Tripney and Hombrados Empirical Research in Vocational Education & Training 2013, 5:3

http://www.ervet-journal.com/content/5/1/3

REVIEW Open Access

Technical and vocational education and training

(TVET) for young people in low- and middle-
income countries: a systematic review and
meta-analysis
Janice S Tripney1* and Jorge G Hombrados2

* Correspondence: j.tripney@ioe.ac.uk
1
EPPI-Centre, Institute of Education, Abstract
University of London, 18 Woburn
Square, London, WC1H 0NR, UK The world is facing a worsening youth employment crisis. In response, technical and
Full list of author information is vocational education and training (TVET) is back on the development agenda after
available at the end of the article years of neglect. This systematic review examined the evidence from studies
evaluating the impacts of TVET interventions for young people in low- and middle-
income countries (LMICs). The 26 included studies evaluated 20 different interven-
tions, predominantly from Latin America. Meta-analyses of the effectiveness of TVET
on five outcome measure categories were conducted. The overall mean effects on
overall paid employment, formal employment, and monthly earnings were small,
positive, and significant; however, significant heterogeneity was observed. Moderator
analysis was performed in an attempt to explain between-study differences in effects.
The overall paucity of research in this area, together with specific gaps and methodo-
logical limitations, affirm the need for strengthening the evidence base. Implications
for policy, practice and research are discussed.

Review
Introduction
The global youth unemployment rate rose sharply between 2008 and 2009, from 11.8
to 12.7 per cent, reversing the pre-crisis trend of declining youth unemployment rates
since 2002 (International Labour Organization 2011). By 2011, 74.8 million young
people were unemployed. In some regions, young people are nearly three times as
likely as adults to be unemployed; they are also more likely than older workers to be
underemployed or work in the informal labour market, in poor quality jobs that re-
quire low levels of skills and offer limited socio-economic security, training opportun-
ities, and working conditions (International Labour Organization 2012). Significant
regional variation in youth unemployment exists; and, in many countries, young
women are much more likely to be un/underemployed than young men (United Na-
tions 2012). Over 40 per cent of all young people live on less than two US dollars a
day, with youth in developing countries disproportionately among the working poor
(International Labour Organization 2012). This enormous unlocked potential repre-
sents a substantial loss of opportunity for both individuals and society.
© 2013 Tripney and Hombrados; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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One billion young people, the majority from LMICs, are predicted to reach employ-
ment age within the next decade (International Labour Organization 2012), compound-
ing what are already severely limited opportunities for integrating youth into the labour
market. With increasing policy importance now placed on higher-order skills and their
central role in the global knowledge-based economy, comes a renewed focus on the po-
tential of TVET to equip youths with the abilities to seize available work opportunities,
and, in turn, impact upon global poverty and social stability (African Union 2007; King
and Palmer 2010; Péano et al. 2008; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization 2010, 2012). Neglected by the World Bank and other donor agencies dur-
ing much of the 1980s and 1990s, there has been growing investment in TVET since
2000. Deciding which programmes to implement requires an understanding not only of
which models are effective, but for whom they are effective. Collecting evidence from
studies that have analysed these issues is crucial for purposes of policy-making.

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)

The term TVET, as used in this systematic review, follows the definition used by
UNESCO as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general
education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of prac-
tical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various
sectors of economic life”. It incorporates: technical education, vocational education, vo-
cational training, on-the-job training, and apprenticeship training (or any combination
thereof ).

Prior reviews of TVET

Although a number of prior reviews have summarised the existing research in this area
(see, for example, Angel-Urdinola et al. 2010; Betcherman et al. 2004; Betcherman et al.
2007; Card et al. 2010; Fares and Puerto 2009; Greenberg et al. 2003; Katz 2008; Kluve
2006; Kluve and Schmidt 2002; Puerto 2007; Stavreska 2006; Van Adams 2007), there
are a number of limitations to these reviews. Some contain evidence from high-income
countries only; others, whilst broader in geographical scope, do not focus specifically
on developing countries, TVET, or young people. Very few existing reviews are based
on a comprehensive, systematic search for literature, and almost all take either a trad-
itional narrative approach to synthesis or use vote-counting methods where conclu-
sions regarding effective interventions are made based on the number of studies found
to demonstrate significant positive results. None of the previous reviews that specific-
ally focus on TVET for youth in LMICs have computed effect sizes for the included
studies or examined variability in effects by study, participant or intervention character-
istics. These are problems that this review aims to remedy, thereby adding value to the
existing body of research on this topic.

Purpose of the present study

This review sought to improve upon prior work by systematically examining the evi-
dence base to provide a clearer picture of the types of TVET interventions being used
to improve employment prospects for youth in LMICs, to identify the overall effective-
ness of TVET, to examine whether study, participant and intervention characteristics
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help to explain variability in intervention effects, and to identify areas in which more
research needs to be conducted. An extended version of this article is available as a
technical report published in the Campbell Collaboration library (Tripney et al. 2013).

Methods
Systematic review methodology was utilised for all aspects of the search, selection and
coding of studies. The review was conducted in accordance with Campbell Collabor-
ation procedures and guidelines on systematic review methods, available at http://
campbellcollaboration.org/. Full details about the methods for this review can be found
in the technical report, and review protocol (Tripney et al. 2012).

Eligibility criteria
Eligibility was restricted to studies that: were conducted in LMICs; were reported be-
tween 2000 and 2011; evaluated the impact of a TVET intervention; investigated out-
comes for youth aged 15–24 years; included at least one quantifiable measure of
employment or employability (broadly defined); and used an experimental or rigorous
quasi-experimental design (such as the use of propensity scores to match on pre-tests
and/or relevant demographic characteristics or regression analysis to control for differ-
ences between groups). Single group pre-post test studies were not eligible. No lan-
guage or publication status restrictions were applied.
The conceptual definition of TVET used in this review cuts across education level,
type of learning arrangement, mode of delivery, setting, and type of provider/regulator.
It includes provision of (i) initial training for young people from the age of 15/16 years
after compulsory school, but prior to entering work; (ii) continuing education and
training for adults in the labour market leading to personal, flexible and/or vocational
competencies; and (iii) training for unemployed persons currently available for and
seeking work (including retraining for those made redundant). Single- and multi-
service TVET interventions were eligible for inclusion in the review, as were interven-
tions delivered for any length of time or frequency. LMICs were defined according to
World Bank classification of economies (in effect 1 July 2011 until 30 June 2012).

Literature search and strategy

The review recognised the importance of using a comprehensive and diverse search
strategy to locate all qualifying published and unpublished studies (Papaioannou et al.
2009; Schucan Bird and Tripney 2011). First, 10 major bibliographic databases were
electronically searched (including ASSIA, Econlit, ERIC, IBSS, Medline, PsycINFO, and
SSCI). Searches within each database combined controlled vocabulary and natural lan-
guage terms, with appropriate wildcards, for three concepts: TVET, employment, and
study design. Second, specialist databases and library catalogues were searched, includ-
ing grey literature, regional and topic-specific sources. Third, the websites of govern-
ment agencies, research centres, foundations, professional associations, and other
relevant organisations were searched. Fourth, the reference lists of previous reviews
and included studies were checked. Fifth, citation searches of included studies were
conducted. Sixth, information about additional relevant studies was requested from
authors of included studies and other key experts in the field.
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Data extraction and critical appraisal

Data were independently extracted from all included studies by pairs of reviewers using a
coding tool specifically designed for this review. Studies were quality assessed using a tool
developed specifically for assessing risk of bias in experimental and quasi-experimental
designs based on statistical methods (Hombrados and Waddington 2012).

Analysis
Where data allowed, effect sizes were computed for each study and random-effects
inverse-variance weighted meta-analytic methods were used to synthesise the evidence.
We followed Petrosino et al. (2012) in the use of standardised mean differences (SMDs)
for synthesising both continuous and dichotomous outcomes. The different formulas
used in calculating effect sizes are detailed in the full technical report. The included
studies were analysed by outcome and Hedges’ g effect sizes were reported. To visibly
examine between-study variability in the effect size estimates, forest plots were used to
display the estimated effect sizes from each study along with their 95 per cent confi-
dence intervals (CIs). Heterogeneity was explored using both the Q test and the I2
index (Deeks et al. 2001; Higgins and Green 2011). Moderator analyses were performed
to examine possible reasons for variability in effects. Due to the small number of
available studies, an analogue to the ANOVA analysis (univariate) approach was used
(Lipsey and Wilson 2001). The categorical variables which identified the sub-groups
used in this exercise were specified in advance.

Results
Size of literature reviewed
Of the 8072 articles identified using the electronic search, 145 were deemed potentially
relevant on the basis of title and abstract and the full papers were retrieved for a full
text review. The full papers of a further 76 items identified through the non-database
search were also manually examined. This process resulted in a total of 30 different
studies, described in 55 separate publications, being identified as meeting the eligibility
criteria. Of these, 26 studies were included in the review.a The study search and selec-
tion process is detailed in Figure 1.

Descriptive analysis
Publication dates of the 26 included studies ranged between 2001 and 2011, and over
three-quarters were published as technical reports. Three studies were randomised ex-
periments and 23 studies used a quasi-experimental design (QED). The QED evalua-
tions used different econometric techniques to address selection bias and net out the
impacts of other factors, most commonly propensity score matching (Rosenbaum and
Rubin 1983). The majority of study samples included both male and female partici-
pants, and a single study focused exclusively on young women. The risk of bias assess-
ments resulted in five studies graded medium quality (Attanasio et al. 2011; Card et al.
2011; Chong and Galdo 2006; Hicks et al. 2011; Espinoza 2010), 10 graded low/medium
(Acero et al. 2011; Aedo and Nuñez 2004; Aedo and Pizarro 2004; Analítica Consultores
2006; Chong et al. 2008; Díaz and Jaramillo 2006; Elías et al. 2004; Ibarraran and
Rosas-Shady 2006; Jaramillo et al. 2007; Ñopo et al. 2007) and 11 graded low (Alzuá
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Database searches: 8072 study reports

(after duplicates removed) were
identified in the search process and
screened for eligibility

7925 study reports excluded based

onrelevance
on relevanceofoftitles/abstracts
titles/abstracts

2 study reports excluded based on

unavailabilityofofstudy
unavailability studyreports
reports

145 study reports retrieved and full

texts screened for eligibility

Manual searches: 76 potentially

136 studies deemed ineligible
relevant study reports were identified
and the full texts screened for eligibility

Total number of eligible studies : 30

(in 55 study reports)

4 studies unable to be included in the

review

26 studies (published in 51 different

study reports) included in the review

Figure 1 Study search and selection process flowchart.

and Brassiolo 2006; Alzúa et al. 2007; Benus et al. 2001; Bidani et al. 2002; Chun and
Watanabe 2011; Delajara et al. 2006; Dmitrijeva 2009; López-Acevedo 2003; Medina
and Nuñez 2005; Mensch et al. 2004; van Gameren 2010).d
Twenty different TVET programme interventions were evaluated. Settings include 10
upper-middle income countries (Argentina; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Brazil; Chile;
China; Colombia; Dominican Republic; Latvia; Mexico; Panama and Peru); two lower-
middle income countries (India and Bhutan); and one low-income country (Kenya).e
Twelve programmes were specifically targeted at youth. The majority were targeted at
disadvantaged populations, based on criteria such as household income, education
level, and employment experience. A few were occupation- rather than age-focused
(targeting, for example, demobilised soldiers or unemployed former employees of state-
owned enterprises). A small number of interventions were directed exclusively at either
urban or rural residents.
The 20 TVET interventions consisted of one or more of the different models or
approaches to vocational skills development (see Table 1). The different types of TVET
are not evenly represented, however; for instance, no apprenticeship training pro-
grammes were evaluated and a very small number of studies focused on technical edu-
cation or vocational education. Many of the interventions in the included studies were
complex, multi-component programmes. Alongside TVET-related training, some pro-
grammes incorporated labour mediation services (such as job readiness skills), some in-
cluded training specifically for self-employment and some included other types of
training (such as basic skills). However, the largest category of multi-component
programme involved components consisting of different types of TVET. There were
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Table 1 Main intervention characteristics

Characteristic N
Type/model of TVET*
Technical education 2
Vocational education 1
Vocational training 16
On-the-job training 14
Apprenticeship training 0
Key programme features
MC: sequential TVET components (i.e., two-phase TVET models) 9
MC: incorporates labour intermediation services 6
MC: incorporates training specifically for self-employment 4
MC: incorporates non-TVET-related training (e.g., life skills) 3
Notes. *programme as a whole or programme component; MC - multi-component.

nine two-phase TVET interventions, most of which combined theoretical and practical
training, usually in the format of classroom-based vocational training followed by a
period of on-the-job training to provide beneficiaries with work experience. These in-
terventions typically focused on short-term semi-skilled training in specific occupations
demanded in the private sector.
Primary study authors often did not provide all the necessary data for computing ef-
fect sizes. It was possible to calculate at least one effect size for 10 of the studies in-
cluded in the review (Acero et al. 2011; Aedo and Nuñez 2004; Aedo and Pizarro 2004;
Attanasio et al. 2011; Card et al. 2011; Elías et al. 2004; Espinoza 2010; Hicks et al.
2011; Ibarraran and Rosas-Shady 2006; Medina and Nuñez 2005). The findings from
these studies were statistically combined using meta-analytic techniques.

Overall mean effects of interventions

The overall mean effect sizes for five outcomes are presented in Table 2. For three out-
comes, an overall positive and statistically significant effect on TVET on youth was
found: overall paid employment (g = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment
(g = 0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and earnings (g = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]). For
working hours worked, the overall effect was also positive, but non-significant
(g = 0.043; 95% CI [−0.017, 0.104]). In contrast, the overall effect on self-employment
earnings was negative, and non-significant (g = −0.025; 95% CI [−0.11, 0.061]).b

Table 2 Overall mean effect size and heterogeneity statistics

Hedges’ g 95% CI k Q I2 tau2
Overall paid employment 0.134 0.024, 0.243 8 23.8* 70.6% 0.0153
Formal employment 0.199 0.055, 0.344 5 11.1* 63.9% 0.0131
Earnings 0.127 0.043, 0.21 9 25.5* 68.6% 0.00815
Self-employment earnings −0.025 −0.11, 0.061 2 0.206 0% 0
Weekly hours worked 0.043 −0.017, 0.104 6 1.8 0% 0
Note. *p < 0.05.
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Analysis of homogeneity
For three outcomes (overall paid employment, formal employment, and earnings) the
grand mean provides some evidence that the TVET interventions were, on average, effect-
ive; although, effects are generally small and difficult to detect. Furthermore, in each case
the result of the statistical test for homogeneity was statistically significant (Q = 23.8, p <
0.05; Q = 11.1, p < 0.05; Q = 25.5, p < 0.05), indicating that studies disagreed on the magni-
tude of effect. Our next step was to explore the reasons for this variability between studies.

Analysis of moderator effects

Moderator analyses were performed to examine independent variables that may be
contributing to the heterogeneity. The results are presented in Table 3.

Relationship of study characteristics to effect size

Two factors potentially associated with treatment effect were examined: study quality and
length of follow up (i.e., timing of outcome measurement). As there were no high quality
studies included in the review, studies rated medium quality were compared with those rated
low or low-medium.c Short-term treatment effects (measured at approximately six months)
were compared with medium-term effects (measured at approximately 12 months). The low
quality studies were found to have consistently larger mean effects than the medium quality
studies; and, for two outcomes, differences in mean effects observed between studies accord-
ing to study quality were statistically significant: paid employment (Qb = 6.49, p = 0.0108);
formal employment (Qb = 10.6, p = 0.0012). Although studies that measured short-term
treatment effects consistently had slightly larger mean effects than studies in the medium-
term follow up group, no statistically significant relationship between length of follow up
and treatment effect was observed for any of the outcomes for which we had data.

Relationship of participant characteristics (gender) to effect size

For one of the five outcome categories (weekly hours), statistically significant differ-
ences in mean treatment effects were observed between studies according to gender
(Qb = 10.1; p = 0.00151). Treatment effects for female youth were positive (g = 0.16;
95% CI [0.04, 0.28]), while those for male youth were negative (g = −0.09; 95% CI [−0.2,
0.01]). However, male youth participation in TVET demonstrated effects that were not
statistically different from zero, lessening our confidence in this result.

Relationship of intervention characteristics (type) to effect size

Slight differences in mean effects between two-phase models of TVET and other
models were observed, with two-phases usually, but not always, producing the larger
effects. However, these differences were not statistically significant.

Conclusions
This review improves upon prior work by statistically synthesising TVET intervention
research, strengthening the evidence base on which current policies and practices can
draw. However, the nature of the available evidence, and limitations in the review itself,
are such that drawing strong inferences from the results of the analyses is not recom-
mended and considerable caution should be used when interpreting and applying the
findings of the review.
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Table 3 Moderator analysis results for categorical factors

Outcome Factor Qb Mean ES 95% CI
Overall paid employment Study quality 6.49*
Medium 0.06 −0.01, 0.12
Low 0.25 0.12, 0.38
Length of follow-up 0.273
Medium-term 0.12 0, 0.24
Short-term 0.18 0, 0.36
Intervention type 1.43
Two-phase models 0.16 0.04, 0.28
Other models 0.01 −0.2, 0.22
Gender 2.1
Female 0.1 0, 0.2
Male 0.01 −0.08, 0.09
Formal employment Study quality 10.6*
Medium 0.12 0.05, 0.19
Low 0.37 0.24, 0.5
Earnings Study quality 0.204
Medium 0.12 0.05, 0.18
Low 0.15 0.01, 0.3
Length of follow-up 0.186
Medium-term 0.14 0.05, 0.24
Short-term 0.22 −0.13, 0.58
Intervention type 0.397
Two-phase models 0.14 0.04, 0.23
Other models 0.06 −0.15, 0.27
Gender 1.26
Female 0.14 0.08, 0.21
Male 0.09 0.02, 0.16
Self-employment earnings** Gender 1.27
Female 0.03 −0.08, 0.13
Male −0.06 −0.18, 0.05
Weekly hours worked in paid employment Study quality 1.41
Medium 0.02 −0.05, 0.09
Low 0.1 −0.01, 0.22
Length of follow-up 0.109
Medium-term 0.04 −0.03, 0.1
Short-term 0.07 −0.1, 0.24
Intervention type 0.068
Two-phase models 0.04 −0.02, 0.1
Other models 0.07 −0.14, 0.28
Gender 10.1*
Female 0.16 0.04, 0.28
Male −0.09 −0.2, 0.01
Notes. *p < 0.05; **only medium quality studies used in this group.

Despite renewed investment in TVET and increased pressure for evidence-based

decision-making, there remains an overall scarcity of research in this area and specific
knowledge gaps. The interventions included in this systematic review are not
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representative of all TVET programmes in existence. Studies were undertaken in a rela-

tively small number of counties, predominantly in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Some types of TVET are poorly represented in the review; for example, no studies ex-
amined the effectiveness of apprenticeship training. The quality of the existing evidence
base is also a concern. Only three RCTs were identified, and methodological and
reporting shortcomings of the included studies were such that none provided high
quality evidence to help answer the review questions.
Overall, interventions included in the meta-analyses were found to demonstrate a sig-
nificant, though small, positive effect on a limited range of labour market outcomes:
overall paid employment (g = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment (g =
0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and monthly earnings (g = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]).
However, the observed heterogeneity was also significant, indicating that different stud-
ies point to somewhat different conclusions. Attempts to explain the heterogeneity in
overall mean effects suggest that methods matter. The low quality studies have consist-
ently larger mean effects than the medium quality studies. For two outcomes, evidence
of a statistically significant relationship between study quality and effect size magnitude
suggest that the overall mean effect may be inflated and that our conclusions about
treatment effect should be based only on those studies rated medium quality: paid em-
ployment (g = 0.06; 95% CI [−0.01, 0.12]); formal employment (g = 0.12; 95% CI [0.05,
0.19]). Treatment effects for both self-employment earnings and weekly hours worked
were non-significant. On the whole, the other independent variables that were tested
were unable to explain variability in effects. Length of follow up did not demonstrate a
significant relationship with treatment effect. Two-phase TVET interventions (class-
room-based vocational training followed by on-the-job training) produced statistically
similar effects to other TVET models. Gender may have some influence, as an increase
in the number of weekly hours worked by youth following participating in TVET ap-
pears to be driven by the effect on young women. It is important to note, however, that
due to an insufficient number of studies reporting relevant data, only some of the mod-
erator analyses that had been planned a priori could be performed. Furthermore, due
to the very small number of studies for most of the variables tested, and thus low statis-
tical power, we may not have been able to detect moderator effects that may indeed be
present. In addition, there may be other moderating variables that either were not
tested in this study or measured in the primary reports, such as implementation fidel-
ity, whether the intervention was theoretically informed, and so on, which could ac-
count for the differences in effects between studies.
While a key strength of this study is its application of systematic review principles to
improve upon prior work. There are several important limitations to this review that
should be acknowledged. First, not all eligible studies are included in the meta-analysis.
Second, the methods for calculating comparable effect sizes from studies using complex
econometrics methods, as used in this review, are under-developed and require further
research (for a complete discussion, see Becker and Wu 2007; Duvendack et al. 2012; Lipsey
and Wilson 2001). Third, no high quality studies were identified and some of the methodo-
logical concerns associated with those that were included may mean that the studies have
yielded biased estimates of treatment effect. All conclusions from the current review are
therefore sensitive to the possibility that the results from the meta-analyses may be over- or
under-estimating the effects of TVET on the outcome variables of interest.
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Limitations notwithstanding, this systematic review provides some evidence to sup-

port the claim that participation in TVET improves the labour market situation of
youth in LMICs, on average, when compared to youth who do not participate, with the
strength of the evidence strongest for formal employment and monthly earnings. Thus,
it is reasonable to conclude that it is worthwhile to continue investment in TVET
provision. Although, statistically, the effects of TVET on youth may be small, even a
slight increase in the employment rate, for example, could potentially translate into
fairly large numbers of young people entering the labour market, especially where pro-
grammes are delivered nationally. Through its use of statistical meta-analysis, this re-
view has improved upon previous work; nevertheless, there are two main related areas
of likely disappointment for policymakers and programme implementers. First, not only
were the observed effects generally small and difficult to detect, the review does not
provide conclusive evidence of the effectiveness of TVET on youth employment out-
comes. This suggests an urgent need to improve the rigour of the evidence base, and
will require policymakers, practitioners and other relevant stakeholders engaging critic-
ally with the barriers to effective research production and dissemination in this area.
The commissioning of RCTs and robust QEDs is crucial for generating evidence cap-
able of supporting causal claims. To improve potential generalisability, it is also import-
ant that appropriate support, financial and otherwise, is given to rigorous outcome
research on all types of TVET that have been implemented internationally for young
people, and in a broader range of geographical settings than covered by the current evi-
dence base. A cost-benefit analysis was outside the scope of the current review; how-
ever, attention should be given to the collection of data regarding the costs of TVET
interventions, and examinations of cost-effectiveness should be a priority in future im-
pact evaluations and systematic reviews. Second, the available evidence does not allow
recommendations to be made for, or against, investments in a particular model of
TVET. Although claims have been made in the literature and media for the success or
effectiveness of a particular format of TVET widely implemented in Latin America and
the Caribbean, the evidence from this systematic review suggests that such claims are
premature. In the absence of evidence in support of any one model or approach to vo-
cational skills development, it seems reasonable in the meantime for policymakers and
other stakeholders to select the least costly, most culturally acceptable, and/or most
easily implemented programmes, while at the same time becoming good consumers of
evidence and working towards the strengthening of the evidence base on TVET. This
review has demonstrated that not only is there is a clear need for additional primary re-
search in this area, but that more of the same will not suffice. The methodological
shortcomings of the current evidence base, and specific knowledge gaps, suggest a
number of future research priorities. These are summarised in Table 4.

End notes
a
Four eligible Spanish-language studies could not be included in the review. Of these,
one study was judged as meeting the review selection criteria on the basis of detailed
descriptions in previous literature reviews, but efforts to obtain a copy of the publica-
tion were unsuccessful. The three remaining eligible non-English language studies were
not included in the review due to exhaustion of financial resources. All four studies
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Table 4 Summary of recommendations to improve study quality and fill research gaps
Issue Recommendation
Lack of rigorous study designs Additional studies using rigorous designs are needed,
preferably with random assignment
Evaluated interventions not representative of all Additional studies are needed to evaluate outcomes of
TVET programmes in existence apprenticeship programmes, technical education, and
vocational education. This is a further need for additional
TVET studies from LMICs in Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Inadequate descriptions of interventions Provide a detailed description of the intervention
(including any components) in such as way that the
intervention could be replicated (e.g., duration and
frequency of sessions, curriculum, stipends, and trainee
accreditation).
Lack of studies testing intervention components Analysis of the effects of individual intervention
components is needed in future studies.
Lack of reported information on all key variables Provide adequate descriptions of the study sample (e.g.,
age, race, SES, gender, and % with work experience at
baseline) and other relevant variables that may influence
treatment effects (e.g., whether the intervention was
theoretically underpinned, and implementation issues).
Inconsistency in defining, measuring and reporting Improve descriptions of employment-related outcome
outcomes measures, and agree on definitions. Consistently and
clearly measure and report study outcomes. Where ap-
plicable, measure and report outcomes separately (for
example, differentiate part-time and full-time
employment).
Lack of studies assessing long-term outcomes Measure and report outcomes related to employment at
multiple time points following the intervention, beyond
18 months and preferably over several years.
Lack of studies assessing intermediate outcomes Studies need to examine relevant intermediate
outcomes (such as work attitudes) via consideration of
the theory of change underpinning the intervention.
Lack of studies assessing net employment outcomes Measure and report net employment outcomes to
demonstrate whether job creation is additional or not.
Explore whether this is possible to do with sufficiently
powered cluster designs.
Inadequate reporting of data needed to compute Report relevant information for all outcomes, such as the
effect sizes sample size, mean and standard deviation (pooled,
treatment and/or control) and frequencies/probabilities
of an event occurring in each of the groups (as opposed
to the difference between the groups), regardless of
whether the results of statistical tests for that variable
were statistically significant, or the results of other
analyses are presented.
Inadequate reporting of information needed for Provide a detailed description of the study in such a way
assessments of risk of bias and study replication that allows (a) confident judgements to made about the
trustworthiness of the reported analyses and (b)
replication of the study.
Under-development of methods for calculating Further research on these methods is required.
comparable effect sizes from studies using complex
econometrics methods
Under-development of quasi-experimental evalu- Develop methods for measuring (and ultimately
ation designs involving complex econometric reducing) the bias incurred by the use of such
methods techniques.

evaluated ProJoven, a Peruvian programme that was evaluated by a number of studies

that were included in the review.
b
A preliminary assessment of the ‘direction of effects’ of the 16 studies not included
in the meta-analyses suggests that these studies generally support the meta-analytic
findings.
Tripney and Hombrados Empirical Research in Vocational Education & Training 2013, 5:3 Page 12 of 14
http://www.ervet-journal.com/content/5/1/3

c
For this exercise, all of these studies were grouped together into a single category
labelled low.
d
One study (Espinoza 2010) was graded medium quality overall; however, individual
assessments for the different outcome categories varied. For employment outcomes,
this study was graded as proving medium quality evidence; for monthly earnings, the
grading was low/medium.
e
World Bank country classifications have been revised twice since the conduct of this
review, and Chile and Latvia are currently ranked as high income economies.

Abbreviations
LMIC: Low- and middle-income country; QED: Quasi-experimental design; RCT: Randomised controlled trial;
SMD: Standardised mean difference; TVET: Technical and vocational education and training.

Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ contributions
JT conceived and designed the study; collected, analysed and interpreted the data; and drafted the manuscript. JH
participated in the coordination of the study and data acquisition; advised on the statistical analysis and interpretation
of data; and revised the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Authors’ information
JT is a lecturer in Social Policy, based at the EPPI-Centre (Evidence for Policy and Practice Co-ordinating Centre), Social
science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. JH is a research analyst at J-PAL (Abdul Latif Jameel
Poverty Action Lab), based at its regional office in Latin America at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Acknowledgements
This manuscript arose from a systematic review commissioned in 2011 by the Australian Agency for International
Development (AusAID), in response to the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) systematic reviews call 3.
JT was the grant holder and principal investigator. JH participated in the full review on an un-funded basis. JT and JH
wish to acknowledge the contributions of those who helped in the creation of the full review: Mark Newman was in-
volved in data collection and advised on the statistical analysis; Kimberley Hovish, Chris Brown, Katarzyna Steinka-Fry
and Eric Wilkey participated in the acquisition of data. Special thanks are due to Sandra Jo Wilson, editor of the Educa-
tion Coordination Group (ECG), for her guidance throughout the initial project. The funding agency informed the
scope and development of the full review. The preparation of this manuscript was unfunded, and the funding agency
had no role in the writing of this manuscript, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The opinions
expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agency. The
full version of the review is published in the Campbell library (http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/227/),
and the 3ie database of systematic reviews (http://www.3ieimpact.org/en/evidence/systematic-reviews/details/152/).

Author details
1
EPPI-Centre, Institute of Education, University of London, 18 Woburn Square, London, WC1H 0NR, UK. 2Abdul Latif
Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL), Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Av. Vicuna MacKenna, Santiago 4860, Chile.

Received: 11 November 2013 Accepted: 12 November 2013

Published: 20 December 2013

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doi:10.1186/1877-6345-5-3
Cite this article as: Tripney and Hombrados: Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young
people in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Empirical Research in Vocational Education & Training 2013 5:3.

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