Abstract

This paper discusses the changes in the world created by technology which leads
to the discussion of the changes within the current student population and the role
technology has played. It then covers how the changes being made in society have
affected the requirements for graduates entering into the work force. These
requirements bring into light the fact that technology integration can play a large
role in changing our learning environments to better support the development of
higher-level thinking skills needed by the 21st century. This leads to the discussion
of emerging learning theories. Situated Cognition, Distributed Cognition and
Socially-Shared Cognition are discussed in regards to the creation of learning
environments which support higher-level learning skills.

keywords: distributed cognition, situated cognition, socially-shared cognition, communities

of learners, emerging theories of learning

Introduction
The world is changing and the requirements for people entering into this world are
different than they have been in the past. This paper will look at what this major change is,
what these new requirements are and the impact they have had on the theories about
learning.

Why new theories are emerging and what technology can do to help
Many reasons could exist for a new theory to be developed. Perhaps an older theory
doesn’t quite answer questions about learners or maybe the old theory leaves out an
explanation for cognition within the brain. For the purpose of this paper though, the author
has chosen to discuss reasons connected to a change in the world that is having an effect
on nearly every aspect of society. This aspect is technology (Fouts, 2000).

What is happening to make educators think that a change is needed?

The main reasons educators would believe that change is needed are that they can
see a change in the current student population, and they can also see a change in the
requirements of our new world. Students are facing an entirely different world than the
generations before (Fouts, 2000). This generation of students differs in many ways, but
one thing which stands out is that they have more access to technology than previous
generations (Eugene, et al, 2004). For example research has found that quite a few first
grade aged students use a computer on a weekly basis during the summer
holidays. Researchers have also found that by the year 1999, a surprisingly large
percentage (97%) of kindergarteners had access to computers at home or
school. Statistically, even lower income students that might not have access to technology
at home find a way to make use of it, by either going to a library, their school, or to a
friend’s house (Eugene, et al, 2004). These statistics clearly show that technology plays a
very important role in students’ lives. It also helps to clarify why educators believe a change
is needed in the way teaching and learning occurs. If students are so engrossed in the use
of technology outside of the classroom, they obviously value it. It would then be logical to
say that if technology were integrated into the classroom the learning environment would
be more relevant to the current student population. Why are children of today becoming so
engrossed in the use of technology at such an early age?

The world we live in has become a technical world. Nearly all aspects of society have
been influenced by technology (Fouts, 2000). According to Research on computers and
education: Past, present and future,

The fact that virtually all segments of society have changed dramatically by
information technologies and will continue to change in the future cannot be

ignored. Schools must be a part of these changes and research should

proceed with the assumption that technology is and will continue to be a

growing element within the schools (Fouts, 2000, p. 33).

This is the main reason the student population is so interested in the use of

technology. It is impossible to grow up in a world that has become technological in nature

and not be influenced by it.

As stated above the world we live in has been changed dramatically by information

technologies. What does this mean for young adults entering into the workplace of the

21st century? What are the requirements of this century and how can the integration of

technology help? The requirements of the 21st century are dramatically different than

those of previous times. In fact, core subject knowledge is no longer enough, students

need higher-level learning skills. The demands of the 21st century require young adults to

be able to “use their knowledge and skills—by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new

situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating,

solving problems, making decisions” (Honey, et al, 2003, p. 9). Not only does the

21st century demand these high-learning skills, they are needed to be successful in this ever

changing world that we live in. Authors of Computers in the classroom: The impact of
technology on student learning state:

The world in which we live is increasingly sophisticated, multifaceted and

nuanced. People need high-level learning skills to respond, learn and adjust to ever-
changing circumstances. As the world grows increasingly complex success and
 prosperity will be linked to people’s ability to think, act, adapt and communicate

creatively (Stratham & Torell, 1996, p. 24).

In order to prepare students for the demands of this new century change in the
way teaching and learning occurs must take place. Learning environments must
become more authentic, by giving students the opportunities to use higher order
thinking and problem solving skills connected to real world applications (Fouts,
2000). It is this need along with the change in the current student population that
has led to the rethinking of learning theories and the revamping of learning
environments. These new theories whose foundations are based on older
educational theories are vastly different in their methods of teaching and learning.

What can technology do to help?

Technology integration, if done properly, can do many things to help in the

process of creating more authentic learning environments and more. Many of the studies

report, if the learning environment is technologically rich, it can increase self-esteem and

enthusiasm for learning (Fouts, 2000). This can lead to more positive attitudes for learning,

as well as lower absentee and dropout rates. In fact, one study proved that having a more

technologically rich learning environment eventually lead to a higher rate in college

attendance and scholarships (Stratham & Torell, 1996). This is great news for today’s

students if they are lucky enough to have learning environments that are rich in technology.

Studies show that technologically rich learning environments provide for better development

of life skills. These skills include organizational, problem solving, inquiry, and collaboration

skills. The learning environment is improved by providing more cooperative learning and

reduced competition (Stratham & Torell, 1996). Research also has shown that technology

integration increases the chance of interaction within the learning environment (Keengwe,
et al, 2008). “Because many new technologies are interactive, it is now easier to create

environments in which students can learn by doing, receive feedback, and continually refine

their understanding and build new knowledge” (Fouts, 2000, p. 11). It is these new
environments, which have so much interaction between the participants in the learning

community, that emerging theories on learning support and try to create.

Emerging theories that support the use of technology and help to create more
authentic learning environments
Situated cognition
Situated Cognition is a learning theory which supports the idea that learning occurs
only when situated within a specific context. It believes that learning takes place in a
learning community or community of practice, where the learners take an active role in the
learning community. It involves a process of interaction between the learners within the
community, the tools available within the specific situation and the physical world. It is
within this active participation, this interaction (whether with tools, artifacts or other
people), where knowledge is located. Therefore knowing evolves as the learners participate
and interact within the new situation. Cognition is linked to the action the learners in the
community take, whether it is physical in nature or a reflective process within the learners
themselves (Myers & Wilson, 2000). Wilson and Meyers put it this way, “the development of
knowledge and competence, like the development of language, involves continued
knowledge-using activity in authentic situations” (Myers & Wilson, 2000, p. 71). Situated
Cognition also takes into account the culture of the community at large and “treats culture
as a powerful mediator of learning and practices, both for students and teachers (Myers &
Wilson, 2000, p. 83).” Basically, a program based on this theory will not be successful if the
larger communities, outside the learning environment, culture is not considered, as it can
define what may be possible within the learning environment (Myers & Wilson, 2000). The
main points to remember about situated cognition for the purpose of this paper are that
“knowing, learning and cognition are social constructions, expressed in actions of people
interacting within communities” (Myers & Wilson, 2000, p. 59). Therefore without action
there is no learning.
So what is the role of technology within this emerging theory of learning? As stated
above action needs to take place in order for cognition to occur. This action must take place
within a community of practice or learning community. This action often involves
interaction between tools and or artifacts that are situated in the community (Myers &
Wilson, 2000). These tools and or artifacts are invaluable parts to the learning
system. Without these parts the interactions that they produce, assist or motivate, may not
occur. Therefore technology in this learning theory is a piece of the learning environment
that helps to bring about cognition. Myers and Wilson (2000) state, “These tools and
constructed environments constitute the mediums, forms, or worlds through which cognition
takes place. Problem solving involves reasoning about purposes in relationship to the
resources and tools which a situation affords” (p. 71).
It is quite clear that the learners who are placed into this type of learning environment
would be using their “knowledge and skills—by thinking critically, applying knowledge to
new situations, analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating,
collaborating, solving problems, making decisions” (Honey, et al, 2003, p. 9)This learning
theory supports the very skills needed by the 21st century.

Distributed cognition

In Distributed Cognition the student is afforded more power. In other words it is a

student centered approach to learning where the learners participate in a systematically
designed learning environment that supports interaction amongst its
participants. Distributed cognition describes a construction of knowledge that takes place in
a natural environment which is synergistically connected to the cognitive actions taken by
the participants in the learning environment. (Bell & Winn, 2000) This theory promotes
learning in a community of learners or a system where interaction takes place. It is through
this interaction where cognition occurs. Distributed Cognition requires sharing of cognitive
activity among the parts and participants of this system, which can be other people or
artifacts such as devices, technologies or media. These participants distribute their cognition
among other learners and physical or digital artifacts by externally representing their
knowledge. Artifacts can help to scaffold new capabilities as well as off-load a certain
amount of cognitive work thus reducing the cognitive load of the learners and helping to
augment their capabilities. At times, by using these artifacts, a little bit of the information
might stick with the user, this is known as cognitive residue. It is through interaction with
other members and artifacts that progresses learning. Therefore communication among all
participants is paramount in importance (Bell & Winn, 2000).

The role of technology within this theory is an invaluable part of the system in which
the learners are interacting. This interaction can either help to distribute their knowledge,
off-load certain amounts of cognitive work making the cognitive load less and or help to
scaffold new capabilities (Bell & Winn, 2000). In this theory technology (artifacts and or
tools) can be used to help extend human capabilities. An example of this might be the use
of manipulatives in the early development of basic addition skills(Bell & Winn, 2000). The
problem might be too complex for the child to solve, but with the use if the manipulative,
they can visually represent their thinking and use the tool to help them solve the problem.
Another example of this is taken from a case study that was conducted using robotics to
produce solving problem skills. In this case study, students were placed into small
collaborative groups and were asked to construct a robot, using Lego Mindstorm for schools
kits, which would perform various tasks. The groups were introduced to a tool known as a
flowchart. They used these flowcharts to map the programming instructions they would
give the robot to complete the given task. This allowed them to off-load some of the
cognitive work to the flowchart and then through its use, they were able to solve harder
problems (Chambers, et al, 2007). The above example shows that cognition takes place
because of the cognitive abilities of the learner plus the augmentation of these capabilities
by the use of the external technology(Bell & Winn, 2000).

This learning theory supports the very skills needed by the 21 st century. Learners who
are placed in to a learning environment based on this theory would be using their
“knowledge and skills—by thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations,
analyzing information, comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving
problems, making decisions” (Honey, et al, 2003, p. 9).

Socially shared cognition

In Socially-Shared Cognition learners are participants in a community where the
cognition is shared between the participants, the artifacts and tools they are using and the
social institutions in which the learning occurs (Brown & Cole, 2000). The learners of this
community are required to be active participants in order for cognition to occur (Bell &
Winn, 2000). In this theory, cognition is also distributed, as sharing implies both that the
learners are experiencing something together and that the learning which occurs is being
divided and distributed between the participants in the learning community (Bell & Winn,
2000). These ideas of sharing are relevant to this theory because no two learners can ever
experience a situation in the exact same way as another learner. Brown and Cole put this
way,

To say that cognition is socially shared is to say that it is distributed (among artifacts
as well as people) and that it is situated in time and space. Because it is distributed,
 and its assembly requires the active engagement of those involved, it is to some

extent constructed (Brown & Cole, 2000, p. 198).

The role of technology in this theory is similar to that of the other two theories thus far
discussed. Technology plays a part in this theory by being something which helps to share
the cognition in the community of learning. In one example a computer and the games the
children play on it, are at the heart of the system. The participants make use of the games
as the core activities for the learning of new skills. While the games are regular off the shelf
type of games for computers, they are changed by a make believe activity system. In this
system there are specific tasks set for the children to accomplish, many of which involve
communicating with others in the learning community, either orally or in written
format (Brown & Cole, 2000).

This learning theory also supports the skills needed by the

21 century. Learners who are placed in to a learning environment based on this
st

theory would also be using their “knowledge and skills—by thinking critically,
applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information, comprehending new
ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, making decisions” (Honey,
et al, 2003, p. 9) The use of this learning theory could help to prepare our students
for their lives in this new world.

Shared aspects of these learning theories

All of the above emerging theories share many of the same aspects. One strong
aspect is they all suggest that learning occurs best in a community of learning or
practice. The word community implies that the people within it are taking an active part in
the process of learning. They all support communication amongst the learners and
interaction with others, artifacts, and tools in order to assist cognition. In these theories
technology plays an integral part, either by helping to assist the learning of new skill by
providing scaffolding or by off-loading some cognitive work to make the learning process
easier. These technologies may also help to maintain the vital interaction amongst the
learners within the community. It is this interactive environment where the students are
learning by doing, communicating and receiving feedback which helps to bring about the
skills desired by the 21st century. All of the above mentioned theories help to create a
learning environment which allows participants to “use their knowledge and skills—by
thinking critically, applying knowledge to new situations, analyzing information,
comprehending new ideas, communicating, collaborating, solving problems, making
decisions”(Honey, Mandinach, & McMillan, 2003, p. 9)

Conclusion

Technology has made a huge impact on people’s lives. This impact has affected every
aspect of society. It has also had an impact on the current student population. It has made

our world increasingly complex which has changed the requirements for people entering into
the work force. This change has made it necessary to create learning environments which

support higher level thinking skill development. Technology integration has also been shown
to help create more authentic learning environments where the students are more

motivated to attend, have a greater chance of communication and collaboration and have

more opportunities to use higher order thinking and problem solving skills connected to real
world applications (Fouts, 2000) This has led some to believe that new theories in learning

needed to be developed that would help to support the creation of such learning

environments. The three emerging theories discussed in this paper all possess the ability to

support the creation of such learning environments. They all support the idea that learning

is through action. They all support that cognition happens through communication and

collaboration with others. They all support the use of technology to help in the creation of
such learning environments. It is through these new theories that learning environments,

which support the development of these higher-level learning skills, can be created.

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