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PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Thirty-Fourth Annual Convention & Exhibition May 2010

A STRUCTURAL RE-EVALUATION OF THE NORTH BANGGAI-SULA AREA,

EASTERN INDONESIA

Farid Ferdian*,**
Robert Hall**
Ian Watkinson**

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

Interpretation of new high quality multibeam and The north Banggai-Sula study area is located in the
2D seismic data from the north Banggai-Sula area, eastern part of Indonesia which is known for its
which lies in eastern Indonesia between Sulawesi geological complexity in the zone of convergence
and the Banda Sea, has led to a better understanding between the Pacific, Philippine Sea, Indo-Australian
of this previously poorly explored area. A new and Eurasian plates (Figure 1). It includes the
structural map differs significantly from previous Banggai-Sula microcontinent in the south, the East
interpretations. There is no evidence of the Arm of Sulawesi and Gorontalo Bay in the west,
continuous E-W-trending North Sula-Sorong Fault and the Molucca Sea Collision Zone to the north.
shown on many maps; if it exists it terminates The Banggai-Sula microcontinent has been
between Obi and Mangole, at the eastern end of the interpreted to have separated from Australia in the
Sula Islands. The NW-trending Greyhound Strait Mesozoic (Hamilton, 1979; Pigram et al., 1985;
fault, previously considered to lie between the Garrard et al., 1988) before it collided with the East
Banggai and Sula Islands, has no seafloor Arm of Sulawesi proposed by different authors to
expression, and cannot be identified in the study be Middle Miocene (Simandjuntak, 1986), Middle
area. A zone of broadly south-directed thrusting, Miocene to Pliocene (Garrard et al., 1988), Late
previously termed the Sula Thrust, lies along the Miocene (Hamilton, 1979), or end Miocene
foot of the north-dipping continental slope. (Davies, 1990).
However, it is diffuse, variable in orientation and
genesis, and no major through-going thrust zone The boundary and relationship between the
exists. Northwest of Taliabu, thrusting is related to a Banggai-Sula microcontinent and the area to the
transpressive dextral strike-slip fault system, north are still not well known. Current knowledge is
probably the termination of a WNW-trending strike- based on marine geophysical surveys conducted in
slip fault which crosses Sulawesi’s Poh Head. To the late 1970s and early 1980s (e.g. Silver & Moore,
the east, north of Mangole, thrusting is related to 1978, McCaffrey, 1982; Silver et al., 1983).
convergence between a complexly deformed wedge Recently acquired seismic and multibeam data offer
of sediments squeezed out of the Molucca Sea the opportunity to re-examine this area.
collisional zone, and the continental slope. The
Banggai-Sula microcontinental margin has been STRATIGRAPHY
tilted northwards under this south-propagating
wedge, causing large fragments of the slope to slide Published seismic lines across the northern
into the deep basin to the north. Significant Banggai-Sula margin (Silver et al., 1983; Garrard et
subsidence is indicated by probable Miocene al., 1988) show strata which dip gently north, and
platform carbonates now at water depths of more appear to be continuous with Mesozoic sedimentary
than 1 km. There are possible carbonate and clastic rocks exposed on Banggai, Taliabu and Mangole,
hydrocarbon reservoirs, associated with abundant immediately south of the study area. The geology
shales that are potential source rocks, which could (Figure 2) and stratigraphy (Figure 3) of these
also provide seals. Widespread faulting, folding and islands has been described by Sato et al. (1978),
inversion mean that numerous small but viable Pigram et al. (1985), Garrard et al. (1988),
hydrocarbon targets may exist. Supandjono & Haryono (1993), and Surono &
Sukarna (1993). The summary here is based on
* Niko Resources Ltd.
** Royal Holloway University of London
these studies. The islands have a basement of
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metamorphic rocks of Carboniferous or greater age, the Togian Islands (Cottam et al., 2010) is a
intruded by Permo-Triassic granites associated with volcanic rocks basement, overlain by Middle
acid volcanic rocks of similar age. In a few places Miocene limestones, Pliocene volcaniclastic rocks
there are Triassic limestones and dolomites. and the Pliocene Bongka Formation, part of the
Terrestrial conglomerates and sandstones, typically Celebes Molasse (Sarasin & Sarasin 1901; van
quartz-rich, of the probable Lower Jurassic Bobong Bemmelen 1949) which is well exposed in the East
Formation are exposed in fault-bounded areas on Arm where it consists of weakly consolidated
Taliabu, Peleng and Banggai. Minor coals have alluvial fan and coastal fan delta deposits derived
been reported from the undated Kabauw Formation from an ophiolitic source.
thought to be the equivalent of the Bobong
Formation on Mangole and Sulabesi. From Taliabu DATASET
Liassic marine strata with molluscs and echinoid
fragments are assigned to the Bobong Formation. This study is based upon geophysical data acquired
Black shales of the mainly Middle Jurassic to from the offshore area immediately north of the
Lower Cretaceous Buya Formation are interpreted islands of Taliabu and Mangole, part of the Sula
to overlie the Bobong Formation. It is overlain by group, just northeast of the Banggai Islands, and
carbonates of the poorly dated Upper Cretaceous to east of the East Arm of Sulawesi. Sixteen N-S-
Paleocene Tanamu Formation. The Tanamu trending lines and one E-W-trending seismic line,
Formation was deposited at depths greater than acquired in 2007 and provided by TGS-NOPEC
200m and is dominated by carbonate mudstones Geophysical Company, were used in this study.
with planktonic foraminifera. It is interpreted to rest Additionally, about 22,000 km2 of high resolution
conformably on the Buya Formation although the multibeam bathymetric data (Orange et al., 2009)
contact may be paraconformable with a significant acquired at the same time, covering most of the
time-break. At the western end of the Banggai-Sula areas crossed by the seismic lines, have been
islands are widespread carbonates assigned to the interpreted. The seismic lines were interpreted using
Eocene to Lower Miocene Salodik Formation and Petrel and the multibeam data were studied using
the Pliocene Peleng Formation which cover most of ER Mapper and ArcGIS. The water depths in the
Banggai and Peleng. There are abundant Quaternary study area range from about 100 m to 3.5 km. The
limestones in these islands. In the Sula islands area covered is shown in Figure 4.
(Talaibu, Mangole and Sulabesi) Cenozoic
carbonates are almost entirely absent. RESULTS

To the northeast of the Sula Islands is the Molucca Lineament Map

Sea collision complex. This represents the colliding
forearcs of the Halmahera and Sangihe arcs. The Multibeam bathymetric data were combined with a
collision complex is almost entirely submerged but digital elevation model generated from Satellite
studies of the small central Molucca Sea islands, Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) Version 2 data
North Sulawesi and Halmahera indicate that this for onshore parts of the Banggai-Sula Islands and
region probably has an ophiolitic and volcanic arc East Sulawesi. A lineament map from these sources
basement overlain by deformed volcaniclastic was derived using ArcGIS and then manually
sediments of Miocene to Recent age (e.g. Silver & checked and provides part of the basis for the
Moore, 1978; Hall, 2000). structural interpretations presented here (Figure 5).
The lineaments are surface features which may be
West and northwest of the Banggai Islands is the the expression of a variety of structural features
East Arm of Sulawesi. Immediately to the west is a including underlying faults, fractures, bedding
collision complex, including Mesozoic sediments terminations and anticlinal and synclinal axes. In
and Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene carbonates, some cases, seafloor lineaments can be traced into
interpreted by different authors to have formed the subsurface on the seismic lines to help identify
during the Early Miocene to Pliocene (Kündig, what they represent, but much of the widespread
1956; Hamilton, 1979; Simandjuntak, 1986; deformation obvious on the sea floor is not fully
Garrard et al., 1988; Davies, 1990). Poh Head, at imaged in the seismic data. The wide spacing and
the easternmost end of the East Arm, is in fault orientation of the seismic lines means that the origin
contact with the collision complex, and has a of many lineaments cannot be identified. Some
basement of ophiolitic rocks overlain by Pliocene lineaments can be traced from offshore to onshore,
volcaniclastic sediments of the Lonsio Formation for example, the major lineament trend in the west
(Rusmana et al., 1982, 1993). A little further east in of the area is similar to, and along strike from
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lineaments of East Arm of Sulawesi. It is likely that of the slope area detach on the Buya Formation and
these are related to the same structural feature. within the Tanamu Formation (Figure 6A). These
are interpreted as slope failures caused by tilting of
The study area can be divided into four distinct the northern Banggai-Sula margin under loading. A
structural provinces (Figure 5) based on the seafloor smooth surfaced, bedding-parallel, 20-40 km wide
multibeam characteristics (Figure 4): (1) South area north-dipping scarp is interpreted to be an exposed
(Banggai-Sula margin), (2) West area (offshore of detachment surface. At its foot is a debris field
the East Arm of Sulawesi), (3) Middle area (central extending across the basin floor, which includes
depression) and (4) East area (south end of the irregular fragments up to 2 km across, which are the
Molucca Sea collision zone). A number of key remains of the hanging wall slab. North-south-
features in each area are described and interpreted trending steep scarps alongside the detachment
below in order to illustrate the structure of each surface are oblique normal faults which
province. These are illustrated by detailed accommodated the downslope motion of the slab.
multibeam images (Figure 6) and selected seismic Other smaller scarps have also formed along the
lines (Figures 7, 8 and 9). tilted margin which have the same origin.

South Area (Banggai-Sula Margin) West Area (Offshore East Arm of Sulawesi)

The Banggai-Sula margin is largely underlain by A series of south-verging thrusts (Figure 6B) in the
sub-parallel strata that dip gently north, which are western area lie along the Banggai-Sula margin NE
continuous with Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of Peleng, and overthrust the north-dipping strata of
exposed on the Banggai Islands, Taliabu and the Banggai-Sula margin. They have a duplex
Mangole. geometry, though it is unclear whether they root
into a detachment surface. Most of the thrusts
On a few seismic lines there are apparent syn-rift propagate to the seabed, suggesting that they have
packages (Figure 7A), that thicken towards been recently active. These thrusts are related to a
probable extensional faults, interpreted as Bobong NW-SE-trending en-echelon dextral strike-slip fault
Formation sandstones and conglomerates above system where the thrusts act as compressional
crystalline basement. The orientation of the faults is splays and restraining stepovers of the dextral
not known because of the wide spacing of the N-S faults. Despite their clear expression on the seabed,
lines and the faults cannot be traced between lines. the dextral faults are not resolved on seismic lines.
Most obvious on most of the N-S seismic lines are
two well bedded sequences dipping north (Figure North of, and parallel to, the strike-slip system is a
7A). A lower westward-thinning package with prominent WNW-trending lineament (Figure 6B).
stronger reflectors is interpreted as black shales of Its westward termination is not seen on the
the Jurassic Buya Formation, and the overlying multibeam images, and it is likely that it, and one or
sequence is interpreted as deeper water carbonates more of the dextral faults continue for some
of the Upper Cretaceous Tanamu Formation. There distance towards Sulawesi in the west. They are
is no evidence of an angular unconformity between along strike from the Balantak Fault of the East
these two formations. In the west of the study area, Arm, which is associated with many WNW-
these formations are thinner or absent, and trending lineaments in the Poh Head-Balantak area.
unconformably above them or above basement, are The Balantak Fault separates the mountainous
a series of bright continuous reflectors (Figures 7B Balantak area in the northern peninsula from lower
and C), interpreted as the Eocene to Recent shallow ground to the south. Although the Balantak Fault is
water carbonates (Garrard et al., 1988, Supandjono commonly inferred to be a thrust, its straight
& Haryono, 1993, Surono & Sukarna, 1993). They topographic expression onshore is quite unlike a
have a maximum thickness of about 1 sec two-way- typical thrust. Simandjuntak (1989) observed a
time (TWT). The carbonates are not seen on most of steep fault and dextral displacement indicators in a
the N-S lines north of Taliabu and Mangole. fault zone crossing Poh Head. Satellite images and
our field observations suggest it is a steeply
The northern Banggai-Sula margin dips north. dipping, right-lateral, strike-slip fault system that
North-dipping thrusts have carried wedges of passes WNW into Teluk Poh (Cottam et al., 2010)
sediment southward onto the margin (Figures 7A
and D). The slope dips more steeply in the east, Offshore east of Poh Head, north-verging thrusts
with more channelised features observed in the occur in the north of the west area (Figure 8A).
west. North-dipping gravitational slides in the east Most do not reach the seabed, and are probably
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significantly older than south-verging thrusts further they were deposited during compression related to
south. The northernmost thrust can be traced to the fault inversion. In places there are indications that a
seabed at the northern end of two of the western few of the north-directed thrusts have been
seismic lines and there is a steep thrust front rising reactivated.
several hundred metres, at the base of which
horizontal strata of Gorontalo Bay are seen at the In the sedimentary sequence above the thrusts a
northern end of a one seismic line (Figure 8B). On series of positive mound-like features up to 3 km
some lines the deformed sequence resembles the wide and 0.5 s TWT high cap the faults (Figure
tilted Mesozoic sequence of north Banggai-Sula 8A). They have dim internal reflectors, calculated
margin in the south area. It is well bedded with a interval velocities of 1.6-1.8 km/s, and some emerge
lower package with stronger reflectors and the on the seabed at a depth of 3 s TWT. In some areas
thickness is similar to that of the interpreted Jurassic reflectors can be traced into the mounds but in other
Buya Formation and Cretaceous Tanamu Formation cases slumped horizons terminate against them and
further south. This is the only part of the area in some undisrupted parallel reflectors onlap them,
which north-directed thrusting is found. suggesting they formed elevated features on the
seabed. In some places fluid escape features can be
At the western edge of the multibeam image, in traced upwards from small thrusts (Figure 8D) and
shallower water of about 1 km depth, is a prominent in other places the lower parts of the mounds lose
feature on the seabed which resembles a carbonate their internal structure suggesting internal
platform with benches (Figure 6C). The seismic line disturbance.
just west of the multibeam image shows clear strong
flat-lying coherent reflectors typical of carbonates One possible interpretation of the mounds,
(Figure 8C). These interpreted carbonates are in suggested by their geometry and position east of the
water depths of at least 1 km and have no sediment carbonate platform, is that they could be carbonate
cover, indicating significant subsidence since their build-ups that formed and subsided earlier, or they
formation. The carbonates are flat lying and are redeposited carbonates carried down-slope from
undeformed and rest unconformably on the the platform. The small difference in velocities
deformed sequence with north-directed thrusts. We between the mounds and adjacent well bedded
suggest a possible Middle-Late Miocene age similar sediments supports this. An alternative explanation
to flat-lying shallow water carbonates found in the is that they represent a sequence of muds into which
Togian Islands further west and north of the East fluids have escaped from the underlying thrusts and
Arm. which may have formed sea floor edifices in places.
Distal alluvial deposits in the Togian islands
East of the carbonate platform the north-verging (Cottam et al., 2010) include plant-rich serpentinite-
thrusts are overlain by about 1 s TWT of generally rich sands and muds and the rapid Pliocene uplift of
well-bedded sediment with calculated interval the East Arm suggests that similar muds would have
velocities of 1.5-1.7 km/s (Figure 8A). These been carried into deep water from the East Arm.
sediments did not cross the carbonate platform, nor
could they have come across Gorontalo Bay from Middle Area (Central Depression)
the north. Gorontalo Bay sediments are much
deeper and seen on the northern end of the longest The middle area is a broad area where water depths
seismic lines to onlap the base of the frontal thrust exceed 2500 m. It is also the least deformed part of
scarp. The most likely source is from the East Arm, the study area. Because of the limited thickness and
possibly parallel to the Balantak Fault, or by- less deformation of material above the N-dipping
passing the carbonate platform on its north side. In Banggai-Sula margin strata, it is possible to trace
the west area, in the northern part of the multibeam the Mesozoic strata at depth much further to the
image there is a depression with a drainage system north in the middle area than in the east and west,
flowing north suggesting sediment movement from where thrusting disrupts the overlying sediments
the west and then north. The image also suggests and makes them acoustically opaque. This shows
sediment movement close to and around the south that these strata continue to at least 70 km north of
and north sides of the platform towards the east or the northern Banggai-Sula coast, and are not
NE. In places there are a number of small truncated by a major E-W-trending strike-slip fault,
extensional faults within the upper sequence that as has been suggested (e.g. Silver et al. 1983;
have been inverted, and hanging wall strata possess Sukamto & Simundjuntak, 1983).
a harpoon geometry. A series of coherent parallel
reflectors downlap onto the harpoon structures. Debris from the collapsed Banggai-Sula margin
Slump structures within these strata indicate that slope (described above in the section on the south
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area) covers an area of sea floor >1000 km2 in the edge of the collision complex. These thrusts can
central depression (Figure 6A). Some of this debris also be identified on the seabed, where they trend
has been involved in south-directed thrusting close ENE. They lie at the end of, and curve into
to the foot of the slope. parallelism with a prominent, curvilinear system of
fractures on the seabed. Oblique, anti-clockwise
Broadly south-verging thrusts with piggy-back rotated lineaments along the fracture zone may be
basins lie along the foot of the slope in the middle synthetic Riedel shears, suggesting that it is a
area. Dip directions range from NNW in the west to sinistral strike-slip fault. If so, the ENE-trending
NNE in the east, reflecting two different generations thrusts are part of a compressional splay at the
of thrusting. Thrusts dipping NNW are the eastern- strike-slip fault’s termination. Both these structures
most part of the dextral compressional splays which are consistent with a N-S oriented maximum
dominate the west area. Thrusts dipping NNE compressive stress, probably caused by resistance
surround the southern margin of the Molucca Sea of the southern edge of the collision complex to its
collisional zone, and are interpreted to have formed southwards progress away from the closing
as a result of the southward propagation of this Molucca Sea (e.g. Silver & Moore, 1978, Silver et
material towards the Banggai-Sula margin (Silver & al., 1983).
Moore, 1978; Silver, 1981; Silver et al., 1983).
Many of the more continuous lineaments on the
East Area (south end of the Molucca Sea
plateau top also show features in plan view which
collisional zone)
are characteristic of strike-slip faults: arrays of en-
The eastern side of the study area, north of echelon Riedel shears; conjugate pairs intersecting
Mangole, lies at the southern end of the Molucca at about 60°; step-overs associated with small
Sea collisional zone, where there is a highly depressions or flat-topped basins or elevated, folded
deformed and elevated pile of sediments which is topography; narrow zones of intense, anatomising
being extruded southwards from the closing fractures; and terminal splays. Positive flower
Molucca Sea (e.g. Silver & Moore, 1978, Silver et structures can also be identified in a number of
al., 1983). The study area covers part of this seismic lines (Figure 9B) which cross the larger
collision complex, which is expressed as an faults. The geometry of each of these features can
elevated plateau with an irregular top in water be used to infer the shear sense of a strike-slip fault,
depths of 1 to 2 km (Figure 4). To its south is a and the consistency of different features along the
broad depression with water depths greater than 2.5 length of individual fault zones on the plateau top
km. The multibeam cover is incomplete in the indicates that they are likely to be genuine strike-
deepest part of the depression but water depths slip faults. However, the small size of pull-apart
reach at least 3.5 km and define an elongate deeper basins, the dominance of discontinuous features
zone trending roughly east-west that is deepest such as Riedel shears, and the common absence of a
north of Mangole and south of the highest central through-going principal displacement zone indicate
part of the collision complex. This suggests the that strain along these faults is small. This indicates
greatest depth is due to loading by the collision that the faults accommodate minor reorganisation
complex. South of the depression, the north-dipping within the deforming body rather than being
Banggai-Sula slope rises to sea level and the island significant tectonic features.
of Mangole. In many places the seismic lines show small
Multibeam imagery shows evidence of widespread extensional features, with multiple thin sediment
complex deformation (Figure 5) on top of the packages (Figure 9C), suggesting shallow
collision complex plateau (Figure 6D). Little detail accommodation of deformation in the soft
can be resolved from the disrupted and incoherent sediments of the collision complex. This is also
reflectors in seismic lines. The collision complex suggested by the lineament map of the collision
probably has a dominantly volcaniclastic complex which shows no simple or consistent
composition, since it is largely sourced from the orientation of features.
Sangihe and Halmahera arcs.
In the relatively weakly deformed deep part of the
Structures which can be identified from seismic basin, between the thrust front at the southern end
sections in this area are south-verging thrusts of the collision complex (Figure 9D) and the north-
(Figure 9A) with hanging wall piggy back basins. dipping Banggai-Sula margin, seismic reflectors are
Several episodes of thrusting can be inferred from coherent, and well bedded. This is because they are
several distinct syn-kinematic packages which less strongly deformed than the collision complex
occupy the hanging walls of thrusts on the western sediments, and may contain less volcaniclastic
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material and more detrital siliciclastic sediment, interpret it as a right-lateral strike-slip fault,
possibly derived from the Banggai-Sula Islands. A supported by field observations on land further west
series of small, south-verging thrusts can be (Simandjuntak, 1989; Cottam et al., 2010).
observed in the seismic lines, which also correlate Offshore, in the western part of the study area is a
with seabed lineaments. Unlike thrusts developed in thrust zone that is the termination of the Balantak
the west area which disrupt the Banggai-Sula Fault system. The thrusts act as compressional
stratigraphy, in this area the thrusts detach on a splays and restraining stepovers of the dextral
reflector with the Banggai-Sula dipping sequence, faults. Their age remains unclear but a Pliocene to
possibly the Tanamu Formation, which they must Recent age is probable since the main fault probably
therefore post-date. cuts Pliocene volcaniclastic rocks in Poh Head.
Although the fault zone has very clear expression
These structures have been described by Silver on the seabed it is not certain if it is active. There is
(1981) and Silver et al. (1983) as the Sula Thrust, little sediment carried from the Banggai Islands
which was interpreted to have formed a major where Quaternary carbonates fringe the islands and
boundary between the Molucca Sea collisional zone there is little indication of significant amounts of
and the Banggai-Sula margin. However, the new sediment coming from the East Arm meaning that
data suggest that in the east there is a zone of relatively old inactive structures may not be buried
diffuse thrusting immediately ahead of the beneath young sediments. There are few earth
advancing collision complex whereas to the west quakes in this area and almost all hypocentres are
the thrusts form the termination of splays of the deeper than 30 km. Fault plane solutions are
Balantak Fault. ambiguous because the fault plane orientation is not
known. For the only two shallow earthquakes
DISCUSSION beneath Poh Head in the CMT catalogue (Global
CMT, 2009), assuming a fault surface parallel to the
From this work, a new regional structural map of Balantak Fault, one (14 km depth) suggests right-
the North Banggai-Sula area has been produced lateral movement, whereas a second (12 km depth)
(Figure 10) which has significant differences from indicates a thrust with a right-lateral component.
previous interpretations (e.g. Silver, 1981; Silver et
al., 1983; Garrard et al., 1988). Batui Thrust/Poh Thrust
Many maps trace the thrust front of the East Arm
Greyhound Strait Fault through the Balantak Fault offshore into a south-
directed thrust zone that turns northwards into the
The Greyhound Strait Fault was described by Silver Molucca Sea. Silver et al. (1983) identify this
et al. (1983) as an approximately 350 km long NW- offshore as the Batui Thrust and connect it to the
trending steep fault that runs NW from between east-directed thrust in the East Arm considered to be
Banggai and Taliabu islands, crossing Gorontalo the ophiolite–microcontinent contact. Although this
Bay, to the North Arm of Sulawesi where Katili structure is seen only at the end of two seismic
(1973) identified the NW-trending Gorontalo Fault. lines, and not crossed by the multibeam image, it
Silver et al. (1983) inferred the presence of this fault can be traced in about the position mapped by
based on a scarp found on N-S seismic line in the Silver et al. (1983) on regional bathymetric maps
Taliabu shelf area and gravity data and they (e.g. GEBCO, 2009). The seismic lines show there
correlated it with the NW-trending fault in the is a steep north-facing scarp which descends in
North Arm of Sulawesi. No obvious feature appears places more than 1 km to flat lying sediments of
on regional bathymetric compilations such as the Gorontalo Bay. However, this is the northern limit
Sandwell & Smith (2009) or GEBCO (2009) data of the zone of north-directed, not south-directed,
sets. Examination of both 2D seismic and thrusting as shown by Silver et al. (1983). It is
multibeam bathymetry data set has shown no plausibly the collisional thrust front of the Banggai-
evidence for the presence of this fault within the Sula margin. If it does continue west into Poh Head,
study area. The fault would be expected to be very it is cut off by the Balantak Fault. We therefore
obvious on the multibeam images and we conclude suggest this does not join the Batui Thrust of the
it does not exist. East Arm and name it the Poh Thrust.
Balantak Fault Sorong Fault and Sula Thrust

As noted above the Balantak Fault is often Many previous studies have drawn a broadly E-W
represented as a thrust on land in Poh Head. We left-lateral strike-slip fault through all or part of the
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study area (e.g. Hamilton, 1979; Silver, 1981; Silver component of motion if the fault planes are
et al., 1983; Garrard et al., 1988) which is approximately WNW-ESE.
considered to be the continuation of the Sorong
Fault from further to the east in New Guinea. An E- Vertical motions
W trending thrust zone has been named the Sula
Thrust and has been traced along the base of the There are several features that indicate significant
north-dipping Banggai-Sula margin as the southern vertical movements of the area north of the
boundary of the Molucca Sea (Silver et al., 1983). Banggai-Sula margin. In the west area, the presence
The Sorong Fault is shown in different positions. of a carbonate platform at more than 1 km water
Sometimes it is shown to merge with the Sula depth is good evidence for significant subsidence.
Thrust and on other maps it is shown in different Such a platform could form only in the photic zone
places north of the Sula Thrust. at depths of less than 100 m in clear water (Tucker
& Wright, 1990). There are no sediments above the
There is no evidence for the Sorong Fault in the carbonate platform. If the carbonates are Middle to
study area. It is often mapped in the deep depression Late Miocene as we suggest there has been almost 1
between Mangole and the Molucca Sea collision km of post-Miocene subsidence.
complex across the whole study area where there is
no multibeam coverage but seismic lines show Tilting of the northern margin of Banggai-Sula
thrusting in this area as reported by Silver et al. platform has triggered north-directed slides causing
(1983). Although there are minor strike-slip faults large fragments of the slope to move into the deep
in and around the collision complex, some of which basin to the north. In the middle area, just at the
have the expected orientation, there is no evidence southern boundary of the central depression, a
for a major through-going fault at the surface. The northward gravitational slide has left a 20-40 km
dipping strata of the Banggai-Sula margin can be wide surface bounded by steep faults with a debris
traced north without offset beneath the collision field at its base. This suggests the tilting may be
complex on several seismic lines. Furthermore, at related to the formation of the central depression.
the western end of the study area, where there is The timing of tilting is not known. One possibility
good evidence of strike-slip faulting it is clearly is that north-directed thrusts observed in the north
right-lateral not left-lateral. Regional well-located of the west area are related to collision of the
seismicity (Engdahl et al., 1998) indicates the Banggai-Sula microcontinent and the East Arm
boundary of the west-dipping subducted Molucca ophiolite, and that tilting was caused by this
Sea slab is further north and outside the study area, collision. An alternative is that tilting is younger
suggesting a possible deep fault beneath the and is related to thrust loading by the Molucca Sea
collision complex in the position shown by collision complex and material transported SE and
McCaffrey (1982). This suggests that there is no thrust southwards from the East Arm. Both may
major strand of the Sorong Fault in the study area, have contributed.
and also that Australian continental crust continues
north beneath the Molucca Sea for at least 100 km, The failure of the slope is immediately south of the
and possibly more. central depression and the debris field at its foot
shows signs of southward thrusting. The central
In contrast, there is clearly a thrust zone at the base depression is also crossed by structures that appear
of the slope of the northern Banggai-Sula margin, as to be thrusts from the NW, suggesting a link to
mapped by Silver et al. (1983). However, this study movement on the Balantak Fault. It is also crossed
shows that it is a more complex feature than by thrusts that are SW-directed and appear to be
previously suggested. As discussed above, at the outboard of the Molucca Sea collision complex, but
west end the thrust zone is the termination of the related to it. These observations suggest the central
right-lateral Balantak Fault. In the east the thrust depression formed early, implying a pre-Pliocene
zone appears to be the expression of the southward age for its formation. The central depression is also
movement of the Molucca Sea collision complex, north of the highest elevations on Taliabu, at the
although at present thrusting is probably not active, centre of which is a basement window. The window
as indicated by the almost complete absence of is surrounded by Lower Jurassic sediments, and to
seismicity. Most of the few hypocentres on the the north on seismic lines are the north-dipping
north side of the Banggai-Sula Islands are deeper Buya and Tanamu Formations. This may indicate
than 30 km. The few shallower hypocentres (22, 25 that tilting is related to loading in the north inducing
and 26 km) in the CMT catalogue (Global CMT, flexural uplift of Taliabu further south. If this was
2009) have steep fault planes and imply a sinistral the case, it would be expected that the doming of
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Taliabu would be marked by a clear eroded wedge further exploration of the deeper Mesozoic
of clastic sediments offshore, which is not observed. sequence could be worthwhile.
However, in the east of the area the E-W elongate
depression with water depths of more than 3.5 km is CONCLUSIONS
between Mangole and the collision complex The new structural map (Figure 10) differs
suggesting loading due to southward movement of significantly from previous interpretations. There is
material from the Molucca Sea collision zone. no evidence of the continuous E-W-trending North
IMPLICATIONS FOR HYDROCARBON Sula-Sorong Fault shown on many maps. The NW-
EXPLORATION trending Greyhound Strait fault, previously
considered to lie between the Banggai and Sula
Garrard et al. (1988) reported that oil seeps have Islands, cannot be identified in the study area. The
been discovered in Taliabu and Mangole Islands, thrust zone offshore and east of Poh Head is north-
suggesting hydrocarbon generation in the vergent not south-vergent and we identify the
subsurface. There are some petroleum exploration northernmost thrust as the Poh Thrust. The Sula
possibilities in the challenging tectonic setting of Thrust is a zone of broadly south-directed thrusting
the northern Banggai-Sula margin. at the foot of the north-dipping continental slope but
no major through-going thrust exists. Northwest of
In the study area, the Bobong Formation of syn-rift Taliabu, thrusting is related to a transpressive
terrestrial conglomerates and sandstones is a dextral strike-slip fault system, at the termination of
possible reservoir. Garrard et al. (1988) reported the WNW-trending Balantak Fault. North of
average porosities for the Bobong Sandstone of Mangole, in the east, thrusting is due to southward
around 16%. Coals from this formation or its thrusting of the Molucca Sea collision complex. The
equivalent may be present and could provide a Banggai-Sula margin has been tilted northwards,
source. The organic-rich shale of the Buya possibly in several stages, and large fragments of
Formation is a possible source and seal. Garrard et the slope have slid into the deep basin to the north.
al. (1988) reported a total organic content of 1-2%. Significant subsidence is indicated by probable
The thickness of the Buya Formation Miocene platform carbonates now at water depths
(approximately 0.5-1.5 s TWT) suggests a good of more than 1 km.
sealing capability.
Without dating, interpretation of a sequence of
Eocene to Recent carbonates that rest events is inevitably speculative. Bearing this in
unconformably on the Mesozoic sequence are mind, we suggest the Taliabu basement window is a
undeformed and up to 1 s TWT thick at the western relatively old feature, perhaps as old as Eocene,
end of the Banggai-Sula Islands and could be a since in the west of the area flat-lying carbonates
suitable reservoir. rest unconformably on north-dipping Mesozoic
sediments, whereas further east carbonates are
In the offshore west area, there appear to be fluids absent. This suggests early Cenozoic tilting of the
emerging from a north-directed thrusted sequence Banggai-Sula Mesozoic sequence. We suggest an
which if collision-related would be expected to be Early Miocene collision (Kündig, 1956) between
distal parts of the Banggai-Sula continental margin. the Banggai-Sula microcontinent and the East Arm
This may indicate generation of hydrocarbons in the ophiolite and North Arm volcanic arc (Hall, 2002)
Mesozoic sequence. Just east of the East Arm this which may also have loaded the northern margin of
north-directed thrusted sequence is capped by at the microcontinent. Part of a north-directed thrust
least 0.7 s TWT of flat-lying carbonates. sequence formed during the collision is offshore
beneath flat-lying carbonates, of probable Miocene
The new structural observations and interpretations age, to the east of Poh Head. Finally, Early Pliocene
indicate that we still have much to understand about uplift of the East Arm, southward-directed thrusting
deformation timing and causes in this region. The due to movements on the Balantak Fault, and
study area is not crossed by splays of the Sorong loading due to southward movement of the Molucca
Fault Zone, which are probably south of the Sula Sea collision complex, evidently contributed to
Islands and further north in the Molucca Sea. The further tilting.
absence of major strike-slip faulting is a positive
feature as far as hydrocarbons are concerned. The ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
fact that the Banggai-Sula margin dips north under
deformed rocks, but is nowhere strongly deformed We thank TGS-NOPEC Geophysical Company for
but merely tilted close to the Sula Islands, suggests providing the seismic and multibeam dataset and
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especially Peter Baillie for his help over many

years. We thank Ian Deighton and Tanya Johnstone Hall, R. & Wilson, M. E. J. 2000. Neogene sutures
of TGS-NOPEC, Professor Chris Elders, colleagues in eastern Indonesia. Journal of Asian Earth
(John Decker, Phil Teas, Dan Orange, Mike Sciences 18, 787-814.
Cottam, Simon Suggate, Lanu Cross and Indra
Gunawan) in the SE Asia Research Group and Niko Hamilton, W. 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian
Resources Ltd (formerly Black Gold Energy), for region. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper,
assistance and discussion, and Dumex Pasaribu for 1078, 345 pp.
support. Farid Ferdian’s MSc programme at Royal
Holloway was made possible by the SE Asia Katili, J. A. 1973. On fitting certain geological and
Research Group with funds from the consortium of geophysical features of the Indonesian island arc to
oil companies who support our projects in SE Asia. the new global tectonics. In: Coleman, P. J. (Ed.),
The Western Pacific: island arcs, marginal seas,
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Cottam, M. A. & Wilson, M. E. J. (Eds.), The SE Nederlands Geologisch en Mijnbouwkundig
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Engdahl, E. R., van der Hilst, R. & Buland, R. Indonesia. In: Hayes, D. E. (Ed.), The Tectonic and
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Orange, D.L., Teas, P.A., Decker, J., Baillie, P.,
Garrard, R. A., Supandjono, J. B. & Surono 1988.
Johnstone, T. 2009. Using seaseep surveys to
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eastern Indonesia. Proceedings Indonesian
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Sula Platform, eastern Indonesia. Geology 13, 246-
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http://www.globalcmt.org/. Rusmana, E., Koswara, A. & Simandjuntak, T. O.
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altimetry: Ridge Segmentation versus spreading Silver, E. A. & Moore, J. C. 1978. The Molucca Sea
rate. Journal of Geophysical Research 114, B01411, collision zone, Indonesia. Journal of Geophysical
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geografisch - geologischen beschreibung der Insel tectonics of the collision complex in the East Arm
Celebes. Wiesbaden, Deutschland. of Sulawesi, Indonesia. PhD Thesis, University of
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Figure 1 – Location map of the study area modified from Hall (2002). Major structures in the Molucca Sea
and Banggai-Sula margin are those interpreted by Hamilton (1979) and Silver et al. (1983). Red
triangles are active volcanoes.
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Figure 2 – Simplified geological map of part of the East Arm of Sulawesi and the Banggai-Sula Islands based on Rusmana et al. (1993), Supandjono & Haryono
(1993) and Surono & Sukarna (1993). Offshore faults from Hamilton (1979), Silver et al. (1983) and Garrard et al. (1988).
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Figure 3 – Simplified stratigraphy of the principal parts of the study area. See text for details and sources.
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Figure 4 – A. Location of seismic lines and outline of the area covered by the multibeam image. B. Coloured image of multibeam bathymetric map.
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Figure 5 – A. Lineament map based on the high resolution multibeam image of seabed surface. B. Interpreted structural map based on the multibeam image and
seismic lines.
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Figure 6 – Images of different parts of the area covered by the multibeam survey. Inset map shows location.
A. Oblique view of fault surface remaining after north-dipping Mesozoic sequence of Banggai-
Sula margin detached on bedding surface and slid north to leave debris field at foot of slope. B.
South-vergent thrusts terminating NW-SE-trending dextral strike-slip fault system at foot of
Banggai-Sula margin. C. Carbonate platform, now at 1 km water depth, in NW part of study
area. Note that a different colour scheme is used for this image to enhance sea floor features;
depths are from 1 to 2.8 km. D. Part of deformed Molucca Sea collision complex.
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Figure 7 – Seismic lines crossing the Banggai-Sula margin in the south area. A. Interpreted Jurassic Buya
Fm and Cretaceous Tanamu Fm dipping north below Molucca Sea collision complex. B. Eocene
to Recent shallow water carbonates rest with a slight angular unconformity on Mesozoic
sequence. C. Detail of Eocene to Recent carbonates above Mesozoic. D. North-dipping thrusts
carry sediment southward onto north-dipping Mesozoic rocks of Banggai-Sula margin.
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Figure 8 – Seismic lines crossing the west area. A. N-verging thrusts overlain by about 1 s of well-bedded
sediment containing mound-like features. In places slumped horizons terminate at mounds. B.
Steep thrust front rising several hundred metres with horizontal strata at its base. C. Flat-lying
carbonates of platform shown in Figure 6C resting unconformably on deformed Mesozoic
sequence. D. Fluid escape features above thrusts and internal disturbance due to fluid
movement.
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Figure 9 – Seismic lines crossing the Molucca Sea collision complex in the east area. A. south-verging
thrusts with hanging wall piggy back basins. B. Positive flower structures. C. Small extensional
features, with multiple thin sediment packages. D. Thrust front at the southern end of the
collision complex and the north-dipping Banggai-Sula margin.
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Figure 10 – New structural map of the study area which should be compared to Figures 1 and 2. In the NE, thrusts at the southern side of the Molucca Sea
collision complex are interpreted to link to the north to the East Sangihe and Halmahera Thrusts. The dextral Balantak Fault crosses Poh Head and
then horsetails into a number of splays terminated in E- to ENE-trending thrusts. The Poh Fault is a north-vergent thrust zone at the northern edge of
deformed Mesozoic rocks of the Banggai-Sula margin. There is no major E-W strand of the sinistral Sorong strike-slip fault nor is there a NW-
trending Greyhound Strait Fault in the study area.