Lab VII (Misc. Advanced Expt.) : Name M.Qasim Reg No. L1F16BSPH7007

Lab vii (misc. advanced expt.
 Name M.Qasim
 Reg No. L1F16BSPH7007
Lab Report
Submitted To:- Prof.Saad Tariq

Experiment #8
Electronic properties of materials
Understanding the basic principles and properties of materials has been one of the
most challenging attempts of mankind.Researches starting from apprehending a
single atom to bulk materials such as metals, insulators, and semiconductors have
led us to the point of current technological revolution. In this fascinating endeavor,
electronic properties of matters have played a crucial role.
Introduction
The flow of electrons characterizes electrical current.When a voltage potential
creates an electric field across a material, free electrons are accelerated. Materials
are made up of an arrangement of atoms with internal energy levels.Electrons from
the Fermi level in the atom are allowed to freely move as current.The Pauli
Exclusion Principle forbids the acceleration of other electrons locked in their
energy states. Levels of electron energy form bands, such as the valence band and
conduction band. In insulators and semi-conductors, the valence band is full of
electrons and there are extremely few electrons (essentially none for insulators) in
the conduction band.The more electrons in the conduction band, the better the
material conducts electricity.
Electronic materials are the materials used in electrical industries, electronics and
microelectronics, and the substances for the building up of integrated circuits,
circuit boards, packaging materials, communication cables, optical fibres, displays,
and various controlling and monitoring devices.
Band theory
In solid-state physics, the band structure of a solid describes those ranges of
energy, called energy bands, that an electron within the solid may have (“allowed
bands”) and ranges of energy called band gaps (“forbidden bands”), which it may
not have. Band theory models the behavior of electrons in solids by postulating the
existence of energy bands. It successfully uses a material’s band structure to
explain many physical properties of solids. Bands may also be viewed as the large-
scale limit of molecular orbital theory.
The electrons of a single isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals, which form a
discrete set of energy levels. If several atoms are brought together into a molecule,
their atomic orbitals split into separate molecular orbitals, each with a different
energy. This produces a number of molecular orbitals proportional to the number
of valence electrons. When a large number of atoms are brought together to form a
solid, the number of orbitals becomes exceedingly large.Consequently, the
difference in energy between them becomes very small. Thus, in solids the levels
form continuous bands of energy rather than the discrete energy levels of the atoms
in isolation. However, some intervals of energy contain no orbitals, forming band
gaps. This concept becomes more important in the context of semi-conductors and
insulators.
Band gap
A band gap is the distance between the valence band of electrons and the
conduction band. Essentially, the band gap represents the minimum energy that is
required to excite an electron up to a state in the conduction band where it can
participate in conduction. The lower energy level is the valence band, and thus if a
gap exists between this level and the higher energy conduction band, energy must
be input for electrons to become free. The size and existence of this band gap
allows one to visualize the difference between conductors, semiconductors, and
insulators.These distances can be seen in diagrams known as band diagrams,
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: A band gap diagram showing the different sizes of band gaps for
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators
Band gap calculation
𝒉𝒄
𝝀𝒈 = 𝑬
𝒈
h = 6.62607004 × 10-34 m2 kg / s
c = 3×108 m/s
𝝀𝒈 = Band gap Wavelenght
𝑬𝒈 = Band gap energy
1 eV = 1.602×10−19 j
The relationship between band gap energy and temperature can be described by
Varshni's empirical expression
where Eg(0), α and β are material constants

Direct Band Gap
A direct band gap is defined as one where the k vector (not only its magnitude, but
also its direction) is about the same for the highest states in the valence band as for
the lowest states in the conduction band. (The k vector is associated with the
position within the Brillouin zone.) This is relevant for optical transitions. These
involve only a minor change of the magnitude of the k vector, because the optical
wavelength is much longer than the interatomic distances or the lattice period. In
case of a direct band gap, optical transitions are possible as soon as the photon
energy exceeds the band gap energy.
Examples for direct band gap semiconductor materials are gallium arsenide
(GaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), gallium nitride (GaN), aluminum
nitride (AlN), cadmium sulfide (CdS), cadmium selenide (CdSe), cadmium
tellurite (CdTe), zinc sulfide (ZnS), lead sulfide (PbS) and lead selenide (PbSe).
Indirect Band Gap
In case of an indirect band gap, the k vector of the lowest states in the conduction
band substantially differs from that for the highest states in the valence band. As a
consequence, absorption processes with photon energies only slightly above the
band gap energy are hindered by the fact that there are no target states in the
conduction band which have a suitable energy in addition to a suitable k vector. In
other words, one cannot simultaneously fulfill energy conservation and momentum
conservation – except if the additional emission of a phonon is involved, which can
provide the required change of electron momentum while having little impact on
the energy balance.
Examples for indirect band gap semiconductor materials are silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge), aluminum arsenide (AlAs) and gallium phosphide (GaP).
Wide gap band
Wide-bandgap semiconductors (also known as WBG semiconductors or WBGSs)
are semiconductor materials which have a relatively large band gap compared to
conventional semiconductors. Conventional semiconductors like silicon have a
bandgap in the range of 1 - 1.5 electronvolt (eV), whereas wide-bandgap materials
have bandgaps in the range of 2 - 4 eV.Generally, wide-bandgap semiconductors
have electronic properties which fall in between those of conventional
semiconductors and insulators.
Wide-bandgap semiconductors permit devices to operate at much higher voltages,
frequencies and temperatures than conventional semiconductor materials like
silicon and gallium arsenide. They are the key component used to make green and
blue LEDs and lasers, and are also used in certain radio frequency applications,
notably military radars. Their intrinsic qualities make them suitable for a wide
range of other applications, and they are one of the leading contenders for next-
generation devices for general semiconductor use.
The wider bandgap is particularly important for allowing devices that use them to
operate at much higher temperatures, on the order of 300 °C. This makes them
highly attractive for military applications, where they have seen a fair amount of
use. The high temperature tolerance also means that these devices can be operated
at much higher power levels under normal conditions.
Narrow gap band
Narrow-gap semiconductors are semiconducting materials with a band gap that is
comparatively small compared to that of silicon, i.e. smaller than 1.11 eV at room
temperature. They are used as infrared detectors or thermoelectrics.

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Lab vii (misc. advanced expt.

Submitted To:- Prof.Saad Tariq

where Eg(0), α and β are material constants

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