(≈ ,√"$
= ,( -# + )≈, ------ (3.17)
- -
) ≈ !√"$ ----- (3.18)
"
- ≈ + ----- (3.19)
$
3.5.3 Cross-talk
Cross-talk is the interference produced by the signal of one wire on the
signal of another wire [4]. Cross-talk is produced through capacitive, inductive
couplings between wires. It is measured in decibels (dB). Different types of
cross-talk are defined below:
• NEXT: When cross-talk is measured at the end closest to the transmitter,

it is called the NEXT (Near End Cross-talk).
• FEXT: When cross-talk is measured at the end farthest from the

transmitter, it is called the FEXT (Far End Cross-talk).
• PS: When all possible combinations of interference from adjacent cable

pairs are added up, it is called PS (Power Sum). .
• ELFEXT: ELEXT is Equal Level Far End Cross-talk. It is subtracted

attenuation of a signal due to cable length.

3.5.4 Return Loss
When a signal travels down a cable and there is an impedance mismatch
between the cable and its connecting hardware, noise occurs and it is called
Return Loss [4]. The greater is the impedance mismatch, the more is the noise.
When the cable and the connecting hardware have the same impedance, there
is no return loss. It is expressed in decibels (dB).
3.5.5 Delay Skew
A copper cable consists of 4 pairs of twisted wires, which may have a slight
difference in length. For this reason, the time taken by a signal to travel down a
copper cable’s wires may be different. The time difference between the fastest
and slowest pairs is known as delay skew [4]. Delay skew is undesirable,
because too great delay skew can create errors.
3.6 Twisted pair cable parameters
• Loop resistance
Loop resistance is the total resistance of the conductors for a particular
length. It is twice the resistance of one individual conductor. Cable diameters
are generally expressed in millimeters or American Wire Gage (AWG).
• Mutual capacitance
The mutual conductance of the cable depends upon the conductor
geometry and the dielectric constant of the insulation.

The characteristic impedance of the twisted pair cable is given by the
formula [1],
,23 ,8
- = 567 ----- (3.20)
√4 9
Where, ‘k’ is the dielectric constant of the insulation, ‘s’ is the conductor
spacing and ‘d’ is the conductor diameter.
3.7 Co-axial cable parameters
The most common electrical property of co-axial cable is characteristic
impedance. The mathematical formula for determining the characteristic
impedance of co-axial cable is [5],
?
- = 1:; × => × 567 1- (9 ) ------ (3.21)
Where, VP =velocity of propagation
D =Diameter of the dielectric
d = Diameter of the conductor
Co-axial cables are typically designed as 50Ω, 75Ω and 93Ω depending
upon applications.

• Capacitance
Capacitance is the ability of the cable to hold a charge. The mathematical
formula for the capacitance of a co-axial cable is [5],
2.:3×AB
$= ? ----- (3.22)
5671-
9
Where, AB = dielectric constant
The value of the capacitance is length dependent and is expressed in pF/m.
• Power rating
The power rating of a co-axial cable is proportional to the cable diameter [5].
Power rating increases with the increase of the diameter and decreases with
the decrease of the diameter.
3.8 Fiber Cable characteristics
Some of the important optical fiber characteristics are described briefly:
• Numerical Aperture (NA)
Mathematically, Numerical Aperture of an optical fiber is defined as [6],
NA= sin θ0 (max) = √(µ12-µ22)/µ0 ----- (3.23)
Where, θ0 = the acceptance angle of the fiber
µ1 = refractive index of the core
µ2 = refractive index of the cladding

If the fiber is surrounded by air (µ0=1),
then NA =√(µ12-µ22) ----- (3.24)
• Acceptance Cone and Acceptance Angle of a Fiber
The fundamental property of light propagation in a fiber is the light which
travels within a cone defined by the acceptance angle is trapped and guided.
That cone is referred to as acceptance cone.
Any light wave impinging on the core within the maximum external incident
angle θ0 corresponding to the critical angle of incidence θc at the core-cladding
interface of the fiber is coupled into the fiber and will propagate. This angle is
called the acceptance angle and is different for different fibers. Acceptance
angle depends on the fiber material and core diameter.
• V- number of a fiber
The number of modes supported by a fiber is determined by its V- number.
V- number is also called “cut-off parameter” or “normalized frequency of cut-off”.
The mathematical expression for the V- number [6] is
V ≅ (Dd)λ0 NA---- (3.25)
Where, d= core diameter
λ0 = wavelength of the incident light
The approximate number of modes supported by a fiber is Number of
modes ≅ ½ V2, provided the V- number is considerably larger than unity.

• Modal dispersion
In multimode fiber, different modes travelling with different velocities may
result in modal dispersion at the destination. There is no modal dispersion in
single mode fibers, because they support only one mode. Modal dispersion is
measured in nanoseconds per kilometer (ns/km). There are two types of
multimode fiber: Step-index fiber and graded–index fiber. Modal dispersion is
reduced in graded-index fiber than step–index fiber.
3.9 Shielding of a cable
Shielding is placed over the conductors and under the cable jacket and
typically it is a metallic layer. Shielding protects the cable from outside EMI and
also prevents cross-talk between cable conductors [7].
Common Types of Shielding are:
• Foil / myler shield: This type of shielding provides a good resistance to
EMI and is common for most serial and printer cables.
• Foil / myler plus braid (Double shield): This type of shielding is an
excellent resistance to EMI and common for VSB, Firewire and high end
serial and parallel cables. A braid shield is finely stranded wires
interwoven in a cylindrical form.
• Spiral shield: This type shielding also provides excellent resistance to
EMI and typically found in highly flexible cables. Spiral shield is similar to
a braid shield, the only difference is that the finely stranded wires are
applied spirally instead of interwoven.

3.10 Cable Jacket
Cable Jacket is the outermost protective covering of a cable over the
shielding and/or inner conductors [7]. Different cable materials include:
• Polyvinylchloride (PVC): PVC is the most common material used for
cable jacket with low cost. It is typically rated for temperature ranges of -
200C to 800C.
• Teflon: Teflon is expensive, but it is good electrical insulator. It provides
resistance to chemical splash and high heat conditions. Typical
temperature rating is -700C to 200oC.
• Low Smoke Zero Halogen (LSZH): LSZH is a thermoplastic compound.
It reduces the amount of toxic gases and corrosive gases emitted during
combustion. It is generally used in poorly ventilated areas. Typical
temperature rating is -200C to 800C.
• Plenum: Plenum has highest flame resistance, but it can emit toxic and
corrosive gases during combustion. Plenum can be made from materials
including Teflon and specially treated PVC. Depending upon the used
material, the temperature ranges vary.
3.11 Physical characteristics of a cable
Physical characteristics of a cable basically include Physical Dimensions,
Temperature Rating, Bend Radius, Flex Radius, Pulling Tension. Physical
dimensions are diameters of the wire conductors, jackets.

3.11.1 Wire (Conductor) Size
Wire size is normally expressed as AWG (American Wire Gauge) numbers.
As the AWG number gets larger, the wire diameter gets smaller [7]. For
example, 22 AWG wire has large diameter than 24 AWG wire.
3.11.2 Wire Current Carrying Capacity
The current carrying capacity of a wire mainly depends upon wire AWG,
temperature, insulating material and the number of bundled wires in a cable [7].
The following table 3.2(a) gives an idea to calculate the current rating of a
cable. In the table, figures are based on 300C ambient temperature and ‘X’ is
the Current Reduction Factor.
Reduction Factors apply when conductors are bundled. The following table
3.2(b) gives the reduction factor for bundled conductors.
Table 3.2(a)
Insulation
Material Wire Size
30 28 26 24 22 20 18
AWG AWG AWG AWG AWG AWG AWG
PVC 2X 3X 4X 6X 8X 10X 15X
LSZH 3X 4X 5X 7X 9X 12X 17X
Plenum 3X 5X 6X 8X 11X 14X 20X

Table 3.2(b)
Bundled conductors Reduction factor(X)
2-5 0.8
6-15 0.7
16-30 0.5
Formula: Wire Size/Insulation material value × current reduction factor(X)
=Current in amperes per conductor.
For example, if the cable is a 24 AWG, PVC cable with 9 conductors, then the
current rating= 6×0.7=3.2 amp/conductor.
3.11.3 Temperature Rating
Temperature Rating is the safe range of temperature for a cable, which is
based upon the thermal properties of the dielectric and jacket material [5]. It
gives the limitations on temperature extremes that a cable structure can handle
without any deformation, melting or fracture of it.
3.11.4 Bend radius and Flex radius
Bend radius for permanent install and flex radius for flexing [5].
3.11.5 Pulling Tension
Pulling Tension gives the maximum load bearing weight of a cable. Its value is
well below the break strength of the cable [5].

References
[1] Bdwin Wright, Deon Reynders,‘Practical Telecommunications and Wireless

Communications for Business and Industry’, IDC Technologies, 2004.
[2] Behrouz A Forouzan, ‘Data Communications and Networking’, Tata

McGraw-Hill, 2008.
[3] ‘Primary line constants’ –Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
[4] ‘Cable Characteristics’, http://www.iphelp.ru/faq/36/cho7levl1sec4.html
[5] Martin J. Van Der Burgt, ‘Coaxial Cables and Applications’, Balden
Electronics Division.
[6] Subir Kumar Sarkar, ‘Optical Fibres and Fibre Optic Communication
Systems’, S. Chand, 2001.
[7] ‘Understanding Data Cable Characteristics’, www.I-com.com

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Cable Characteristics

Chapter 3: Cable Characteristics

through networking cable. Networking cable is the transmission medium to

expenditure also. For developing a successful network, it is important to

related to a particular type of network.

3.1 Components of Twisted Pair cable

Fig 3.1: Twisted-pair construction

The components of a twisted pair cable are:

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 76

group. A cable is made of numbers of binder groups wrapped around each

number of pairs in each binder group.

Each of the conductors in a twisted pair cable is surrounded by a color

Violet in sequence to identify which group of five pairs. The B-leg is

consecutively coded Blue, Orange, Green, Brown and Slate.

The sheath of the cable is made of polyvinylchloride (PVC) or polyethylene

(PE), in which the wire cables are encased.

3.2 Co-axial cable components

A co-axial cable has the following concentric or co-axial components [1] as

shown in the fig 3.2.

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 77

is an important factor which determines the attenuation of the signal over

Fig 3.2: Co-axial cable components

There is an insulation layer consisting of a dielectric material around the

consists of aluminum bonded to both sides of a mylar tape.

which is made of copper or aluminum. The braid conductor is normally

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 78

protects the signal wire from EMI and RFI.

usually made of polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

3.3 Fiber Optic cable components

A fiber optic cable has the following components [1]:

single mode cable, core size is 8.5µm.

The coating is a plastic layer surrounding the cladding, which helps to

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 79

and tight buffer.

Strength members of an optical fiber are strands of some very tough

3.4 General Cable characteristics

They are attenuation and bandwidth [2].

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal travels through a

medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 80

transmission of a signal is decibel (dB).

dB = 10 log10(Pr /Ps) -------(3.1)

where, Pr is received signal power

Ps is transmitted signal power

Since, ∝ , dB =20 log10(V2 /V1) ------(3.2) also.

The dB will be negative if we lost power, positive if we gained power and

exactly the same if there is no change of power.

Bandwidth is a measure of network performance. In networking, the term

bandwidth is used in two contexts.

# Bandwidth in hertz, which refers to the range of frequencies contained in a

composite signal or the range of frequencies that a channel can pass. It is

generally expressed in KHz (kilohertz), MHz (megahertz).

# Bandwidth in bits per second, which refers to the speed of transmission of

(mega bits per second), Gbps (giga bits per second).

Different types of cables support different bandwidths.

A Study on Effect of AC Power Lines on UTP cable: A Thesis Page 81

3.5 Copper Cable Characteristics

3.5.1 Transmission line theory for copper cable