SAFETY IN THE cational and awareness programs for pilots, air traffic

DEPARTURE ENVIRONMENT controllers, and ground operators. By focusing resources

Thousands of IFR takeoffs and departures occur daily to attack this problem head on, the FAA hopes to reduce
in the National Airspace System (NAS). In order to and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents.
accommodate this volume of Instrument Flight Rule
(IFR) traffic, Air Traffic Control (ATC) must rely on AIRPORT SKETCHES AND DIAGRAMS
pilots to use charted airport sketches and diagrams as Airport sketches and airport diagrams provide pilots
well as standard instrument departures (SIDs) and of all levels with graphical depictions of the airport
obstacle departure procedures (ODPs). While many layout. The National Aeronautical Charting Office
charted (and uncharted) departures are based on radar (NACO) provides an airport sketch on the lower left or
vectors, the bulk of IFR departures in the NAS require right portion of every instrument approach chart.
pilots to navigate out of the terminal environment to the [Figure 2-1] This sketch depicts the runways, their
en route phase. length, width, and slope, the touchdown zone eleva-
tion, the lighting system installed on the end of the
IFR takeoffs and departures are fast-paced phases of runway, and taxiways.
flight, and pilots often are overloaded with critical
flight information. During takeoff, pilots are busy For select airports, typically those with heavy traffic or
requesting and receiving clearances, preparing their complex runway layouts, NACO also prints an airport
aircraft for departure, and taxiing to the active run- diagram. The diagram is located in the IFR TPP book-
way. During IFR conditions, they are doing this with let following the
minimal visibility, and they may be without constant instrument approach
radio communication if flying out of a non-towered chart for a particular
airport. Historically, takeoff minimums for commer- airport. It is a full-
cial operations have been successively reduced page depiction of
through a combination of improved signage, runway the airport that
markings and lighting aids, and concentrated pilot includes the same
training and qualifications. Today at major terminals, features of the air-
some commercial operators with appropriate equip- port sketch plus
ment, pilot qualifications, and approved Operations additional details
Specifications (OpsSpecs) may takeoff with visibility such as taxiway
as low as runway visual range (RVR) 3, or 300 feet identifiers, airport
runway visual range. One of the consequences of latitude and longi-
takeoffs with reduced visibility is that pilots are chal- tude, and building
lenged in maintaining situational awareness during identification. The
taxi operations. airport diagrams are
also available in the
SURFACE MOVEMENT SAFETY A/FD and on the
One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the sur- NACO website,
face movement accident. As a direct result, the FAA has
rapidly expanded the information available to pilots
including the addition of taxiway and runway informa-
tion in FAA publications, particularly the IFR U.S.
Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP) booklets and
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) volumes. The FAA Figure 2-1. Airport Sketch Included on
has also implemented new procedures and created edu- the KOSH ILS RWY 36 Approach Chart.

2-1
http://naco.faa.gov. by selecting “Online digital - TPP.” minimums less than 1,200 feet RVR. For landing opera-
[Figure 2-2] tions, this would be pertinent only to those operators
whose OpsSpecs permit them to land with lower than
standard minimums. For departures, however, since
there are no regulatory takeoff minimums for Title 14
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) Part 91 opera-
tors, the SMGCS information is pertinent to all
departing traffic operating in Instrument
Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Advisory Circular
(AC) 120-57A, Surface Movement Guidance and
Control System, outlines the SMGCS program in its
entirety including standards and guidelines for estab-
lishment of a low visibility taxi plan.
The SMGCS low visibility taxi plan includes the
improvement of taxiway and runway signs, markings,
and lighting, as well as the creation of SMGCS low vis-
ibility taxi route charts. [Figure 2-4 on page 2-4] The
plan also clearly identifies taxi routes and their sup-
porting facilities and equipment. Airport enhancements
that are part of the SMGCS program include (but are
not limited to):
• Stop bars consist of a row of red unidirectional,
in-pavement lights installed along the holding
position marking. When extinguished by the con-
troller, they confirm clearance for the pilot or
vehicle operator to enter the runway. They are
required at intersections of an illuminated taxiway
and active runway for operations less than 600 feet
RVR.
• Taxiway centerline lights, which work in con-
junction with stop bars, are green in-pavement
lights that guide ground traffic under low visibility
Figure 2-2. Airport Diagram for KOSH. conditions and during darkness.
AIRPORT/FACILITY DIRECTORY • Runway guard lights, either elevated or in-pave-
The Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), published in ment, will be installed at all taxiways that provide
regional booklets by NACO, provides textual informa- access to an active runway. They consist of alter-
tion about all airports, both VFR and IFR. The A/FD nately flashing yellow lights, used to denote both
includes runway length and width, runway surface, the presence of an active runway and identify the
load bearing capacity, runway slope, airport services, location of a runway holding position marking.
and hazards such as birds and reduced visibility. • Geographic position markings, used as hold
[Figure 2-3] Sketches of airports also are being added points or for position reporting, enable ATC to
to aid VFR pilots in surface movement activities. In verify the position of aircraft and vehicles. These
support of the FAA Runway Incursion Program, full- checkpoints or “pink spots” are outlined with a
page airport diagrams are included in the A/FD. These black and white circle and designated with a
charts are the same as those published in the IFR TPP number, a letter, or both.
and are printed for airports with complex runway or • Clearance bars consist of three yellow in-pave-
taxiway layouts. ment lights used to denote holding positions for
SURFACE MOVEMENT aircraft and vehicles. When used for hold points,
GUIDANCE CONTROL SYSTEM they are co-located with geographic position
The Surface Movement Guidance Control System markings.
(SMGCS) was developed in 1992 to facilitate the safe
movement of aircraft and vehicles at airports where Additional information concerning airport lighting,
scheduled air carriers were conducting authorized oper- markings, and signs can be found in the Aeronautical
ations. This program was designed to provide guidelines Information Manual (AIM), as well as on the FAA’s
for the creation of low visibility taxi plans for all air- website at:
ports with takeoff or landing operations using visibility http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation.
2-2
 Figure 2-3. Excerpt from Airport/Facility Directory for Oshkosh/Wittman Field.

Both flight and ground crews are required to comply ground accidents that are entirely preventable. If you
with SMGCS plans when implemented at their specific encounter unfamiliar markings or lighting, contact
airport. All airport tenants are responsible for dissemi- ATC for clarification and, if necessary, request pro-
nating information to their employees and conducting gressive taxi instructions. Pilots are encouraged to notify
training in low visibility operating procedures. Anyone the appropriate authorities of erroneous, misleading, or
operating in conjunction with the SMGCS plan must decaying signs or lighting that would contribute to the
have a copy of the low visibility taxi route chart for their failure of safe ground operations.
given airport as these charts outline the taxi routes and
other detailed information concerning low visibility RUNWAY INCURSIONS
operations. These charts are available from private A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport
sources outside of the FAA. Part 91 operators are involving aircraft, ground vehicles, people, or objects on
expected to comply with the guidelines listed in the AC the ground that creates a collision hazard or results in
to the best of their ability and should expect “Follow the loss of separation with an aircraft taking off,
Me” service when low visibility operations are in use. intending to take off, landing, or intending to land.
Any SMGCS outage that would adversely affect opera- Primarily, runway incursions are caused by errors
tions at the airport is issued as a Notice to Airmen resulting from a misunderstanding of the given clear-
(NOTAM). ance, failure to communicate effectively, failure to
navigate the airport correctly, or failure to maintain
AIRPORT SIGNS, LIGHTING, and MARKING positional awareness. Figure 2-5 on page 2-5 high-
Flight crews use airport lighting, markings, and signs lights several steps that reduce the chances of being
to help maintain situational awareness when operating involved in a runway incursion.
on the ground and in the air. These visual aids provide
information concerning the aircraft’s location on the In addition to the SMGCS program, the FAA has
airport, the taxiway in use, and the runway entrance implemented additional programs to reduce runway
being used. Overlooking this information can lead to incursions and other surface movement issues. They
2-3
 Geographic position markings,
or pink spots, are used as
either holding points or for 6
position reporting.

Clearance bar lights consist of

a row of three yellow, in-pavement A
lights used to denote holding positions
for aircraft and ground vehicles.

Red stop bar lights are used at

intersections of illuminated taxiways
and active runways for operations
less than RVR 6. You cannot cross
an illuminated stop bar.

Taxiway centerline lights are

in-pavement green lights that
aid in ground movement during
low visibility operations.
Runway guard lights are flashing
yellow lights installed on taxiways
that have access to runways.
They are used to identify an active
runway and the location of the
runway holding position.

Figure 2-4. SMGCS Signage and Lighting.

identified runway hotspots, designed standardized taxi charts provided by private sources show these locations.
routes, and instituted the Runway Safety Program. Hotspots alert pilots to the fact that there may be a lack
of visibility at certain points or the tower may be unable
RUNWAY HOTSPOTS
to see that particular intersection. Whatever the reason,
Runway hotspots (some FAA Regions refer to them as pilots need to be aware that these hazardous intersec-
high alert areas) are locations on particular airports that tions exist and they should be increasingly vigilant when
historically have hazardous intersections. These approaching and taxiing through these intersections.
hotspots are depicted on some airport charts as circled
areas. FAA Regions, such as the Western Pacific, notify STANDARDIZED TAXI ROUTES
pilots of these areas by Letter to Airmen. The FAA Standard taxi routes improve ground management at
Office of Runway Safety website (www.faa.gov/run- high-density airports, namely those that have airline
waysafety) has links to the FAA regions that maintain a service. At these airports, typical taxiway traffic pat-
complete list of airports with runway hotspots. Also, terns used to move aircraft between gate and runway

2-4
 The FAA recommends that you:
• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly those concerning airport construction and lighting.
• Read back, in full, all clearances involving holding short, taxi into position and hold, and crossing
active runways to insure proper understanding.
• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule.
• Develop operational procedures that minimize distractions during taxiing.
• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of your position.
• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in a timely manner.
• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you.
• Monitor radio communications to maintain a situational awareness of other aircraft.
• Remain on frequency until instructed to change.
• Make sure you know the reduced runway distances and whether or not you can comply before
accepting a land and hold short clearance.
• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper authorities.
• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical.

Note: The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in Parts 121.542 and 135.100 that requires
flight crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract them from the performance of
their duties during critical phases of flight. This concept is explained further in Chapter 4.

Figure 2-5. FAA Recommendations for Reducing Runway Incursions.

are laid out and coded. The ATC specialist (ATCS) can Whiskey to Runway 4L. These routes are issued by ground
reduce radio communication time and eliminate taxi control, and if unable to comply, pilots must advise ground
instruction misinterpretation by simply clearing the control on initial contact. If for any reason the pilot
pilot to taxi via a specific, named route. An example of becomes uncertain as to the correct taxi route, a request
this would be Chicago O’Hare, where the Silver Alpha should be made for progressive taxi instructions. These
taxi route is used to transition to Runway 4L. [Figure 2-6] step-by-step routing directions are also issued if the con-
The “Silver A” route requires you to taxi via taxiway troller deems it necessary due to traffic, closed taxiways,
Alpha to Alpha Six, then taxiway Juliet, then taxiway airport construction, etc. It is the pilot’s responsibility to

Figure 2-6. Chicago O’Hare Silver Standardized Taxi Route and NACO Airport Diagram.

2-5
know if a particular airport has preplanned taxi routes, to in a loss of separation with an aircraft that is tak-
be familiar with them, and to have the taxi descriptions in ing off, intending to take off, landing, or intending
their possession. Specific information about airports that to land.
use coded taxiway routes is included in the Notice to • Collision Hazard – a condition, event, or cir-
Airmen Publication (NTAP). cumstance that could induce an occurrence of a
RUNWAY SAFETY PROGRAM collision or surface accident or incident.
On any given day, the NAS may handle almost 200,000 • Loss of Separation – an occurrence or operation
takeoffs and landings. Due to the complex nature of the air- that results in less than prescribed separation
port environment and the intricacies of the network of peo- between aircraft, or between an aircraft and a
ple that make it operate efficiently, the FAA is constantly vehicle, pedestrian, or object.
looking to maintain the high standard of safety that exists at
airports today. Runway safety is one of its top priorities. Runway incursions are further identified by four cate-
The Runway Safety Program (RSP) is designed to create gories: ATC operational error, pilot deviation,
and execute a plan of action that reduces the number of run- vehicle/pedestrian deviation, and miscellaneous errors that
way incursions at the nation’s airports. cannot be attributed to the previous categories.
The RSP office has created a National Blueprint for Since runway incursions cannot be attributed to one
Runway Safety. [Figure 2-7] In that document, the single group of people, everyone involved in airport
FAA has identified four types of runway surface operations must be equally aware of the necessity to
events: improve runway safety. As a result, the RSP created
• Surface Incident – an event during which author- goals to develop refresher courses for ATC, promote
ized or unauthorized/unapproved movement educational awareness for air carriers, and require flight
occurs in the movement area or an occurrence in training that covers more in depth material concerning
the movement area associated with the operation ground operations. Beyond the human aspect of runway
of an aircraft that affects or could affect the safety safety, the FAA is also reviewing technology, communi-
of flight. cations, operational procedures, airport signs, markings,
lighting, and analyzing causal factors to find areas for
• Runway Incursion – an occurrence at an airport improvement.
involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on
the ground that creates a collision hazard or results Runway safety generates much concern especially with
the continued growth of the aviation industry. The takeoff
and departure phases of flight are critical portions of the
flight since the majority of this time is spent on the ground
with multiple actions occurring. It is the desire of the FAA
and the aviation industry to reduce runway surface events
of all types, but it cannot be done simply through policy
changes and educational programs. Pilots must take
responsibility for ensuring safety during surface oper-
ations and continue to educate themselves through
government (www.faa.gov/runwaysafety) and indus-
try runway safety programs.

TAKEOFF MINIMUMS
While mechanical failure is potentially hazardous dur-
ing any phase of flight, a failure during takeoff under
instrument conditions is extremely critical. In the event
of an emergency, a decision must be made to either
return to the departure airport or fly directly to a takeoff
alternate. If the departure weather were below the land-
ing minimums for the departure airport, the flight would
be unable to return for landing, leaving few options and
little time to reach a takeoff alternate.

In the early years of air transportation, landing mini-

mums for commercial operators were usually lower
than takeoff minimums. Therefore, it was possible
that minimums allowed pilots to land at an airport but
not depart from that airport. Additionally, all takeoff
Figure 2-7. National Blueprint for Runway Safety.
minimums once included ceiling as well as visibility
2-6
requirements. Today, takeoff minimums are typically departure may be made, but it is never advisable. If com-
lower than published landing minimums and ceiling mercial pilots who fly passengers on a daily basis must
requirements are only included if it is necessary to comply with takeoff minimums, then good judgment and
see and avoid obstacles in the departure area. common sense would tell all instrument pilots to follow the
established minimums as well.
The FAA establishes takeoff minimums for every airport
that has published Standard Instrument Approaches. These NACO charts list takeoff minimums only for the runways at
minimums are used by commercially operated aircraft, airports that have other than standard minimums. These take-
namely Part 121 and 135 operators. At airports where min- off minimums are listed by airport in alphabetical order in
imums are not established, these same carriers are required the front of the TPP booklet. If an airport has non-standard
to use FAA designated standard minimums (1 statute mile takeoff minimums, a (referred to by some as either the
[SM] visibility for single- and twin-engine aircraft, and 1/2 “triangle T” or “trouble T”) will be placed in the notes sec-
SM for helicopters and aircraft with more than two tions of the instrument procedure chart. In the front of the
engines). TPP booklet, takeoff minimums are listed before the obsta-
cle departure procedure. Some departure procedures allow a
Aircraft operating under Part 91 are not required to comply departure with standard minimums provided specific aircraft
with established takeoff minimums. Legally, a zero/zero performance requirements are met. [Figure 2-8]

Figure 2-8. Takeoff minimums are listed in the front of each NACO U.S. Terminal Procedures booklet.

2-7
TAKEOFF MINIMUMS FOR
COMMERCIAL OPERATORS
While Part 121 and 135 operators are the primary users of
takeoff minimums, they may be able to use alternative
takeoff minimums based on their individual OpsSpecs.
Through these OpsSpecs, operators are authorized to
depart with lower-than-standard minimums provided they
have the necessary equipment and crew training.
OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS
Operations specifications (OpsSpecs) are required by
Part 119.5 to be issued to commercial operators to define
the appropriate authorizations, limitations, and procedures
based on their type of operation, equipment, and qualifica- Figure 2-9. HGS Technology.
tions. The OpsSpecs can be adjusted to accommodate the
many variables in the air transportation industry, including
aircraft and aircraft equipment, operator capabilities, and prior to departure. Never launch an IFR flight without
changes in aviation technology. The OpsSpecs are an obtaining current visibility information immediately
extension of the CFR; therefore, they are legal, binding prior to departure. Further, when ceiling and visibility
contracts between a properly certificated air transportation minimums are specified for IFR departure, both are
organization and the FAA for compliance with the CFR's applicable.
applicable to their operation. OpsSpecs are designed to Weather reporting stations for specific airports across
provide specific operational limitations and procedures tai- the country can be located by reviewing the A/FD.
lored to a specific operator's class and size of aircraft and Weather sources along with their respective phone
types of operation, thereby meeting individual operator numbers and frequencies are listed by airport.
needs. Frequencies for weather sources such as automatic ter-
Part 121 and 135 operators have the ability, through the minal information service (ATIS), digital automatic
use of approved OpsSpecs, to use lower-than-standard terminal information service (D-ATIS), Automated
takeoff minimums. Depending on the equipment installed Weather Observing System (AWOS), Automated
in a specific type of aircraft, the crew training, and the Surface Observing System (ASOS), and FAA
type of equipment installed at a particular airport, these Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) are pub-
operators can depart from appropriately equipped run- lished on approach charts as well. [Figure 2-10]
ways with as little as 300 feet RVR. Additionally, RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE
OpsSpecs outline provisions for approach minimums, Runway visual range (RVR) is an instrumentally
alternate airports, and weather services in Part 119 and derived value, based on standard calibrations, that
FAA Order 8400.10, Air Transportation Operations represents the horizontal distance a pilot will see down
Inspector’s Handbook. the runway from the approach end. It is based on the
HEAD-UP GUIDANCE SYSTEM sighting of either high intensity runway lights or on the
As technology improves over time, the FAA is able to work
in cooperation with specific groups desiring to use these
new technologies. Head-up guidance system (HGS) is an
example of an advanced system currently being used by
some airlines. Air carriers have requested the FAA to
approve takeoff minimums at 300 feet RVR. This is the
lowest takeoff minimum approved by OpsSpecs. As stated
earlier, only specific air carriers with approved, installed
equipment, and trained pilots are allowed to use HGS for
decreased takeoff minimums. [Figure 2-9]

CEILING AND VISIBILITY REQUIREMENTS

All takeoffs and departures have visibility minimums
(some may have minimum ceiling requirements)
incorporated into the procedure. There are a number
of methods to report visibility, and a variety of ways to
distribute these reports, including automated weather
observations. Flight crews should always check the Figure 2-10. Frequencies for Weather Information are listed on
weather, including ceiling and visibility information, Approach and Airport Charts.

2-8
visual contrast of other targets whichever yields the majority of the sky is reported. When critical differences
greater visual range. RVR, in contrast to prevailing or exist in various sectors of the sky and the prevailing visi-
runway visibility, is based on what a pilot in a moving bility is less than three miles, these differences will be
aircraft should see looking down the runway. RVR is reported at manned stations. Typically, this is referred to
reported in hundreds of feet, so the values must be con- as sector visibility in the remarks section of a METAR
verted to statute miles if the visibility in statute miles is report. Prevailing visibility is reported in statute miles or
not reported. [Figure 2-11] This visibility measurement fractions of miles.
is updated every minute; therefore, the most accurate
visibility report will come from the local controller TOWER VISIBILITY
instead of a routine weather report. Transmissometers Tower visibility is the prevailing visibility as deter-
near the runway measure visibility for the RVR report. mined from the air traffic control tower (ATCT). If
If multiple transmissometers are installed, they provide visibility is determined from only one point on the
reports for multiple locations, including touchdown airport and it is the tower, then it is considered the
RVR, mid-RVR, and rollout RVR. RVR visibility may usual point of observation. Otherwise, when the visi-
be reported as RVR 5-5-5. This directly relates to the mul- bility is measured from multiple points, the control
tiple locations from which RVR is reported and indicates tower observation is referred to as the tower visibility.
500 feet visibility at touchdown RVR, 500 feet at mid- It too is measured in statute miles or fractions of
RVR, and 500 feet at the rollout RVR stations. miles.

Conversion ADEQUATE VISUAL REFERENCE

Another set of lower-than-standard takeoff minimums
RVR Visibility is available to Part 121 and 135 operations as outlined
(FT) (SM)
in their respective OpsSpecs document. When certain
1,600 ............ 1/4 types of visibility reports are unavailable or specific
2,400 ............ 1/2 equipment is out of service, the flight can still depart
3,200 ............ 5/8 the airport if the pilot can maintain adequate visual
4,000 ............ 3/4
4,500 ............ 7/8 reference. An appropriate visual aid must be available
5,000 ............ 1 to ensure the takeoff surface can be continuously iden-
6,000 ............ 1 1/4 tified and directional control can be maintained
throughout the takeoff run. Appropriate visual aids
include high intensity runway lights, runway centerline
lights, runway centerline markings, or other runway
Figure 2-11. RVR Conversion Table.
lighting and markings. A visibility of 1600 feet RVR or
1/4 SM is below standard and may be considered ade-
quate for specific commercial operators if contained in
RVR is the primary visibility measurement used by Part
an OpsSpecs approval.
121 and 135 operators, with specific visibility reports
and controlling values outlined in their respective
OpsSpecs. Under their OpsSpecs agreements, the opera- AUTOMATED WEATHER SYSTEM
tor must have specific, current RVR reports, if available, An automated weather system consists of any of the
to proceed with an instrument departure. OpsSpecs also automated weather sensor platforms that collect weather
outline which visibility report is controlling in various data at airports and disseminate the weather information
departure scenarios. via radio and/or landline. The systems consist of the
Automated Surface Observing System
RUNWAY VISIBILITY VALUE (ASOS)/Automated Weather Sensor System (AWSS),
Runway visibility value (RVV) is the distance down and the Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS).
the runway that a pilot can see unlighted objects. It is These systems are installed and maintained at airports
reported in statute miles for individual runways. RVV, across the United States (U.S.) by both government (FAA
like RVR, is derived from a transmissometer for a par- and NWS) and private entities. They are relatively inexpen-
ticular runway. RVV is used in lieu of prevailing visi- sive to operate because they require no outside observer,
bility in determining specific runway minimums. and they provide invaluable weather information for air-
ports without operating control towers. [Figure 2-12 on
PREVAILING VISIBILITY page 2-10]
Prevailing visibility is the horizontal distance over
which objects or bright lights can be seen and identified AWOS and ASOS/AWSS offer a wide variety of capabili-
over at least half of the horizon circle. If the prevailing ties and progressively broader weather reports. Automated
visibility varies from area to area, the visibility of the systems typically transmit weather every one to two minutes

2-9
 and individual OpsSpecs. Ceiling and visibility reports
given by the tower with the departure information are
always considered official weather, and RVR reports are
typically the controlling visibility reference.
AUTOMATIC TERMINAL
INFORMATION SERVICE AND DIGITAL ATIS
The automatic terminal information service (ATIS) is
another valuable tool for gaining weather information. ATIS
is available at most airports that have an operating control
tower, which means the reports on the ATIS frequency are
only available during the regular hours of tower operation.
At some airports that operate part-time towers, ASOS/AWSS
Figure 2-12. ASOS Station Installation. information is broadcast over the ATIS frequency when the
so the most up-to-date weather information is constantly tower is closed. This service is available only at those air-
broadcast. Basic AWOS includes only altimeter setting, wind ports that have both an ASOS/AWSS on the field and an
speed, wind direction, temperature, and dew point informa- ATIS-ASOS/AWSS interface switch installed in the tower.
tion. More advanced systems such as the ASOS/AWSS and
Each ATIS report includes crucial information about run-
AWOS-3 are able to provide additional information such as
ways and instrument approaches in use, specific outages,
cloud and ceiling data and precipitation type. ASOS/AWSS
and current weather conditions including visibility.
stations providing service levels A or B also report RVR. The
Visibility is reported in statute miles and may be omitted
specific type of equipment found at a given facility is listed
if the visibility is greater than five miles. ATIS weather
in the A/FD. [Figure 2-13]
information comes from a variety of sources depending
Automated weather information is available both over a on the particular airport and the equipment installed there.
radio frequency specific to each site and via telephone. The reported weather may come from a manual weather
When an automated system is brought online, it first goes observer, weather instruments located in the tower, or
through a period of testing. Although you can listen to the from automated weather stations. This information, no
reports on the radio and over the phone during the test matter the origin, must be from National Weather Service
phase, they are not legal for use until they are fully opera- approved weather sources for it to be used in the ATIS
tional, and the test message is removed. report.
The use of the aforementioned visibility reports and The digital ATIS (D-ATIS) is an alternative method of
weather services are not limited for Part 91 operators. Part receiving ATIS reports. The service provides text mes-
121 and 135 operators are bound by their individual sages to aircraft, airlines, and other users outside the
OpsSpecs documents and are required to use weather standard reception range of conventional ATIS via
reports that come from the National Weather Service or landline and data link communications to the cockpit.
other approved sources. While every operator’s specifica- Aircraft equipped with data link services are capable of
tions are individually tailored, most operators are required receiving ATIS information over their Aircraft
to use ATIS information, RVR reports, and selected Communications Addressing and Reporting System
reports from automated weather stations. All reports com- (ACARS) unit. This allows the pilots to read and print out
ing from an AWOS-3 station are usable for Part 121 and the ATIS report inside the aircraft, thereby increasing
135 operators. Each type of automated station has differ- report accuracy and decreasing pilot workload.
ent levels of approval as outlined in FAA Order 8400.10
Also, the service provides a
computer-synthesized voice
message that can be transmit-
ted to all aircraft within range
of existing transmitters. The
Terminal Data Link System
(TDLS) D-ATIS application
uses weather inputs from
local automated weather
sources or manually entered
meteorological data together
with preprogrammed menus
to provide standard informa-
tion to users. Airports with D-
ATIS capability are listed in
the A/FD.
Figure 2-13. A/FD Entry for an AWOS Station.
2-10
It is important to remember that ATIS information is ings lower than 2,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 SM. A
updated hourly and anytime a significant change in the simple way to remember the rules for determining the neces-
weather occurs. As a result, the information is not the sity of filing an alternate for airplanes is the “1, 2, 3 Rule.”
most current report available. Prior to departing the air- For helicopter Part 91, similar alternate filing requirements
port, you need to get the latest weather information from apply. An alternate must be listed on an IFR flight plan if the
the tower. ASOS/AWSS and AWOS also provide a source forecast weather at the destination airport or heliport, from
of current weather, but their information should not be the ETA and for one hour after the ETA, includes ceilings
substituted for weather reports from the tower. lower than 1,000 feet, or less than 400 feet above the lowest
applicable approach minima, whichever is higher, and the
IFR ALTERNATE REQUIREMENTS visibility less than 2 SM.
The requirement for an alternate depends on the aircraft cat-
egory, equipment installed, approach NAVAID and forecast Not all airports can be used as alternate airports. An airport
weather. For example, airports with only a global position- may not be qualified for alternate use if the airport NAVAID
ing system (GPS) approach procedure cannot be used as an is unmonitored, or if it does not have weather reporting capa-
alternate by TSO-C129/129A users even though the N/A bilities. For an airport to be used as an alternate, the forecast
has been removed from the approach chart. For select weather at that airport must meet certain qualifications at
RNAV (GPS) and GPS approach procedures the N/A is the estimated time of arrival. Standard alternate minimums
being removed so they may be used as an alternate by air- for a precision approach are a 600-foot ceiling and a 2 SM
craft equipped with an approach approved WAAS receiver. visibility. For a non-precision approach, the minimums are
Because GPS is not authorized as a substitute means of nav- an 800-foot ceiling and a 2 SM visibility. Standard alter-
igation guidance when conducting a conventional approach nate minimums apply unless higher alternate minimums
at an alternate airport, if the approach procedure requires are listed for an airport.
either DME or ADF, the aircraft must be equipped with the
On NACO charts, standard alternate minimums are not
appropriate DME or ADF avionics in order to use the
published. If the airport has other than standard alternate
approach as an alternate.
minimums, they are listed in the front of the approach chart
For airplane Part 91 requirements, an alternate airport must booklet. The presence of a triangle with an on the approach
be listed on IFR flight plans if the forecast weather at the chart indicates the listing of alternate minimums should be
destination airport, from a time period of plus or minus one consulted. Airports that do not qualify for use as an alternate
hour from the estimated time of arrival (ETA), includes ceil- airport are designated with an N/A. [Figure 2-14]

Figure 2-14. IFR Alternate Minimums.

2-11
ALTERNATE MINIMUMS FOR for individual operators and includes their normal flight
COMMERCIAL OPERATORS paths and approved airports. Flight planning software
IFR alternate minimums for Part 121 and 135 operators and services are provided through private sources.
are very specific and have more stringent requirements
than Part 91 operators. Though the pilot is the final authority for the flight and
ultimately has full responsibility, the dispatcher is
Part 121 operators are required by their OpsSpecs and responsible for creating flight plans that are accurate and
Parts 121.617 and 121.625 to have a takeoff alternate comply with the CFRs. Alternate minimum criteria are
airport for their departure airport in addition to their air- only used as planning tools to ensure the pilot-in-com-
port of intended landing if the weather at the departure mand and dispatcher are thinking ahead to the approach
airport is below the landing minimums in the certificate phase of flight. In the event the flight would actually
holder’s OpsSpecs for that airport. The alternate must be need to divert to an alternate, the published approach
within two hours flying time for an aircraft with three or minimums or lower-than-standard minimums must be
more engines with an engine out in normal cruise in still used as addressed in OpsSpecs documents.
air. For two engine aircraft, the alternate must be within
one hour. The airport of intended landing may be used DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
in lieu of an alternate providing it meets all the require- Departure procedures are preplanned routes that provide
ments. Part 121 operators must also file for alternate transitions from the departure airport to the en route
airports when the weather at their destination airport, structure. Primarily, these procedures are designed to
from one hour before to one hour after their ETA, is provide obstacle protection for departing aircraft. They
forecast to be below a 2,000-foot ceiling and/or less also allow for efficient routing of traffic and reductions
than 3 miles visibility. in pilot/controller workloads. These procedures come in
many forms, but they are all based on the design criteria
For airports with at least one operational navigational outlined in TERPS and other FAA orders. The A/FD
facility that provides a straight-in non-precision includes information on high altitude redesign RNAV
approach, a straight-in precision approach, or a circling routing pitch points, preferred IFR routings, or other
maneuver from an instrument approach procedure deter- established routing programs where a flight can begin a
mine the ceiling and visibility by: segment of nonrestrictive routing.
• Adding 400 feet to the authorized CAT I
HAA/HAT for ceiling. DESIGN CRITERIA
The design of a departure procedure is based on TERPS,
• Adding one mile to the authorized CAT I visibility a living document that is updated frequently. Departure
for visibility minimums. design criterion assumes an initial climb of 200 feet per
nautical mile (NM) after crossing the departure end of
This is but one example of the criteria required for Part the runway (DER) at a height of at least 35 feet. [Figure
121 operators when calculating minimums. Part 135 2-15] The aircraft climb path assumption provides a
operators are also subject to their own specific rules minimum of 35 feet of additional obstacle clearance
regarding the selection and use of alternate minimums above the required obstacle clearance (ROC), from the
as outlined in their OpsSpecs and Part 135.219 through DER outward, to absorb variations ranging from the
Part 135.225, and they differ widely from those used by distance of the static source to the landing gear, to dif-
Part 121 operators. ferences in establishing the minimum 200 feet per NM
climb gradient, etc. The ROC is the planned separation
Typically, dispatchers who plan flights for these opera- between the obstacle clearance surface (OCS) and the
tors are responsible for planning alternate airports. The required climb gradient of 200 feet per NM. The ROC
dispatcher considers aircraft performance, aircraft value is zero at the DER elevation and increases along
equipment and its condition, and route of flight when the departure route until the appropriate ROC value is
choosing alternates. In the event changes need to be attained to allow en route flight to commence. It is
made to the flight plan en route due to deteriorating typically about 25 NM for 1,000 feet of ROC in non-
weather, the dispatcher will maintain contact with the mountainous areas, and 46 NM for 2,000 feet of ROC
flight crew and will reroute their flight as necessary. in mountainous areas.
Therefore, it is the pilot’s responsibility to execute the
flight as planned by the dispatcher; this is especially true Recent changes in TERPS criteria make the OCS lower
for Part 121 pilots. To aid in the planning of alternates, and more restrictive. [Figure 2-16 on page 2-14]
dispatchers have a list of airports that are approved as However, there are many departures today that were
alternates so they can quickly determine which airports evaluated under the old criteria [Figure 2-15] that
should be used for a particular flight. Dispatchers also allowed some obstacle surfaces to be as high as 35 feet
use flight-planning software that plans routes including at the DER. Since there is no way for the pilot to deter-
alternates for the flight. This type of software is tailored mine whether the departure was evaluated using the
2-12
 Positive course guidance must be acquired
within 10 NM for straight departures and
within 5 NM. for departures requiring turns.

V186

ient
b grad 400'
clim r NM
q u ired eet pe
Re 200 f
of 96'
200'
48' rance
le Clea
Obstac ce (OCS)
Surfa
304'
152'
35'
10 NM

1 NM 2 NM
Slope of 152 feet per NM or 40:1
Departure end
of the runway (DER)

Figure 2-15. Previous TERPS Design Criteria for Departure Procedures.

previous or current criteria and until all departures have takeoff runway available (TORA), takeoff distance
been evaluated using the current criteria, pilots need to available (TODA), accelerate-stop distance available
be very familiar with the departure environment and (ASDA), and landing distance available (LDA). These
associated obstacles especially if crossing the DER at distances are calculated by adding to the full length of
less than 35 feet. paved runway, any applicable clearway or stopway, and
subtracting from that sum the sections of the runway
Assuming a 200-foot per NM climb, the departure is unsuitable for satisfying the required takeoff run, take-
structured to provide at least 48 feet per NM of clear- off, accelerate/stop, or landing distance, as shown in
ance above objects that do not penetrate the obstacle Figure 2-16 on page 2-14.
slope. The slope, known as the OCS, is based on a 40 to In a perfect world, the 40 to 1 slope would work for
1 ratio, which is the equivalent of a 2.5 percent or a 152- every departure design; however, due to terrain and man-
foot per NM slope. As a result, a departure is designed made obstacles, it is often necessary to use alternative
using the OCS as the minimum obstacle clearance, and requirements to accomplish a safe, obstacle-free depar-
then by requiring a minimum climb gradient of 200 feet ture design. In such cases, the design of the departure
per NM, additional clearance is provided. The departure may incorporate a climb gradient greater than 200 feet
design must also include the acquisition of positive per NM, an increase in the standard takeoff minimums
course guidance (PCG) typically within 5 to 10 NM of to allow the aircraft to “see and avoid” the obstacles,
the DER for straight departures and within 5 NM after standard minimums combined with a climb gradient of
turn completion on departures requiring a turn. Even 200 feet per NM or greater with a specified reduced run-
when aircraft performance greatly exceeds the minimum way length, or a combination of these options and a spe-
climb gradient, the published departure routing must cific departure route. If a departure route is specified, it
always be flown. must be flown in conjunction with the other options. A
published climb gradient in this case is based on the
Airports declaring that the sections of a runway at one ROC 24 percent rule. To keep the same ROC ratio as
or both ends are not available for landing or takeoff pub- standard, when the required climb gradient is greater
lish the declared distances in the A/FD. These include than 200 feet per NM, 24 percent of the total height

2-13
2-14
Start End of Runway (SER) – The beginning of the
takeoff runway available.

Approach End of Runway (AER) – The first portion of

the runway available for landing. If the runway threshold
is displaced, the displaced threshold latitude/longitude
is the AER.

400'
m ed ed
d i ent
su n d
As Inte th gra M 96' 52
l i mb er N of 1
Landing Distance Available (LDA) – The length of runway i m um ove” b Pa
d c t p l ope er NM
that is declared available and suitable for the ground run
ni r ab lim e e S t p :1
M t o ft C uir fe fee or 40
of an airplane landing. “a rcra
i R eq f 200
a n ce
A o e a r
C l S )
200' cle e (OC
48' sta
Ob urfac
S
304'

152'
35'
Runway
Centerline Extended
10 NM
1 NM 2 NM
15

Departure End of Runway (DER) – The end of runway

available for the ground run of an aircraft departure. The
end of the runway that is opposite the landing threshold,
sometimes referred to as the stop end of the runway. Positive Course Guidance (PCG) –
A continuous display of navigational
Takeoff Runway Available (TORA) – The length Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) –The length Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) – data that enables an aircraft to be
of runway declared available and suitable for of the takeoff runway available plus the length The runway plus stopway length declared flown along a specific course line,
the ground run of an airplane takeoff. of the clearway, if provided. available and suitable for the acceleration and e.g., radar vector, RNAV, ground-
deceleration of an airplane aborting a takeoff. based NAVAID. PCG must be
acquired within 10 NM for straight

Figure 2-16. New TERPS Design Criteria for Departure Procedures.

TORA departures and within 5 NM for
Clearway First departures requiring turns.
Significant
Obstacle Initial Climb Area (ICA) – The ICA is the segment of the
75 Meters
(247 Feet) departure procedure that starts at the DER and proceeds
TODA
along the runway centerline extended to allow the aircraft
sufficient distance to reach an altitude of 400 feet above DER
TORA Stopway elevation, and to allow the establishment of positive course
guidance by all navigation systems. A typical straight
departure ICA extends 2-5 nautical miles from the DER along
the runway centerline extended. It is 500 feet wide each side
ASDA of the runway centerline at DER, then splays out at 15°.
 Figure 2-17. Obstacle Information for Aspen, Colorado.

above the starting elevation gained by an aircraft depart- Obstacles that are located within 1 NM of the DER and
ing to a minimum altitude to clear an obstacle that pene- penetrate the 40:1 OCS are referred to as “low, close-in
trates the OCS is the ROC. The required climb gradient obstacles.” The standard ROC of 48 feet per NM to clear
depicted in ODPs is obtained by using the formulas: these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater
Standard Formula DoD Option*
than 200 feet per NM for a very short distance, only until
the aircraft was 200 feet above the DER. To eliminate
O–E (48D+O) – E
CG = CG = publishing an excessive climb gradient, the obstacle
0.76 D D
AGL/MSL height and location relative to the DER is
where O = obstacle MSL elevation
noted in the Take-off Minimums and (OBSTACLE)
E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation
Departure Procedures section of a given TPP booklet.
D = distance (NM) from DER to the obstacle
Examples:
The purpose of this note is to identify the obstacle and
alert the pilot to the height and location of the obstacle
2049-1221 (48 x 3.1+2049)–1221 so they can be avoided. [Figure 2-17]
= 351.44 = 315.10
0.76 x 3.1 3.1
Round to 352 ft/NM Round to 316 ft/NM Departure design, including climb gradients, does not
*Military only take into consideration the performance of the aircraft; it
only considers obstacle protection for all aircraft. TERPS
criteria assumes the aircraft is operating with all available
These formulas are published in TERPS Volume 4 for
engines and systems fully functioning. When a climb gra-
calculating the required climb gradient to clear obsta-
dient is required for a specific departure, it is vital that
cles.
pilots fully understand the performance of their aircraft
and determine if it can comply with the required climb.
The following formula is used for calculating climb gra-
The standard climb of 200 feet per NM is not an issue for
dients for other than obstacles, i.e., ATC requirements:
most aircraft. When an increased climb gradient is speci-
fied due to obstacle issues, it is important to calculate air-
A–E craft performance, particularly when flying out of airports
CG =
D at higher altitudes on warm days. To aid in the calcula-
where A = "climb to" altitude tions, the front matter of every TPP booklet contains a
E = climb gradient starting MSL elevation
D = distance (NM) from the beginning of the climb
rate of climb table that relates specific climb gradients
and typical airspeeds. [Figure 2-18 on page 2-16]
Example:
3000–1221 A visual climb over airport (VCOA) is an alternate
= 355.8 round to 356 ft/NM
5 departure method for aircraft unable to meet required
NOTE: The climb gradient must be equal to or greater than the climb gradients and for airports at which a conventional
gradient required for obstacles along the route of flight. instrument departure procedure is impossible to design
due to terrain or other obstacle hazard. The development
2-15
 Figure 2-18. Rate of Climb Table.

Figure 2-19. Beckwourth, CA.

2-16
of this type of procedure is required when obstacles tion means all aircraft systems are functioning normally,
more than 3 SM from the DER require a greater than all required navigational aids (NAVAIDS) are perform-
200 feet per NM climb gradient. An example of this pro- ing within flight inspection parameters, and the pilot is
cedure is visible at Nervino Airport in Beckwourth, conducting instrument operations utilizing instrument
California. [Figure 2-19] procedures based on the TERPS standard to provide
ROC.
The procedure for climb in visual conditions requires
crossing Nervino Airport at or above 8,300 feet before
proceeding on course. Additional instructions often SID VERSUS DP
complete the departure procedure and transition the In 2000, the FAA combined into a single product both
flight to the en route structure. VCOA procedures are textual IFR departure procedures that were developed
available on specific departure procedures, but are not by the National Flight Procedures Office (NFPO) under
established in conjunction with SIDs or RNAV obstacle the guidance of the Flight Standards Service (AFS) and
departure procedures. Pilots must know if their specific graphic standard instrument departures (SIDs) that were
flight operations allow VCOA procedures on IFR depar- designed and produced under the direction of the Air
tures. Traffic Organization (ATO). This combined product
introduced the new term departure procedures (DPs) to
AIRPORT RUNWAY ANALYSIS the pilot and ATC community, and the aforementioned
It may be necessary for pilots and aircraft operators to terms IFR departure procedure and SID were elimi-
consult an aircraft performance engineer and nated. The FAA also provided for the graphic publica-
airport/runway analysis service for information regard- tion of IFR departure procedures, as well as all area
ing the clearance of specific obstacles during IFR navigation (RNAV) DPs, to facilitate pilot understand-
departure procedures to help maximize aircraft pay- ing of the procedure. This includes both those devel-
load while complying with engine-out performance oped solely for obstruction clearance and those
regulatory requirements. Airport/runway analysis developed for system enhancement. Elimination of the
involves the complex application of extensive airport term SID created undue confusion in both the domestic
databases and terrain information to generate computer- and international aviation communities. Therefore, in
ized computations for aircraft performance in a specific the interest of international harmonization, the FAA
configuration. This yields maximum allowable takeoff reintroduced the term SID while also using the term
and landing weights for particular aircraft/engine con- obstacle departure procedure (ODP) to describe certain
figurations for a specific airport, runway, and range of procedures.
temperatures. The computations also consider flap set-
tings, various aircraft characteristics, runway conditions, There are two types of DPs: those developed to assist
obstacle clearance, and weather conditions. Data also is pilots in obstruction avoidance, ODP, and those devel-
available for operators who desire to perform their own oped to communicate air traffic control clearances,
analysis. SID. DPs and/or takeoff minimums must be estab-
When a straight-out departure is not practical or recom- lished for those airports with approved instrument
mended, a turn procedure can be developed for the approach procedures. ODPs are developed by the
engine-out flight path for each applicable runway NFPO at locations with instrument procedure develop-
designed to maximize the allowable takeoff weights and ment responsibility. ODPs may also be required at pri-
ultimately, aircraft payload. Engine-out graphics are vate airports where the FAA does not have instrument
available, giving the pilot a pictorial representation of procedure development responsibility. It is the respon-
each procedure. Airport/runway analysis also is helpful sibility of non-FAA proponents to ensure a TERPS
for airline dispatchers, flight operations officers, engi- diverse departure obstacle assessment has been accom-
neering staff, and others to ensure that a flight does not plished and an ODP developed, where applicable. DPs
exceed takeoff and landing limit weights. are also categorized by equipment requirements as
follows:
CAUTION: Pilots and aircraft operators have the
responsibility to consider obstacles and to make the nec- • Non-RNAV DP. Established for aircraft equipped
essary adjustments to their departure procedures to with conventional avionics using ground-based
ensure safe clearance for aircraft over those obstacles. NAVAIDs. These DPs may also be designed using
dead reckoning navigation. A flight management
Information on obstacle assessment, controlling obsta- system (FMS) may be used to fly a non-RNAV DP
cles, and other obstacles that may affect a pilot’s IFR if the FMS unit accepts inputs from conventional
departure may not be depicted or noted on a chart and avionics sources such as DME, VOR, and LOC.
may be outside the scope of IFR departure procedure These inputs include radio tuning and may be
obstacle assessment criteria. Departure criteria is predi- applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in
cated on normal aircraft operations for considering combination. Some FMSs provide for the detec-
obstacle clearance requirements. Normal aircraft opera- tion and isolation of faulty navigation information.
2-17
 • RNAV DP. Established for aircraft equipped with intended for use in the absence of ATC radar vectors or a
RNAV avionics; e.g., GPS, VOR/DME, SID assignment. ODPs use ground based NAVAIDS,
DME/DME, etc. Automated vertical navigation is RNAV, or dead reckoning guidance wherever possible,
not required, and all RNAV procedures not requir- without the use of radar vectors for navigation.
ing GPS must be annotated with the note:
“RADAR REQUIRED.” Prior to using GPS for Military departure procedures are not handled or pub-
RNAV departures, approach RAIM availability lished in the same manner as civil DPs. Approval
should be checked for that location with the navi- authority for DPs at military airports rests with the mil-
gation receiver or a Flight Service Station. itary. The FAA develops U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force
DPs for domestic civil airports. The National
• Radar DP. Radar may be used for navigation Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) publishes all
guidance for SID design. Radar SIDs are estab- military DPs. The FAA requires that all military DPs
lished when ATC has a need to vector aircraft on be coordinated with FAA ATC facilities or regions
departure to a particular ATS Route, NAVAID, or when those DPs affect the NAS.
Fix. A fix may be a ground-based NAVAID, a way-
All ODP procedures are listed in the front of the NACO
point, or defined by reference to one or more radio
approach chart booklets under the heading Takeoff
NAVAIDS. Not all fixes are waypoints since a fix
Minimums and Obstacle Departure Procedures. Each pro-
could be a VOR or VOR/DME, but all waypoints
cedure is listed in alphabetical order by city and state. The
are fixes. Radar vectors may also be used to join
ODP listing in the front of the booklet will include a ref-
conventional or RNAV navigation SIDs. SIDs
erence to the graphic chart located in the main body of the
requiring radar vectors must be annotated
booklet if one exists. Pilots do not need ATC clearance to
“RADAR REQUIRED.”
use an ODP and they are responsible for determining if
OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURES the departure airport has this type of published procedure.
The term Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP) is used [Figure 2-20]
to define procedures that simply provide obstacle clear-
ance. ODPs are only used for obstruction clearance and FLIGHT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
do not include ATC related climb requirements. In fact, During planning, pilots need to determine whether or
the primary emphasis of ODP design is to use the least not the departure airport has an ODP. Remember, an
onerous route of flight to the en route structure or at an ODP can only be established at an airport that has
altitude that allows random (diverse) IFR flight, while instrument approach procedures (IAPs). An ODP may
attempting to accommodate typical departure routes. drastically affect the initial part of the flight plan. Pilots
may have to depart at a higher than normal climb rate, or
An ODP must be developed when obstructions penetrate depart in a direction opposite the intended heading
the 40:1 departure OCS, using a complex set of ODP and maintain that for a period of time, any of which
development combinations to determine each situation would require an alteration in the flight plan and ini-
and required action. Textual ODPs are only issued by tial headings. Considering the forecast weather,
ATC controllers when required for traffic. If they are not departure runway, and existing ODP, plan the flight
issued by ATC, textual ODPs are at the pilot’s option to route, climb performance, and fuel burn accordingly
fly or not fly the textual ODP, even in less than VFR to compensate for the departure procedure.
weather conditions, for FAR Part 91 operators, military,
and public service. As a technique, the pilot may enter Additionally, when close-in obstacles are noted in the
“will depart (airport) (runway) via textual ODP” in the Takeoff Minimums and (Obstacle) Departure Procedures
remarks section of the flight plan, this information to the section, it may require the pilot to take action to avoid
controller clarifies the intentions of the pilot and helps these obstacles. Consideration must be given to decreased
prevent a potential pilot/controller misunderstanding. climb performance from an inoperative engine or to the
amount of runway used for takeoff. Aircraft requiring a
ODPs are textual in nature, however, due to the complex short takeoff roll on a long runway may have little con-
nature of some procedures, a visual presentation may be cern. On the other hand, airplanes that use most of the
necessary for clarification and understanding. available runway for takeoff may not have the standard
Additionally, all newly developed area navigation ROC when climbing at the normal 200 feet per NM.
(RNAV) ODPs are issued in graphic form. If necessary,
an ODP is charted graphically just as if it were a SID and Another factor to consider is the possibility of an engine
the chart itself includes “Obstacle” in parentheses in the failure during takeoff and departure. During the preflight
title. A graphic ODP may also be filed in an instrument planning, use the aircraft performance charts to deter-
flight plan by using the computer code included in the mine if the aircraft can still maintain the required climb
procedure title. performance. For high performance aircraft, an engine
failure may not impact the ability to maintain the pre-
Only one ODP is established for a runway. It is consid- scribed climb gradients. Aircraft that are performance
ered to be the default IFR departure procedure and is limited may have diminished capability and may be
2-18
 Figure 2-20. Graphic ODP/Booklet Front Matter.

unable to maintain altitude, let alone complete a climb the statement “NO SIDs” in the remarks section of your
to altitude. Based on the performance expectations for flight plan. Doing so notifies ATC that they cannot issue
the aircraft, construct an emergency plan of action that you a clearance containing a SID, but instead will clear
includes emergency checklists and the actions to take to you via your filed route to the extent possible, or via a
ensure safety in this situation. Preferential Departure Route (PDR). It should be
noted that SID usage not only decreases clearance
STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES delivery time, but also greatly simplifies your depar-
A Standard Instrument Departure (SID) is an ATC ture, easing you into the IFR structure at a desirable
requested and developed departure route, typically used location and decreasing your flight management load.
in busy terminal areas. It is designed at the request of While you are not required to depart using a SID, it may
ATC in order to increase capacity of terminal airspace, be more difficult to receive an “as filed” clearance when
effectively control the flow of traffic with minimal departing busy airports that frequently use SID routing.
communication, and reduce environmental impact
through noise abatement procedures. SIDs are always charted graphically and are located in
the TPP after the last approach chart for an airport. The
While obstacle protection is always considered in SID rout- SID may be one or two pages in length, depending on the
ing, the primary goal is to reduce ATC/pilot workload while size of the graphic and the amount of space required for
providing seamless transitions to the en route structure. the departure description. Each chart depicts the depar-
SIDs also provide additional benefits to both the airspace ture route, navigational fixes, transition routes, and
capacity and the airspace users by reducing radio conges- required altitudes. The departure description outlines the
tion, allowing more efficient airspace use, and simplifying particular procedure for each runway. [Figure 2-21 on
departure clearances. All of the benefits combine to provide page 2-20]
effective, efficient terminal operations, thereby increasing
the overall capacity of the NAS. Charted transition routes allow pilots to transition from
the end of the basic SID to a location in the en route
If you cannot comply with a SID, if you do not possess structure. Typically, transition routes fan out in various
SID charts or textual descriptions, or if you simply do directions from the end of the basic SID to allow pilots
not wish to use standard instrument departures, include to choose the transition route that takes them in the
2-19
 Figure 2-21. SID Chart

direction of intended departure. A transition route plan, using the correct departure and transition code.
includes a course, a minimum altitude, and distances ATC also assigns transition routes as a means of putting
between fixes on the route. When filing a SID for a spe- the flight on course to the destination. In any case, the
cific transition route, include the transition in the flight pilot must receive an ATC clearance for the departure
2-20
and the associated transition, and the clearance from PILOT NAV AND VECTOR SIDS
ATC will include both the departure name and transi- SIDs are categorized by the type of navigation used to
tion e.g., Joe Pool Nine Departure, College Station fly the departure, so they are considered either pilot nav-
Transition. [Figure 2-22] igation or vector SIDs. Pilot navigation SIDs are

Figure 2-22. Transition Routes as Depicted on SIDs.

2-21
designed to allow you to provide your own navigation portion of a departure procedure, and they are manda-
with minimal radio communication. This type of pro- tory in nature. [Figure 2-25 on page 2-25] Mandatory
cedure usually contains an initial set of departure procedural notes may include:
instructions followed by one or more transition routes.
A pilot navigation SID may include an initial segment • Aircraft equipment requirements (DME, ADF,
requiring radar vectors to help the flight join the pro- etc.).
cedure, but the majority of the navigation will remain
the pilot’s responsibility. These are the most common • ATC equipment in operation (RADAR).
type of SIDs because they reduce the workload for
• Minimum climb requirements.
ATC by requiring minimal communication and navi-
gation support. [Figure 2-23]. • Restrictions for specific types of aircraft (TUR-
A Vector SID usually requires ATC to provide radar BOJET ONLY).
vectors from just after takeoff (ROC is based on a climb
to 400 feet above the DER elevation before making the • Limited use to certain destinations.
initial turn) until reaching the assigned route or a fix
There are numerous procedural notes requiring spe-
depicted on the SID chart. However, some textual
cific compliance on your part. Carefully review the
ODPs originate in uncontrolled airspace, while the SID
charts for the SID you have selected to ensure you can
begins in controlled airspace. Vector SIDs do not use the procedures. If you are unable to comply with a
include departure routes or transition routes because specific requirement, you must not file the procedure
independent pilot navigation is not involved. The pro- as part of your flight plan, and furthermore, you must
cedure sets forth an initial set of departure instructions not accept the procedure if ATC assigns it. Cautionary
that typically include an initial heading and altitude. statements may also be included on the procedure to
ATC must have radar contact with the aircraft to be able notify you of specific activity, but these are strictly
to provide vectors. ATC expects you to immediately advisory. [Figure 2-26 on page 2-26]
comply with radar vectors and they expect you to notify
them if you are unable to fulfill their request. ATC also
expects you to make contact immediately if an instruc- DP RESPONSIBILITY
tion will cause you to compromise safety due to Responsibility for the safe execution of departure pro-
cedures rests on the shoulders of both ATC and the
obstructions or traffic.
pilot. Without the interest and attention of both parties,
It is prudent to review vector SID charts prior to use the IFR system cannot work in harmony, and achieve-
because this type of procedure often includes nonstan- ment of safety is impossible.
dard lost communication procedures. If you were to
lose radio contact while being vectored by ATC, you ATC, in all forms, is responsible for issuing clearances
would be expected to comply with the lost communica- appropriate to the operations being conducted, assigning
tion procedure as outlined on the chart, not necessarily altitudes for IFR flight above the minimum IFR altitudes
those procedures outlined in the AIM. [Figure 2-24 on for a specific area of controlled airspace, ensuring the
page 2-24] pilot has acknowledged the clearance or instructions,
and ensuring the correct read back of instructions.
FLIGHT PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS Specifically related to departures, ATC is responsible for
Take into consideration the departure paths included specifying the direction of takeoff or initial heading
in the SIDs and determine if you can use a standard- when necessary, obtaining pilot concurrence that the
ized departure procedure. You have the opportunity to procedure complies with local traffic patterns, terrain,
choose the SID that best suits your flight plan. During and obstruction clearance, and including departure
the flight planning phase, you can investigate each procedures as part of the ATC clearance when pilot
departure and determine which procedure allows you compliance for separation is necessary.
to depart the airport in the direction of your intended
flight. Also consider how a climb gradient to a spe-
The pilot has a number of responsibilities when simply
cific altitude will affect the climb time and fuel burn
operating in conjunction with ATC or when using
portions of the flight plan. If ATC assigns you a SID,
departure procedures under an IFR clearance:
you may need to quickly recalculate your perform-
ance numbers. • Acknowledge receipt and understanding of an
ATC clearance.
PROCEDURAL NOTES
Another important consideration to make during your • Read back any part of a clearance that contains
flight planning is whether or not you are able to fly “hold short” instructions.
your chosen departure procedure as charted. Notes giv-
• Request clarification of clearances.
ing procedural requirements are listed on the graphic
2-22
 Figure 2-23. Pilot Navigation SID.

• Request an amendment to a clearance if it is unac- When planning for a departure, pilots should:
ceptable from a safety perspective.
• Consider the type of terrain and other obstructions
• Promptly comply with ATC requests. Advise in the vicinity of the airport.
ATC immediately if unable to comply with a
clearance.
2-23
 Figure 2-24. Vector SID.
2-24
Figure 2-25. Procedural Notes.

2-25
 Figure 2-26. Cautionary Statements.

• Determine if obstacle clearance can be maintained ATC is also responsible for obstacle clearance. When
visually, or if they need to make use of a departure departing with a SID, ATC expects you to fly the proce-
procedure. dure as charted because the procedure design considers
obstacle clearance. It is also expected that you will remain
• Determine if an ODP or SID is available for the
vigilant in scanning for traffic when departing in visual
departure airport.
conditions. Furthermore, it is your responsibility to notify
• Determine what actions allow for a safe departure ATC if your clearance would endanger your safety or the
out of an airport that does not have any type of safety of others.
affiliated departure procedures.
PROCEDURES NOT ASSIGNED BY ATC
By simply complying with departure procedures in their Obstacle departure procedures are not assigned by ATC
entirety as published, obstacle clearance is guaranteed. unless absolutely necessary to achieve aircraft separation.
Depending on the type of departure used, responsibility It is the pilot’s responsibility to determine if there is an
for terrain clearance and traffic separation may be shared ODP published for that airport. If a Part 91 pilot is not
between pilots and controllers. given a clearance containing an ODP, SID, or radar
vectors and an ODP exists, compliance with such a
procedure is the pilot’s choice. If he/she chooses not to
PROCEDURES ASSIGNED BY ATC
use the ODP, the pilot must be operating under visual
ATC can assign SIDs or radar vectors as necessary for
meteorological conditions (VMC), which permits the
traffic management and convenience. You can also
avoidance of obstacles during the departure.
request a SID in your initial flight plan, or from ATC.
To fly a SID, you must receive approval to do so in a
DEPARTURES FROM TOWER-CONTROLLED
clearance. In order to accept a clearance that includes a
AIRPORTS
SID, you must have at least a textual description of the
Departing from a tower-controlled airport is relatively
SID in your possession at the time of departure. It is
simple in comparison to departing from an airport that
your responsibility as pilot in command to accept or
isn’t tower controlled. Normally you request your IFR
reject the issuance of a SID by ATC. You must accept or
clearance through ground control or clearance delivery.
reject the clearance based on:
Communication frequencies for the various controllers
• The ability to comply with the required perform- are listed on departure, approach, and airport charts as
ance. well as the A/FD. At some airports, you may have the
option of receiving a pre-taxi clearance. This program
• Possession of at least the textual description of the
allows you to call ground control or clearance delivery
SID.
no more than ten minutes prior to beginning taxi opera-
• Personal understanding of the SID in its entirety. tions and receive your IFR clearance. A pre-departure
clearance (PDC) program that allows pilots to receive a
When you accept a clearance to depart using a SID or clearance via data link from a dispatcher is available for
radar vectors, ATC is responsible for traffic separation. Part 121 and 135 operators. A clearance is given to the
2-26
dispatcher who in turn relays it to the crew, enabling the four key clicks on your VHF radio to contact the nearest
crew to bypass communication with clearance delivery, ATC facility and six key clicks to contact the local
thus reducing frequency congestion. Once you have AFSS, but it is intended to be used only as a ground
received your clearance, it is your responsibility to com- operational tool. A GCO is an unstaffed, remote con-
ply with the instructions as given and notify ATC if you trolled ground-to-ground communication facility that is
are unable to comply with the clearance. If you do not relatively inexpensive to install and operate.
understand the clearance, or if you think that you have Installations of these types of outlets are scheduled at
missed a portion of the clearance, contact ATC immedi- instrument airports around the country.
ately for clarification.
GCOs are manufactured by different companies includ-
ing ARINC and AVTECH, each with different operating
DEPARTURES FROM AIRPORTS WITHOUT characteristics but with the ability to accomplish the same
AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER goal. This latest technology has proven to be an incredi-
There are hundreds of airports across the U.S. that bly useful tool for communicating with the appropriate
operate successfully everyday without the benefit of a authorities when departing IFR from a non-towered
control tower. While a tower is certainly beneficial airport. The GCO should help relieve the need to use
when departing IFR, most other departures can be the telephone to call ATC and the need to depart into
made with few challenges. As usual, you must file your marginal conditions just to achieve radio contact. GCO
flight plan at least 30 minutes in advance. During your information is listed on airport charts and instrument
planning phase, investigate the departure airport’s approach charts with other communications frequen-
method for receiving an instrument clearance. You can cies. Signs may also be located on an airport to notify
contact the Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) you of the frequency and proper usage.
on the ground by telephone and they will request your
clearance from ATC. Typically, when a clearance is OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE
given in this manner, the clearance includes a void time. Safety is always the foremost thought when planning
You must depart the airport before the clearance void and executing an IFR flight. As a result, the goal of all
time; if you fail to depart, you must contact ATC by a departure procedures is to provide a means for departing
specified notification time, which is within 30 minutes an airport in the safest manner possible. It is for this rea-
of the original void time. After the clearance void time, son that airports and their surroundings are reviewed and
your reserved space within the IFR system is released documented and that procedures are put in place to pre-
for other traffic. vent flight into terrain or other man-made obstacles. To
aid in the avoidance of obstacles, takeoff minimums and
departure procedures use minimum climb gradients and
There are several other ways to receive a clearance at a “see and avoid” techniques.
non-towered airport. If you can contact the AFSS or
ATC on the radio, you can request your departure CLIMB GRADIENTS AND CLIMB RATES
clearance. However, these frequencies are typically You are required to contact ATC if you are unable to com-
congested and they may not be able to provide you ply with climb gradients and climb rates. It is also
with a clearance via the radio. You also can use a expected that you are capable of maintaining the climb
Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) to contact an gradient outlined in either a standard or non-standard SID
AFSS if one is located nearby. Some airports have or ODP. If you cannot comply with the climb gradient in
licensed UNICOM operators that can also contact ATC the SID, you should not accept a clearance for that SID. If
on your behalf and in turn relay your clearance from you cannot maintain a standard climb gradient or the
ATC. You are also allowed to depart the airport VFR if climb gradient specified in an ODP, you must wait until
conditions permit and contact the controlling authority you can depart under VMC.
and request your clearance in the air. As technology
improves, new methods for delivery of clearances at Climb gradients are developed as a part of a departure
non-towered airports are being created. procedure to ensure obstacle protection as outlined in
TERPS. Once again, the rate of climb table depicted in
Figure 2-18, used in conjunction with the performance
GROUND COMMUNICATIONS OUTLETS specifications in your airplane flight manual (AFM), can
A new system, called a Ground Communication help you determine your ability to comply with climb
Outlet (GCO), has been developed in conjunction with gradients.
the FAA to provide pilots flying in and out of non-tow-
SEE AND AVOID TECHNIQUES
ered airports with the capability to contact ATC and
AFSS via Very High Frequency (VHF) radio to a tele- Meteorological conditions permitting, you are
phone connection. This lets pilots obtain an instrument required to use “see and avoid” techniques to avoid
clearance or close a VFR/IFR flight plan. You can use traffic, terrain, and other obstacles. To avoid obsta-
cles during a departure, the takeoff minimums may
2-27
include a non-standard ceiling and visibility mini- by to fly-over, or vice versa. No other modification of
mum. These are given to pilots so they can depart an database waypoints or creation of user-defined way-
airport without being able to meet the established points on published RNAV or RNP procedures is per-
climb gradient. Instead, they must see and avoid mitted, except to change altitude and/or airspeed
obstacles in the departure path. In these situations, waypoint constraints to comply with an ATC clear-
ATC provides radar traffic information for radar-iden- ance/instruction, or to insert a waypoint along the pub-
tified aircraft outside controlled airspace, workload lished route to assist in complying with an ATC
permitting, and safety alerts to pilots believed to be instruction, for example, "Climb via the WILIT depar-
within an unsafe proximity to obstacles or aircraft. ture except cross 30 north of CHUCK at/or above FL
210." This is limited only to systems that allow along
AREA NAVIGATION DEPARTURES track waypoint construction.
In the past, area navigation (RNAV) was most commonly
Pilots of aircraft utilizing DME/DME for primary naviga-
associated with the station-mover/phantom waypoint tech-
tion updating shall ensure any required DME stations are
nology developed around ground-based Very High
in service as determined by NOTAM, ATIS, or ATC advi-
Frequency Omni-directional Range (VOR) stations.
sory. No pilot monitoring of an FMS navigation source is
RNAV today, however, refers to a variety of navigation
required. While operating on RNAV segments, pilots are
systems that provide navigation beyond VOR and NDB.
encouraged to use the flight director in lateral navigation
RNAV is a method of navigation which permits aircraft
mode. RNAV terminal procedures may be amended by
operation on any desired flight path within the coverage of
ATC issuing radar vectors and/or clearances direct to a
station-referenced navigation aids or within the limits of
waypoint. Pilots should avoid premature manual deletion
the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of
of waypoints from their active "legs" page to allow for
these. The term also has become synonymous with the
rejoining procedures. While operating on RNAV seg-
concept of “free flight,” the goal of which is to provide
ments, pilots operating /R aircraft shall adhere to any
easy, direct, efficient, cost-saving traffic management as
flight manual limitation or operating procedure required
a result of the inherent flexibility of RNAV.
to maintain the RNP value specified for the procedure.
In the past, departure procedures were built around RNAV DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
existing ground-based technology and were typically There are two types of public RNAV SIDs and graphic
designed to accommodate lower traffic volumes. Often, ODPs. Type A procedures generally start with a heading
departure and arrival routes use the same navigation aids or vector from the DER, and have an initial RNAV fix
creating interdependent, capacity diminishing routes. As around 15 NM from the departure airport. In addition,
a part of the evolving RNAV structure, the FAA has these procedures require system performance currently
developed departure procedures for pilots flying aircraft met by GPS, DME/DME, or DME/DME/Inertial
equipped with some type of RNAV technology. RNAV Reference Unit (IRU) RNAV systems that satisfy the cri-
allows for the creation of new departure routes that are teria discussed in AC 90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route
independent of present fixes and navigation aids. RNAV Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. Type A terminal
routing is part of the National Airspace Redesign and is procedures require that the aircraft's track keeping accu-
expected to reduce complexity and increase efficiency racy remain bounded by ±2 NM for 95 percent of the total
of terminal airspace. flight time. For type A procedure RNAV engagement alti-
tudes, the pilot must be able to engage RNAV equipment
When new RNAV departure procedures are designed with
no later than 2,000 feet above airport elevation. For Type
all interests in mind, they require minimal vectoring and
A RNAV DPs, it is recommended that pilots use a
communications between pilots and ATC. Usually, each
CDI/flight director and/or autopilot in lateral navigation
departure procedure includes position, time, and altitude,
mode.
which increase the ability to predict what the pilot will
actually do. All told, RNAV departure procedures have Type B procedures generally start with an initial RNAV
the ability to increase the capacity of terminal airspace by leg near the DER. In addition, these procedures require
increasing on-time departures, airspace utilization, and system performance currently met by GPS or
improved predictability. DME/DME/IRU RNAV systems that satisfy the criteria
discussed in AC 90-100. Type B procedures require the
If unable to comply with the requirements of an RNAV aircraft's track keeping accuracy remain bounded by ±1
or required navigation performance (RNP) procedure, NM for 95 percent of the total flight time. For type B pro-
pilots need to advise ATC as soon as possible. For exam- cedures, the pilot must be able to engage RNAV equip-
ple, ". . .N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNAV, ment no later than 500 feet above airport elevation. For
request amended clearance." Pilots are not authorized to Type B RNAV DPs, pilots must use a CDI/flight director
fly a published RNAV or RNP procedure unless it is and/or autopilot in lateral navigation mode. For Type A
retrievable by the procedure name from the navigation RNAV DPs and STARs, these procedures are recom-
database and conforms to the charted procedure. Pilots mended. Other methods providing an equivalent level of
shall not change any database waypoint type from a fly- performance may also be acceptable. For Type B RNAV
2-28
DPs, pilots of aircraft without GPS using Additionally, new waypoint symbols are used in conjunc-
DME/DME/IRU must ensure that the aircraft navigation tion with RNAV charts. There are two types of waypoints
system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the currently in use: fly-by (FB) and fly-over (FO). A fly-by
start point of take-off roll. The use of an automatic or waypoint typically is used in a position at which a change
manual runway update is an acceptable means of compli- in the course of procedure occurs. Charts represent them
ance with this requirement. Other methods providing an with four-pointed stars. This type of waypoint is designed
equivalent level of performance may also be acceptable. to allow you to anticipate and begin your turn prior to
reaching the waypoint, thus providing smoother transi-
For procedures requiring GPS and/or aircraft approvals tions. Conversely, RNAV charts show a fly-over waypoint
requiring GPS, if the navigation system does not automat- as a four-pointed star enclosed in a circle. This type of
ically alert the flight crew of a loss of GPS, aircraft oper- waypoint is used to denote a missed approach point, a
ators must develop procedures to verify correct GPS missed approach holding point, or other specific points in
operation. If not equipped with GPS, or for multi-sensor space that must be flown over. [Figure 2-28 on page 2-30]
systems with GPS that do not alert upon loss of GPS, air-
craft must be capable of navigation system updating using
DME/DME or DME/DME/IRU for type A and B proce-
RNAV departure procedures are being developed at a
dures. AC 90-100 may be used as operational guidance
rapid pace to provide RNAV capabilities at all airports.
for RNAV ODPs. Pilots of FMS-equipped aircraft, who
With every chart revision cycle, new RNAV departures
are assigned an RNAV DP procedure and subsequently
are being added for small and large airports. These
receive a change of runway, transition, or procedure, must
departures are flown in the same manner as traditional
verify that the appropriate changes are loaded and avail-
navigation-based departures; you are provided headings,
able for navigation.
altitudes, navigation waypoint, and departure descrip-
RNAV departure procedures are developed as SIDs and tions. RNAV SIDs are found in the TPP with traditional
ODPs—both are charted graphically. An RNAV depar- departure procedures. On the plan view of this proce-
ture is identifiable by the inclusion of the term RNAV in dure, in the lower left corner of the chart, the previous
the title of the departure. From an RNP standpoint, RNAV aircraft equipment suffix code and equipment notes have
departure routes are designed with a 1 or 2 NM perform- been replaced with note 3, the new type code, Type B
ance standard. This means you as the pilot and your air- RNAV departure procedure. Additionally, ATC has the
craft equipment must be able to maintain the aircraft aircraft equipment suffix code on file from the flight
within 1 NM or 2 NM either side of route centerline. plan. [Figure 2-29 on page 2-31]
[Figure 2-27]

2.0 NM

1.0 NM

Path Centerline

1.0 NM

2.0 NM

Figure 2-27. RNP Departure Levels.

2-29
 A fly-over (FO) way-
point precludes any
turn until the waypoint
is overflown.

A fly-by (FB) waypoint requires the

use of turn anticipation to avoid
overshooting the next segment.

Figure 2-28. Fly-Over and Fly-By Waypoints.

RNAV ODPs are always charted graphically, and like dards. Based on DME availability evaluations at the time
other ODPs, a note in the Takeoff Minimums and IFR of publication, current DME coverage is not sufficient to
Obstacle Departure Procedures section refers you to the support DME/DME RNAV operations everywhere with-
graphic ODP chart contained in the main body of the TPP. out IRU augmentation or use of GPS. [Figure 2-32 on
[Figure 2-30 on page 2-32] page 2-33]

There are specific requirements, however, that must be PILOT RESPONSIBILITY

met before using RNAV procedures. Every RNAV depar- FOR USE OF RNAV DEPARTURES
ture chart lists general notes and may include specific RNAV usage brings with it multitudes of complications
equipment and performance requirements, as well as the as it is being implemented. It takes time to transition, to
type of RNAV departure procedure in the chart plan view. disseminate information, and to educate current and
New aircraft equipment suffix codes are used to denote potential users. As a current pilot using the NAS, you need
capabilities for advanced RNAV navigation, for flight to have a clear understanding of the aircraft equipment
plan filing purposes. [Figure 2-31 on page 2-33] requirements for operating in a given RNP environment.
You must understand the type of navigation system
The chart notes may also include operational information installed in your aircraft, and furthermore, you must know
for certain types of equipment, systems, and performance how your system operates to ensure that you can comply
requirements, in addition to the type of RNAV departure with all RNAV requirements. Operational information
procedure. DME/DME navigation system updating may should be included in your AFM or its supplements.
require specific DME facilities to meet performance stan- Additional information concerning how to use your
2-30
Figure 2-29. The COWBY TWO Departure, Las Vegas, Nevada, is an Example of an RNAV SID.

2-31
 Figure 2-30. MENDOCINO ONE Departure, Willits, California, is an Example of an RNAV ODP.

2-32
RNAV Equipment Codes

ADVANCED RNAV WITH TRANSPONDER AND MODE C (If an aircraft is unable to operate with a transponder and/or
Mode C, it will revert to the appropriate code listed above under Area Navigation.)

/E FMS with DME/DME and IRU position updating

/F FMS with DME/DME position updating

/G Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), including GPS or WAAS, with en route and terminal capability.

/R RNP. The aircraft meets the RNP type prescribed for the route segment(s), route(s) and/or area concerned.

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM). Prior to conducting RVSM operations within the U.S., the operator
must obtain authorization from the FAA or from the responsible authority, as appropriate.

/J /E with RVSM

/K /F with RVSM

/L /G with RVSM

/Q /R with RVSM

/W RVSM

Figure 2-31. RNAV Equipment Codes.

Figure 2-32. Operational Requirements for RNAV.

2-33
equipment to its fullest capacity, including “how to” train- DIVERSE VECTOR AREA
ing may be gathered from your avionics manufacturer. If ATC may establish a minimum vectoring altitude
you are in doubt about the operation of your avionics sys- (MVA) around certain airports. This altitude is based on
tem and its ability to comply with RNAV requirements, terrain and obstruction clearance and provides con-
contact the FAA directly through your local Flight trollers with minimum altitudes to vector aircraft in and
Standards District Office (FSDO). In-depth information around a particular location. However, it may be neces-
regarding navigation databases is included in Appendix sary to vector aircraft below this altitude to assist in the
A—Airborne Navigation Databases. efficient flow of departing traffic. For this reason, an air-
port may have established a Diverse Vector Area
RADAR DEPARTURE (DVA). DVA design requirements are outlined in
A radar departure is another option for departing an TERPS and allow for the vectoring of aircraft off the
airport on an IFR flight. You might receive a radar departure end of the runway below the MVA. The pres-
departure if the airport does not have an established ence of a DVA is not published for pilots in any form,
departure procedure, if you are unable to comply with so the use of a textual ODP in a DVA environment
a departure procedure, or if you request “No SIDs” as a could result in a misunderstanding between pilots and
part of your flight plan. Expect ATC to issue an initial controllers. ATC instructions take precedence over an
departure heading if you are being radar vectored after ODP. Most DVAs exist only at the busiest airports.
takeoff, however, do not expect to be given a purpose for [Figure 2-33]
the specific vector heading. Rest assured that the con-
troller knows your flight route and will vector you into VFR DEPARTURE
position. By nature of the departure type, once you are There may be times when you need to fly an IFR flight
issued your clearance, the responsibility for coordination plan due to the weather you will encounter at a later time
of your flight rests with ATC, including the tower con- (or if you simply wish to fly IFR to remain proficient), but
troller and, after handoff, the departure controller who the weather outside is clearly VFR. It may be that you can
will remain with you until you are released on course and depart VFR, but you need to get an IFR clearance shortly
allowed to “resume own navigation.” after departing the airport. A VFR departure can be used
as a tool that allows you to get off the ground without hav-
For all practical purposes, a radar departure is the easiest ing to wait for a time slot in the IFR system, however,
type of departure to use. It is also a good alternative to a departing VFR with the intent of receiving an IFR
published departure procedure, particularly when none of clearance in the air can also present serious hazards
the available departure procedures are conducive to your worth considering.
flight route. However, it is advisable to always maintain a
detailed awareness of your location as you are being radar A VFR departure dramatically changes the takeoff
vectored by ATC. If for some reason radar contact is lost, responsibilities for you and for ATC. Upon receiving
you will be asked to provide position reports in order for clearance for a VFR departure, you are cleared to depart;
ATC to monitor your flight progress. Also, ATC may however, you must maintain separation between yourself
release you to “resume own navigation” after vectoring and other traffic. You are also responsible for maintaining
you off course momentarily for a variety of reasons terrain and obstruction clearance as well as remaining in
including weather or traffic. VFR weather conditions. You cannot fly in IMC without
first receiving your IFR clearance. Likewise, a VFR
Upon initial contact, state your aircraft or flight number, departure relieves ATC of these duties, and basically
the altitude you are climbing through, and the altitude to requires them only to provide you with safety alerts as
which you are climbing. The controller will verify that workload permits.
your reported altitude matches that emitted by your
transponder. If your altitude does not match, or if you do Maintain VFR until you have obtained your IFR clear-
not have Mode C capabilities, you will be continually ance and have ATC approval to proceed on course in
required to report your position and altitude for ATC. accordance with your clearance. If you accept this
clearance and are below the minimum IFR altitude for
The controller is not required to provide terrain and obsta- operations in the area, you accept responsibility for ter-
cle clearance just because ATC has radar contact with rain/obstruction clearance until you reach that altitude.
your aircraft. It remains your responsibility until the con-
troller begins to provide navigational guidance in the form NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
of radar vectors. Once radar vectors are given, you are As the aviation industry continues to grow and air traffic
expected to promptly comply with headings and altitudes increases, so does the population of people and businesses
as assigned. Question any assigned heading if you believe around airports. As a result, noise abatement procedures
it to be incorrect or if it would cause a violation of a regu- have become commonplace at most of the nation’s air-
lation, then advise ATC immediately and obtain a revised ports. Part 150 specifies the responsibilities of the FAA to
clearance. investigate the recommendations of the airport operator in

2-34
a noise compatibility program and approve or disapprove While these restrictions may seem burdensome, it is
the noise abatement suggestions. This is a crucial step in important to remember that it is your duty to comply
ensuring that the airport is not unduly inhibited by noise with written and spoken requests from ATC.
requirements and that air traffic workload and efficiency
are not significantly impacted, all while considering the Additionally, when required, departure instructions spec-
noise problems addressed by the surrounding community. ify the actual heading to be flown after takeoff, as is the
case in figure 2-34 under the departure route description,
While most departure procedures are designed for obsta- “Climb via heading 112 degrees...” Some existing proce-
cle clearance and workload reduction, there are some dures specify, “Climb runway heading.” Over time, both
SIDs that are developed solely to comply with noise of these departure instructions will be updated to read,
abatement requirements. Portland International Jetport is “Climb heading 112 degrees....” Runway Heading is the
an example of an airport where a SID was created strictly magnetic direction that corresponds with the runway cen-
for noise abatement purposes as noted in the departure terline extended (charted on the AIRPORT DIAGRAM),
procedure. [Figure 2-34 on page 2-36] Typically, noise not the numbers painted on the runway. Pilots cleared to
restrictions are incorporated into the main body of the “fly or maintain runway heading” are expected to fly or
SID. These types of restrictions require higher departure maintain the published heading that corresponds with the
altitudes, larger climb gradients, reduced airspeeds, and extended centerline of the departure runway (until other-
turns to avoid specific areas. wise instructed by ATC), and are not to apply drift correc-
tion; e.g. RWY 11, actual magnetic heading of the runway
Noise restrictions may also be evident during a radar centerline 112.2 degrees, “fly heading 112 degrees”. In
departure. ATC may require you to turn away from your the event of parallel departures this prevents a loss of sep-
intended course or vector you around a particular area. aration caused by only one aircraft applying a wind drift.

MVA

DVAs allow for the maneuvering

of aircraft below the established
MVA for a particular airport

3 NM

40:1 Diverse Departure Criteria

is used to identify obstacles
in the departure path.

Figure 2-33. Diverse Vector Area Establishment Criteria.

2-35
 Figure 2-34. Noise Abatement SIDs.

2-36