Chapter 3 PDF

CHAPTER Multicellular Diversity
3
Specific Expectations
In this chapter you will . . .
• B1.2 analyze the impact that climate
change might have on the diversity of
living things (3.4, 3.5)
• B2.1 use appropriate terminology

related to biodiversity (3.3)
• B2.2 classify and draw representative

organisms from each of the kingdoms
according to their unifying and
distinguishing anatomical and
physiological characteristics (3.2, 3.4, 3.5)
• B2.4 create and apply a dichotomous

key to identify and classify organisms
from each of the kingdoms (3.2, 3.5)
• B3.3 describe unifying and

distinguishing anatomical and
physiological characteristics of
representative organisms from each
of the kingdoms (3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4)
• B3.4 explain key structural and

functional changes in organisms as
they have evolved over time (3.1, 3.2)
E arth’s ecosystem diversity offers countless opportunities for

different species, such as the eastern massasauga rattlesnake (Sistrurus
catenatus), to thrive. However, partly due to habitat destruction, this
venomous snake is threatened in Ontario. It is now found in only
four areas of Ontario: the Bruce Peninsula, the eastern shores of
Georgian Bay, the Ojibway Prairie Complex, and the Wainfleet Bog.
In southern Ontario, several government and private organizations
are working together to manage and restore the Wainfleet Bog so that
the remaining population of rattlesnakes can survive. Recovery efforts
include restoring the bog to its original conditions in terms of water
coverage and plant communities, and educating the public about
the bog and the rattlesnakes. Efforts are also being made to preserve
habitats and biodiversity at the other sites.
88 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Launch Activity
No Two Alike?
Have you ever wondered how there are so many different living organisms
on Earth? Scientists believe that random chance produced the variations
we see each day. Here is your chance to create a new organism. Will there
be two that are the same?
Materials
• 6-sided die
Organism Characteristics
Characteristic Roll Results and Description
Obtaining food energy 1, 3, or 5 – autotrophic
2, 4, or 6 – heterotrophic
Habitat 1 or 2 – salt water
3 or 4 – fresh water
5 or 6 – terrestrial
Size 1 or 2 – less than 1 cm
3 or 4 – 1 cm to 1 m
5 or 6 – 1 m to 5 m
Mobility 1 or 2 – never moves
3 or 4 – slow moving
5 or 6 – fast moving
Nervous system 1 or 2 – responds to environment
3 or 4 – controls movement for feeding
5 or 6 – has conscious thought
Defence mechanism 1 or 2 – foul tasting
3 or 4 – camouflage
5 or 6 – spikes
Procedure
1. Using the table as a guide, roll the die for each characteristic.
2. Make a list of the characteristics your organism has.
3. Decide on the best way to represent the characteristics in a picture.
4. Draw your organism.
5. Assign your organism a scientific name and a common name.
6. Share your new organism with classmates. Make a quick presentation
to the class, explaining the features of your organism.
Questions
1. Compare your new organism with those of your classmates. Are there
any that are identical to yours? Why or why not?
2. Compare your new organism with existing organisms with which you
are familiar. What does it remind you of? Why?
Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 89

SECTION
From Algae to Terrestrial Plants
3.1
Key Terms Algae, which are photosynthetic members of the kingdom Protista, may be unicellular
or multicellular. The multicellular algae are commonly called seaweeds, and are
alga
classified into three phyla based on their colour: brown, red, or green. The only other
plant
kingdom that contains multicellular photosynthetic members is the plant kingdom.
embryo How do scientists classify a given organism as a plant or a multicellular alga? In this
sporic reproduction case, the answer involves some disagreement. As shown in Figure 3.1, it is not easy to
gametophyte define exactly where one group ends and the other begins. As a result, some scientists
sporophyte place green algae in the plant kingdom. Other scientists place them in the protist
kingdom, as this book does. What scientists do agree on is that plants evolved from
algae, and green algae are the evolutionary link between the two groups.
alga (plural algae) Kingdom Protista ? Kingdom Plantae

a unicellular or
multicellular
photosynthetic,
aquatic protist
green
algae seaweeds plants
algae
Figure 3.1 Some botanists say that green algae are plants, while others consider them protists.
Infer What evidence might lead some scientists to place green algae in the plant kingdom?
The Multicellular Algae

All the unicellular plant-like protists discussed in Chapter 2 can be called algae.
Figure 3.2 shows six phyla of algae. These phyla include three representative groups of
single-celled, plant-like protists: dinoflagellates, diatoms, and euglenoids, as well as
three phyla of seaweeds. Seaweeds are large, multicellular algae. Seaweeds are divided
into three main groups based on their colour: brown, red, or green.
Dinoflagellates Red algae Brown algae Diatoms Green algae Euglenoids

(Pyrrophytes) (Rhodophytes) (Phaeophytes) (Chrysophytes) (Chlorophytes) (Euglenophytes)
t 1000 species t 6000 species t 1500 species t 10 000 species t 7000 species t 800 species
t unicellular t multicellular t multicellular t unicellular t multicellular t unicellular
Figure 3.2 Unicellular algae, including dinoflagellates, diatoms, and euglenoids, were discussed
in Chapter 2. The multicellular algae, or seaweeds, include brown, red, and green algae.

Brown Algae (Phylum Phaeophyta)
Brown algae are the largest and probably most complex protists. They are often
abundant enough to be key components of marine and tidal environments. Some
species of kelp, shown in Figure 3.3 (A), can grow to be 60 m in height. In nutrient-rich,
cool waters, like those off Canada’s west coast, they can grow in such density that
they form underwater forests. These areas provide food and shelter for more than
800 marine species of animals, plants, and protists.
A walk through rocky tidal flats on Canada’s east coast at low tide is hardly possible
without seeing widespread mats of rockweed, shown in Figure 3.3 (B). Although much
smaller than kelp, they also form underwater forest-like environments in the tidal zone
for dozens of small marine species.
Brown algae do not have true leaves or roots, but they do have many specialized
tissues. The structure that anchors the algae to a rock or other hard structure, such
as a shell, is called a holdfast, shown in Figure 3.3 (C). A long, stem-like structure
called a stipe extends from the holdfast. From the stipe grow flat, leaf-like blades
used to collect light, take in carbon dioxide, and give off oxygen.
A B C
blade
stipe
holdfast
Figure 3.3 (A) Kelp are giant brown algae found in cool oceans, such as along British Columbia’s
Pacific coast. They form underwater forests. (B) Rockweed grows abundantly in the tidal zones
of rocky Atlantic coastlines. (C) The basic structure of a brown alga consists of a holdfast, a stipe,
and leaf-like blades.
Red Algae (Phylum Rhodophyta)

You have already read in Chapter 2 that red algae appear to have been the first
multicellular organisms on Earth, existing between 1.5 to 1.2 billion years ago.
Today, there are about 6000 living species of red algae. Red algae, an example
of which is shown in Figure 3.4, can grow to a metre in length and are the most
abundant large algae in the warm coastal waters of tropical oceans.
Like other photosynthetic species, red algae have green chlorophyll. They
also have an additional pigment, called phycoerythrin, that is sensitive to the
light waves that reach greater ocean depths. This pigment allows red algae to
thrive at ocean depths of up to 100 m or more. Red algae appear red to the eye
because their light-sensitive pigments reflect red wavelengths of light.
Like many seaweeds, red algae are important economically. They are
especially common as a food and in the food-processing industry. For example,
Figure 3.4 The pigments in red
nori, the seaweed used to wrap sushi, is a red alga. Carrageenan, a gel-like algae, such as phycoerythrin, reflect
substance used to help ingredients mix together and stay mixed, is derived from red wavelengths of light, making the
red algae. It is often added to dairy products, such as ice cream and milk shakes. algae appear red to the human eye.

Green Algae (Phylum Chlorophyta)
Most green algae are aquatic. Of these, most are commonly found in fresh water, but
some live in saltwater environments. Green algae can also be found in a variety of other
ecosystems, including living in sea ice, attached to the surfaces of trees, and even in the
fur of sloths, which are mammals found in American tropical rainforests.
Green algae are structurally diverse, as shown in Figure 3.5. Some, like
Chlamydomonas, are unicellular and move about using flagella. Others, like Volvox, are
also unicellular and flagellated, but they occur in ball-shaped colonies that roll through
the water. Multicellular species like Ulva, also called sea lettuce, can grow to be a metre
in length, although they are only two cells thick. During reproduction, Ulva produces
spores that swim using flagella, just like some single-celled species of algae.
Green algae are the most plant-like of the algae. They have the same types of
chlorophyll and the same colour as most land plants. Also like plants, their cell walls
contain cellulose, and they store food reserves in the form of starch.
Figure 3.5 The ancestor
of plants is thought to be
an organism very similar
to today’s green algae,
like the examples shown
here. Some green algae
are unicellular, some are
colonial, and still others,
including Spirogyra, are
multicellular.
Magnification: 430× Magnification: 35× Magnification: 500×
Chlamydomonas Volvox Spirogyra Ulva
Activity 3.1 How Might Climate Change Affect Giant Kelp?
Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) is commonly found along Procedure

the coast of California and Mexico. It is harvested to 1. Study the graph on the left. Scientists collected data
extract a compound called alginate from its cell walls. Like on the size of kelp harvests off the western coast of
carrageenan, alginate is used as a thickening agent in many Mexico from 1956 to 1998. During that time, harvesting
foods and is itself used as a food in the fish-farming industry. operations remained the same in terms of the number
It is also used in the cosmetics industry, to make facial creams of ships operating, the number of times they collected
and lotions. Mexican biologists studied the relationship kelp, and the collection locations. The units on the left
between the size of kelp harvests and the temperature of y-axis, CPUE (catch per unit effort), represent the volume
the seawater in which the kelp grow. In this activity, you will of harvest per trip made by each ship in the harvesting
analyze the relationship between these two variables to infer operation. The scientists also collected data on sea
how kelp growth might be affected by climate change. surface temperature during the same period. The scale
Kelp Harvest and Sea Surface Temperature on the right y-axis represents how much the sea surface
temperature (SST) was above or below average.
200 2.0
Havrvested Volume/Trip (CPUE)
CPUE
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
Above or Below Normal (°C)
150 SST 1.5 Questions

100 1.0 1. What is the relationship between water temperature and
kelp growth? Note that in this investigation, the growth
50 0.5
of kelp can be inferred from the size of the harvest. The
0 0 larger the size of the harvest, the more the kelp grew.
-50 -0.5
2. Since 1955, the average temperature of the ocean
-100 -1.0 has increased by 0.09°C. Apply the results of this
-150 -1.5 investigation to predict what could happen to kelp
-200 -2.0 growth if the warming trend continues.
56
60
64
68
72
76
80
84
88
92
96
3. How might reduced amounts of kelp affect the harvesting

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19
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19
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19
Year industry and organisms that live in kelp forests?

Learning Check
1. Into which kingdom do scientists classify green 4. Sketch a typical brown alga and label the basic
algae? structures associated with algae in the phylum.
2. Refer to Figure 3.2. Which protist groups contain 5. What is the advantage to the red algae of having
unicellular organisms? Which contain multicellular accessory photosynthetic pigments such as
organisms? phycoerythrin?
3. Which characteristic is used to classify multicellular 6. Explain why you agree or disagree with this
algae into different phyla? statement: “Green algae are structurally diverse.”
The Shift to Land

The hypothesis that green algae are the closest evolutionary relatives of land plants is
plant a multicellular
based on several structures within the cell. Like green algae, plants have chlorophylls photosynthetic
a and b in their cells. Plants and green algae also have cellulose cell walls. A third eukaryote with
similarity is that plants and green algae store food energy in the form of starch, whereas cellulose-based
bacteria, fungi, and animals store food as glycogen. Analysis of the DNA of plants cell walls
and green algae shows similar sequences. The evidence suggests the evolutionary
relationship shown in Figure 3.6, which also shows how biologists think the animal and
fungal kingdoms fit in terms of their ancestry.
animals fungi red algae green algae plants Figure 3.6 Green algae
are the organisms most
closely related to plants.
Explain, using this
ancestral ancestral phylogenetic tree, whether
Time
heterotrophic photosynthetic fungi are thought to be

eukaryote eukaryote more closely related to
plants or to animals.
ancestral eukaryote
Adaptations to Life on Land

Imagine taking a thin piece of algae floating in a pond and moving it to land. What
changes would have to happen in order for it to survive on land? One major need is
protection from drying out. Other major needs include a system to transport water
and dissolved substances from the outside environment to cells within the body of the
plant, and a system to support the body of the plant, lifting it up into the light and air.
The adaptations of plants to life on land did not all occur at once. The earliest
land plants were small. They grew in moist places and transferred water and dissolved
substances from cell to cell by osmosis and diffusion. These processes are slow and
inefficient, and they limited the maximum size of these plants and the types of
environments in which they could live.
Plant Embryos
Despite similarities to the green algae, plants have some important distinctions.
embryo an organism’s
One key distinction is environment. One of the major steps in plant evolution was early pre-birth stage of
the transition from aquatic to terrestrial habitats about 460 million years ago. development
Another key distinction is that, unlike the multicellular algae, plants reproduce
using embryos. Embryos are small, simple, multicellular plants that are dependent
on the parent plant for a time. More recent developments in plant evolution include
vascular tissue for transporting materials, seeds for protecting the embryo, and flowers.
These developments occurred in stages, as shown in Figure 3.7, on the next page.

Non-vascular plants Vascular plants
seedless plants seed plants
mosses, liverworts, ferns gymnosperms angiosperms

hornworts (flowering plants)
ancestral first vascular first seed

green alga plants plants
700 mya 500–400 mya 350 mya 140 mya
Figure 3.7 Significant developments in the evolution of land plants include the production of
sporic reproduction
embryos; the development of vascular tissue; and the production of seeds, and then flowers
sexual reproduction
(mya means millions of years ago).
that alternates between
a gamete-making
individual and a spore- Vascular Tissue, Leaves, and Roots
making individual The first land plants were small and relatively simple in structure. One limitation was
gametophyte the that they did not have tissues that allowed the transport of different materials over long
haploid plant in sporic distances. Eventually, however, such vascular tissue did evolve in the group known as
reproduction that
produces gametes by
vascular plants.
mitosis Vascular plants have two types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem. Xylem carries
sporophyte the water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant. Xylem tissue consists of dead
diploid plant in sporic tube-shaped cells that contain a tough material called lignin. Lignified xylem forms a
reproduction that firm structure that allows water and minerals to be transported throughout the plant.
produces spores by
The fortification of xylem tissue with lignin allowed the development of trees and the
meiosis
first forests; it allows for the growth of trees to great heights. Phloem tissue is made of
living cells that are also arranged in tubular form, but it is used for transporting larger
molecules, including sugars.
Gametophyte (n) haploid cells
Vascular tissue allowed the evolution of roots, thus providing strong anchoring
male ability and cells specialized in absorbing and transporting water and minerals. Leaves
gamete (n) also evolved after plants developed vascular tissues. Leaves increased the surface area of
female
gamete (n)
the plant above ground, allowing for a better exchange of gases in photosynthesis and a
spores (n)
larger surface for capturing sunlight.
meiosis fertilization
Alternation of Generations
Recall the three varieties of sexual reproduction discussed in Chapter 2. Plants, and
mitosis
some green algae, use sporic reproduction, also known as alternation of generations,
shown in Figure 3.8. This means that there are actually two multicellular stages in the
Sporophyte (2n) diploid cells life cycle. The haploid version of the organism, the gametophyte, produces haploid
gametes by mitosis. Recall that haploid cells contain only one set of chromosomes.
Figure 3.8 In sporic sexual
reproduction, generations When those gametes fuse, they develop into the diploid version of the organism, the
alternate between a haploid sporophyte. A diploid cell contains two sets of chromosomes. The sporophyte produces
stage and a diploid stage. spores, by meiosis, which develop into the haploid gametophyte.

Section 3.1 RE V IE W
Section Summary
• Algae, especially green algae, are the link between the • Vascular plants have xylem and phloem, which are tissues
plant-like protists and the plant kingdom. that transport materials throughout the plant.
• Algae are divided into three groups, based on colour— • Plants use sporic reproduction, and thus have a diploid
brown, red, and green. sporophyte stage and a haploid gametophyte stage.
• Plants produce embryos during reproduction, and most
live in terrestrial ecosystems.
Review Questions
1. T/I Some biologists classify green algae as plants, 7. K/U Define the term embryo and describe the
and other biologists classify green algae as protists. embryo associated with green plants.
Review what you know about green algae. How would 8. A The world’s tallest trees, which are examples
you classify them? Explain your answer. of vascular plants, are found in temperate rainforests
2. T/I A structure unique to kelp is the air bladder, along the west coast of North America. Identify
which looks like a small balloon at the base of each and describe the function of the two types of plant
blade. The stipe of the kelp is very flexible and cannot vascular tissue and explain how the evolution of
stand up on its own. Predict why the air bladder vascular tissue allowed plants to grow to this size.
provides an advantage to this group of seaweeds.
air bladder
9. K/U Describe the function of roots and leaves

3. K/U Explain the ecological and economic in vascular plants.
importance of brown, red, and green algae. 10. A Describe a terrestrial landscape as it might
4. K/U Explain why green algae are said to be the appear if plant vascular tissue had never evolved.
most plant-like of all the algae. 11. C Draw a sketch in your notebook similar to
5. A What is the most obvious reason the organisms Figure 3.8. Use this sketch to help you explain the
below would not be classified as plants? concept of alternation of generations.
12. K/U Copy the following spider map into your
notebook. Complete the map by listing the main
characteristics of organisms in the plant kingdom.
eukaryotic
Plants
Magnification: 430×
6. K/U Using Figure 3.7 as a guide, list the significant

developments in the evolution of land plants.

SECTION
The Plant Kingdom
3.2
Key Terms There are a huge variety of plants in the world, from mosses and ferns to carnivorous
pitcher plants and giant redwoods. All plants can be arranged into a few major groups
bryophyte
on the basis of several fundamental characteristics, such as the presence or absence of
gymnosperm
vascular tissue and seeds.
angiosperm
cone
Non-vascular Plants: Bryophytes
flower
Non-vascular plants, also referred to as bryophytes, include three phyla of plants—
fruit
mosses, liverworts, and hornworts. These plants do not have vascular tissue, and they
monocot
are dependent on the processes of diffusion and osmosis to transport nutrients. They
dicot
usually grow in mats of low, tangled vegetation that can hold water like a sponge,
allowing them to survive cold periods and dry periods. Non-vascular plants have no
roots. Instead, they have small root-like structures called rhizoids, which develop from
their lower surfaces.
bryophyte a small,
Compared to plants that are covered with beautiful flowers, bryophytes may not
non-vascular land seem exciting to observe. However, bryophytes represent the pioneers that conquered
plant; the formal name land—they converted the barren terrestrial landscapes of 460 million years ago into
Bryophyta is reserved for green environments. As shown in Table 3.1, the bryophytes continue to thrive in many
the mosses, one group
modern ecosystems. They provide many important ecosystem services, including
of bryophytes
nutrient cycling, and are potential sources for pharmaceuticals.
Table 3.1 Bryophyte Phyla
Bryophyte Description Importance
Mosses (Phylum Bryophyta) • have short, vertical stems with leaf-like • Sphagnum moss is sometimes the most
structures that are usually only one abundant biomass in the bogs of boreal
cell thick Canada. The peat accumulations that are
• thrive in a variety of ecosystems where harvested from bogs for use in gardens
other plants may be unable to grow, and for burning come from the remains
including bogs, tundra, and shaded areas of Sphagnum moss.
• are the second most diverse group of • Some Aboriginal peoples have used
plants, and there are twice as many species Sphagnum moss to make diapers (it has
of mosses as of mammals absorbent properties), to mark trails, and
as a cleaning agent.
Liverworts (Phylum Hepatophyta) • appear as leafy stems or as small, flattened • Liverworts are one of the first organisms to
blades, but like the mosses they are colonize disturbed areas. They help reduce
typically one cell thick soil erosion and serve as food for animals.
• have a more horizontal growth form than • They are useful as a study organism in the
the vertical form of most mosses evolution of plants, because their DNA
• most grow in moist, shady places on rocks, suggests they are the land plants most like
trees, rotten wood, and soil the green algae.
Hornworts (Phylum Anthocerophyta) • are similar to liverworts, but hornworts • Like other bryophytes, hornworts play a
have just one chloroplast per cell, a feature role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems.
they share with some of the algae • Modern hornwort diversity is small—
• the sporophyte grows out of the about 100 species. A few species have a
gametophyte as a long horn-like extension, threatened status.
hence its name • Like other bryophytes, they could have
• live on tree trunks, on riverbanks, and in pharmaceutical potential.
other damp locations

Bryophyte Life Cycle
The bryophyte life cycle is shown in Figure 3.9. Like all plants, bryophytes exhibit
alternation of generations. However, in bryophytes, the haploid gametophyte is the
larger, longer-lasting dominant form.
spores
meiosis
B Within the end capsule of the sporophyte,
A The gametophyte spores are produced through the process
generation produces sporophyte (2n) of meiosis. Spores are released when the
sporophytes that capsule bursts and they disperse with
grow up on tall the wind. The spore germinates on the
stalks above the ground and develops into a male or
gametophyte. female gametophyte.
gametophyte (n) spore
Sporophyte Gametophyte
generation generation
F A zygote is
produced, which female gametophyte
male gametophyte
undergoes mitosis zygote (2n) (n)
and forms a new (n)
sporophyte.
archegonium
C The female
gametophyte
develops an
archegonium,
fertilization which is the
structure that
produces eggs.
antheridium egg (n)
E The antheridium releases
sperm, which swim to the sperm sperm (n)
archegonium and egg D The male
fertilization takes place. gametophyte
develops an
antheridium,
which is the
archegonium structure that
produces sperm.
Figure 3.9 The life cycle of a moss includes both the gametophyte and the sporophyte.
Learning Check
7. What are bryophytes? How do they differ from other 10. What are the two life cycle generations of a bryophyte?
groups of plants? 11. Identify several important roles of bryophytes in
8. Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast mosses ecosystems.
and liverworts. 12. According to information in Table 3.1, many
9. Explain the statement “Bryophytes represent the bryophytes live in moist, shaded areas. Why do
pioneers that conquered land.” you think this is?

Seedless Vascular Plants
The bryophytes may have been the first land plants, but the ferns and related phyla
formed the first forests about 350 million years ago. These early seedless vascular
plants were different from the non-vascular plants in several ways. Not only had
they developed the vascular tissue that allowed them to grow tall, but the sporophyte
generation was the dominant stage in their life cycle. Their gametophytes were reduced
to tiny, short-lived structures that still depended on moisture to carry out sexual
reproduction. Nearly all the trees that covered the land in that era are now extinct.
There are a few remaining groups of those early vascular plants that live on today,
however. As shown in Table 3.2, the seedless vascular plants include whisk ferns,
club mosses, horsetails, and the most diverse members of this group, the ferns.
Ferns, in particular, are common inhabitants of the floors of temperate forests
throughout Canada.
Table 3.2 Features of Seedless Vascular Plants

Seedless Vascular Plants Key Features Additional Facts
Whisk ferns (Phylum Psilotophyta) • grow in moist, tropical environments, • only three known species
such as the Caribbean and parts of Asia • no fossil record of whisk ferns at all
• do not have leaves or roots • one species, Psilotum nudum, is cultivated
• photosynthesis carried out in the stem as a greenhouse plant and known for its
• produce spores that are dispersed by wind unusual growth forms
• classification is controversial; based on
recent evidence, some sources group whisk
ferns, horsetails, and ferns together in a
single phylum, called Pterophyta
Club mosses (Phylum Lycophyta) • common in moist, woodland environments • about 1000 species worldwide
worldwide, but majority found in tropical • oldest living group of vascular plants
environments • have been used as holiday decorations
• have small, needle-like leaves due to their evergreen properties
• produce wind-dispersed spores that form
in compact clusters of leaves at the end of
the stem
Horsetails (Phylum Sphenophyta) • common in moist tropical and temperate • about 50 species
environments, including most of Canada • commonly called scouring rushes because
and the United States the tough, rigid stems are abrasive, making
• have hollow stems with scale-like leaves them useful for scrubbing pots and
that grow from nodes (joints) along polishing wood
the stem
• the ends of the stems produce spores, as
with club mosses
Ferns (Phylum Pteridophyta) • common in warm, moist environments, • approximately 10 000 species worldwide
but also inhabit cooler, drier habitats • specimens vary in size from the smallest
• have roots, stems, and leaves; leaves are wall rue fern, only 5 cm in height, to tree
quite prominent in many species ferns, which reach heights of 10 m
• in most species, leaves first appear in a • used extensively by florists and gardeners
curled form—a fiddlehead as an ornamental plant

The Fern Life Cycle
The fern life cycle is shown in Figure 3.10. Fossil evidence suggests that the ancestors of
vascular plants probably had gametophytes and sporophytes that were about the same
size as those of ferns. In modern ferns, however, the sporophyte is the large, longer-
lived stage of the organism, and the gametophyte is much smaller. The ferns that you
might notice during a walk in the forest, for instance, are the sporophytes. Finding the
small gametophytes is much more challenging.
A A sporangium produces gametophyte B The prothallus

haploid spores that germinate produces antheridia
to form a gametophyte (male organs) and
called a prothallus. archegonia (female
organs).
spore
prothallus
rhizoids
egg
meiosis
sperm
sporangium archegonium
antheridium
F Sori develop on the

pinnae. Spores are
formed in the sori
by meiosis. sperm
egg
sori C Sperm from the

antheridia swim via
fertilization a droplet of water
to an egg produced
by the archegonium.
zygote
pinna
new sporophyte
E The sporophyte fronds mitosis
matures, and roots
and fronds develop
out of the growing
D The fertilized egg
begins to grow into
rhizome. sporophytes a sporopyte.
rhizome gametophyte
roots
Figure 3.10 Ferns exhibit an alternation of generations. The familiar fern plant is the larger,
diploid sporophyte that produces spores by meiosis. The smaller haploid gametophyte is much
smaller. It produces gametes by mitosis.

Activity 3.2 Seedless Plant Classification
After completing this activity you will be able to describe the Plant A Plant B
differences among the categories of seedless plants.
Procedure
1. Examine Table 3.1 and Table 3.2. List the main
characteristics of each type of seedless plant.
2. Create a dichotomous key to classify each type of plant.
Questions
1. What characteristic can be used to divide seedless plants
into two large subcategories?
2. Name one characteristic that would not be useful in your
Plant A has roots, stems, and leaves. Plant B does
dichotomous key because it applies to all seedless plants.
not have vascular tissue. It was found growing on
3. Use your key to classify the plants shown on the right. a tree trunk and only has one chloroplast per cell.
Seed-producing Vascular Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

There are two groups of plants that disperse by means of a seed: gymnosperms and
gymnosperm
a vascular plant with angiosperms. Seeds allow plants to reproduce sexually without needing water, and
non-enclosed seeds provide protection against harsh environmental conditions. Seeds can survive without
angiosperm a vascular water for many years. They can be carried by different means to disperse across continents
plant with seeds and begin growing in new areas. The first small seed-bearing plants appeared about 280
enclosed in protective million years ago, among forests of ferns, club mosses, and horsetails. At that time, the
tissue
global climate had begun to grow cooler and drier. Most of the large spore-producing
plants could not survive long periods of drought and freezing, so they became extinct.
Gymnosperm Diversity
Gymnosperms have seeds that are exposed on the surface of cone scales. The word
gymnosperm actually means naked seed. This group includes the cone-bearing trees
(conifers) such as pines, firs, yew, spruce, cedars, redwood, and many other large trees.
As well as the conifers, gymnosperms include cycadophytes and ginkgophytes, such as
those shown in Figure 3.11. In cool boreal and alpine ecosystems, which includes much
of Canada, conifers are often the dominant woody vegetation, sometimes forming great
stands of just one species. Most are evergreen, which allows them to photosynthesize
whenever conditions are suitable.
A B C
Figure 3.11 (A) Coniferous trees produce seeds on the surface of cone scales, making them a
target for seed-eating animals, such as birds. (B) Cycadophytes are short, palm-like trees with
scaly trunks, but they are not closely related to palms. (C) Ginkgo biloba is the only living species
in the ginkgophyte group.

Reproduction in Gymnosperms: Cones and Pollen
Conifer reproductive structures are called cones. Male cones are usually soft and
cone a gymnosperm
short-lived. Female cones are hard and longer-lasting; they are made of scales on which structure that contains
the eggs develop. Sexual reproduction in seed plants requires the transport of sperm male or female
from the male cone to the unfertilized eggs in the female cones. To do this, seed plants reproductive parts
use pollen grains. Pollen grains are tiny, reduced gametophytes that, unlike in mosses
and ferns, never form a free-living plant. In conifers, pollen grains produced in great
quantities are released into the wind. A few land on the female cones, releasing the
sperm nuclei, which then fertilize the eggs.
Learning Check
13. What are the main characteristics of seedless 16. Explain how past climate change played a role in the
vascular plants? extinction of many large spore-producing plants.
14. Is the leafy fern you see on the forest floor the 17. You find a pine cone on the ground. How can you
gametophyte or the sporophyte plant? tell whether it is a male cone or a female cone?
15. Identify the differences between a gymnosperm and 18. Explain the role of pollen grains in conifer
an angiosperm. reproduction.
Angiosperm Diversity
Angiosperms are commonly known as the flowering plants. Like gymnosperms, SuggestedInvestigation
they are vascular seed plants. However, angiosperms reproduce using flowers, and
their seeds are contained in a fruit. The flowering plants are diverse, as shown by Plan Your Own Investigation
3-A, Classifying Conifers
the examples in Figure 3.12. This group includes flowers such as roses and trilliums.
Non-coniferous trees such as oaks, maples, and birches are angiosperms, as are grasses
and roadside weeds. About 90 percent of all plants are angiosperms, meaning there are
more than 250 000 species of angiosperms on Earth. The first flowering plants appeared
on Earth about 150 million years ago.
A B
Figure 3.12 Angiosperm diversity is extensive. Angiosperms include most non-coniferous trees,
such as (A) birch trees, showy flowers, such as (B) prairie roses, and food crops, such as (C) wheat.
All use flowers to produce enclosed seeds.

Angiosperm Characteristics
The flower is an angiosperm structure that is specialized for sexual reproduction. As in
flower a collection
of structures in conifers, the male gametophyte in a flowering plant has been reduced to a pollen grain
angiosperms used for containing sperm nuclei. Many angiosperms, such as grasses and most trees, have small
sexual reproduction or non-colourful flowers. These species are similar to conifers in that they use wind to
transport pollen. Other species have flowers that are large and colourful, or have exotic
patterns, attractive odours, and food rewards. These features attract animal visitors,
such as those in Figure 3.13, that become transporters of pollen as they move from
plant to plant.
A B C
Figure 3.13 Flowers have numerous adaptations for moving pollen from one plant to another.
(A) Large colorful flowers that produce nectar often attract birds, such as hummingbirds.
(B) This flower, called a carrion flower, smells like rotting flesh. It attracts insects such as flies.
(C) Bats are another example of animal pollinators. They transfer pollen grains, which stick to
the fur on their faces, from one plant to another as they feed.
A few angiosperms have separate male and female plants. However, it is more
common for individual flowering plants to be both male and female. In these species,
the plant can have flowers that have both male and female parts, such as the lily shown
in Figure 3.14, or separate male and female flowers.
Stamen Pistil
male reproductive organ female reproductive organ
anther stigma
where pollen is produced sticky “lip” of the carpel that
and stored captures pollen grains
pollen style
cases that contain stalk that supports the stigma
male gametes
ovary
swollen base of the carpel that
filament stalk contains ovules
that supports the anther
ovules
sacs that contain female
sepals petals gametes
surround and colourful
protect the structures that attract
flower bud pollinators
Figure 3.14 The typical flower has four organs: sepals at the base, attractive petals, male
stamens that produce pollen, and the female pistil that contains the ovary.

Fruits
Fruits, too, are highly diverse. A fruit is typically a mature ovary containing seeds.
fruit a mature ovary of a
Sometimes additional flower or plant parts, such as the stem below the flower in an flower that protects and
apple, become part of the fruit as well. disperses dormant seeds
As shown in Figure 3.15, different types of fruits represent adaptations to disperse
seeds successfully. For example, sweet fruits are eaten by animals, which excrete the
seeds later, in a different location. Burrs stick to the fur of mammals that brush past
them. Coconuts are designed to float, so that they can survive long periods prior to
reaching a shoreline suitable for germination.
Figure 3.15 Seeds are dispersed through different types of fruits.
Angiosperm Classification
Angiosperms are commonly divided into two main groups based on a structure called
monocot a major
a seed leaf or cotyledon. A cotyledon is a structure in the embryo that helps to nourish cluster of flowering
the plant as it first starts to grow. Angiosperms whose embryos have one cotyledon plants that have one
are called monocots and embryos with two cotyledons are called dicots. Common cotyledon
examples of dicots include dandelions, crab apples, and maple trees. Monocots include dicot a major cluster
corn, orchids, and onions. of flowering plants that
have two cotyledons
Characteristics other than cotyledon number tend to match this division between
monocots and dicots, as shown in Table 3.3. For instance, monocots tend to have
flowers and fruits divided into threes or multiples of three, and their leaves usually have
parallel veins. Dicots usually have flowers and fruit parts in fours or fives, and their leaf
veins tend to be in a netted pattern.
Table 3.3 Differences Between Monocots and Dicots
Type of Vascular Bundles
Angiosperm Seed Leaves Veins in Leaves in Stems Flower Parts
Monocots
one cotyledon usually parallel scattered multiples of three
Dicots
two cotyledons usually net-like arranged in ring multiples of four and five

Section Summary
• Bryophytes, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, • Seed-producing vascular plants are divided into two
do not have vascular tissue, flowers, or seeds. groups: gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms,
• Ferns are the best-known seedless vascular plants. which include conifers, are vascular plants that have
They have specialized tissue for internal transport but cones. Angiosperms produce flowers, and their seeds are
no flowers or seeds. contained in fruit.
• Angiosperms are divided into two groups: monocots
and dicots. Monocots have only one cotyledon, whereas
dicots have two.
Review Questions
1. K/U Name the four major groups of plants and give 10. A The plants in the two landscapes below
an example of each. represent a diversity of species. In which landscape
2. K/U Land plants exhibit an alternation of would the plants rely more on wind for transporting
generations. pollen from one plant to another? In which landscape
a. Identify the group of land plants in which the would they rely more on animals to do this? Explain
gametophyte is the dominant plant. your answer.
b. In which two groups is the gametophyte never a A
free-living plant?
3. C Choose two groups of seedless vascular plants
and use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast their
characteristics.
4. K/U In the fern life cycle, both asexual spores and
male and female gametes are produced. Indicate which
life stage produces spores and whether it is by mitosis
or meiosis. Do the same for gametes.
B
5. K/U List four advantages seeds provide to land
plants.
6. K/U In which group of plants are most species
evergreen?
7. T/I Are the cones of coniferous trees male or
female, or are they both? Infer the advantages and
disadvantages of each possibility.
8. A Red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) are 11. K/U Arrange the seedless vascular plants,
widespread throughout Ontario. The red squirrel feeds angiosperms, non-vascular plants, and gymnosperms
mainly on seeds and cones of conifers. In coniferous in order according to the complexity of their features.
forest habitats, these mammals create middens, which Then, arrange the same groups in the order in which
are the accumulation of cone scales and debris left they appear in the fossil record. Compare the order of
from feeding. The midden is used as a storage area, your two lists and comment on the pattern.
for caching cones, and it likely provides a cool, moist
12. K/U Describe the development of fruit in flowering
environment that facilitates seed storage. Infer how the
plants and explain the role fruit plays in seed dispersal.
behaviour of the red squirrel helps disperse the seeds
of coniferous trees. 13. A Suppose you find yourself in a wilderness area
in a part of the world you have never been before.
9. C Make a T-chart to distinguish between
How might knowledge of plant classification help you
monocots and dicots, referring to at least three
determine the typical climate of this area? Describe
different features.
the steps you would take to do this.

SECTION
The Fungus Kingdom
3.3
Although it may seem as though a mushroom growing on a decaying log, mould Key Terms
growing on a piece of fruit or cheese, and mildew growing in a shower stall are
fungus
not related, they are all members of the kingdom Fungi. All of the more than
hypha
100 000 species of fungi (singular fungus) are heterotrophs. They feed by releasing
digestive enzymes into their surroundings, and then absorbing the digested nutrients mycelium
into their cells. fruiting body
zygospore
Structure of Fungi ascus
basidium
A few types of fungi, such as yeasts, are unicellular. Yeasts consist of individual oval
lichen
or cylindrical cells. The majority of fungi are multicellular. Multicellular fungi are
structurally diverse, but their body form can be generalized, as shown in Figure 3.16.
The basic structural units that make up the body of a multicellular fungus are called
hyphae (singular hypha). In a mushroom, the hyphae are densely packed in a tight
mass and difficult to see as separate structures. The bulk of the organism is in the form fungus (plural fungi) a
of a branching network called a mycelium (plural mycelia). Mycelia live in soil and stationary, heterotrophic
on other nutritious substances, such as living, dying, or dead wood and animal bodies. eukaryotic organism
The part of the fungus that you see above ground is the reproductive structure, which whose cell walls contain
chitin
is called a fruiting body. Although fungi may look like plants, DNA analysis suggests
hypha (plural hyphae)
that they are more closely related to animals than plants, as shown in Figure 3.6.
a multicellular, thread-
like filament that makes
up the basic structural
unit of a fungus
mycelium (plural
mycelia) a complex,
net-like mass made of
branching hyphae
fruiting body fruiting body the
spore-producing
hyphae
reproductive structure
in fungi
mycelium
Figure 3.16 The visible body and underground structure of a multicellular fungus is made
of hyphae. Under suitable conditions, the fungus produces a fruiting body that produces
airborne spores.
Fungal Nutrition
Most animals consume food and then digest it. Fungi do the opposite. They release
enzymes that break down food externally. The fungi then absorb nutrients from the
food through their cell membranes. One way of classifying fungi is through the four
different ways that they obtain nutrients, which are shown in Table 3.4, on the next page.

Table 3.4 Types of Fungal Nutrition
Type of Nutrition Description Example
Parasitic Parasitic fungi absorb nutrients from the
living cells of a host organism. In most cases,
the fungus lives inside the host organism.
For example, Cordyceps invades an insect
body. Eventually the insect dies and the
fruiting bodies of the fungus emerge to
produce new spores.
Predatory Predatory fungi are soil fungi whose mycelia

have specialized structures for trapping
prey. For example, the rings in the hyphae
of Arthrobotrys trap tiny worms, called
nematodes, that live in the soil.
Mutualistic Mutualistic fungi have partnerships with
other organisms, often plants or protists.
In most cases, the mycelia cover the roots
of a plant. This mutualistic relationship is
called mycorrhiza. The mycelia increase the
absorptive surface of the plant roots, allowing
the plants to take up more nutrients. The
fungus receives sugar from the plant.
Saprobial A saprobe is an organism that feeds on dead
organisms or organic wastes. Saprobial fungi
are decomposers whose mycelia absorb
nutrients from dead or decaying organic
matter. They play an important role in recycling
nutrients in ecosystems.
Fungal Reproduction
Many fungi have both asexual and sexual methods of reproduction. Asexual
reproduction in fungi can be by spore production or other means. Some unicellular
yeasts use budding. This involves a smaller cell that develops while attached to the
parent cell. The smaller cell is eventually pinched off of the parent cell to produce
a new individual. Other asexual fungi reproduce by fragmentation, in which a piece
of mycelium breaks and forms a new individual.
The asexual and sexual life cycles of most fungi, such as the puffball shown in
Figure 3.17, include the production of trillions of single-celled spores from fruiting
bodies. The spores are surrounded by a protective cell wall. Most will never form new
Figure 3.17 Fungi like this individuals. However, after being carried by wind or water, some will likely land in
puffball produce airborne an area with life-supporting conditions. Taxonomists classify fungi largely based on
spores. Each spore is a
haploid cell that will produce
whether reproduction is sexual or asexual (or both), and on the structure of the
a new mycelium if it reaches fruiting body.
a suitable environment.

Fungal Classification
Fungi are classified into five groups based on reproduction and the structure of the
fruiting body they produce. Fungi that are not known to reproduce sexually are placed
in a single phylum. The groups that use sexual reproduction are placed into four phyla.
Fungi Imperfecti (Phylum Deuteromycota)

The Fungi Imperfecti are not known to reproduce sexually. This group is diverse,
but because there are no sexual structures to compare, taxonomists are not certain
that the fungi in this phylum are closely related to each other. Examples of imperfect
fungi include the mould Penicillium, shown in Figure 3.18 (A). This greenish-coloured
fungus is often seen growing on mouldy fruit. You may be familiar with the antibiotic
penicillin, which is produced from Penicillium.
Other fungi in this phylum are also important to humans. The drug cyclosporine is
obtained from an imperfect fungus that lives in soil. Cyclosporine is given to patients
after transplant surgery, to help suppress their immune systems. This helps to keep
patients from rejecting the transplanted organ. Other imperfect fungi are used to make
soy sauce and some kinds of cheese, such as the Roquefort shown in Figure 3.18 (B). The
blue streaks in the cheese are patches of fungal spores.
A B
Figure 3.18 (A) The Penicillium mould growing on this lemon is the same mould that produces
the antibiotic penicillin. (B) The fungal spores in this cheese give it a strong flavour.
Chytrids (Phylum Chytridomycota)

Chytrids are mostly unicellular. Most chytrids are aquatic species and their spores
have flagella. They can be found in marine and freshwater ecosystems. Chytrids can be
parasites or live on decaying plants or insects. One chytrid that has an indirect impact
on humans is Synchytrium endobioticum, a parasitic fungus that lives in soil and infects
potato plants. The fungus causes a disease called potato wart. Potato wart deforms
potatoes, so that they cannot be sold. In 2007, the disease was detected in soil samples
from a potato field in Prince Edward Island. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency
implemented a plan to contain the spread of the disease to protect other parts of Prince
Edward Island and the rest of Canada.
Learning Check
19. What is a mycelium and where is it found? 22. Name three ways that Fungi Imperfecti are
20. Are fungi more like plants or animals? What important to humans in the modern world.
evidence do scientists use to help answer this 23. When you see a mushroom growing from a dead
question? log, which part of the fungus are you observing?
21. Describe the four ways fungi have of obtaining 24. Why do you think it is important for government
nutrition. agencies to try to stop the spread of fungal diseases
that affect plants, such as potato wart?

Zygospore Fungi (Phylum Zygomycota)
Zygospore fungi are multicellular and mostly terrestrial. Zygospore fungi, which
zygospore a diploid
structure that develops include common moulds, are familiar to anyone who has left food lying around too
after two haploid long, as shown in Figure 3.19. Fungi in this phylum usually reproduce asexually. Under
hyphae of opposite certain conditions, two separate mycelia will produce spores using sexual reproduction.
types combine and During sexual reproduction, fungi in this phylum produce zygospores, hence the name
fuse their nuclei; this
structure is characteristic of the group. Zygospores are diploid structures that develop after two haploid hyphae
of zygospore fungi that of opposite types combine and fuse their nuclei together. A thick wall develops around
reproduce sexually the zygospore after it forms, protecting the contents from drying. The zygospore
during unfavourable remains dormant until conditions are favourable for growth. Then, it absorbs water
conditions
and the nuclei undergo meiosis.
Figure 3.19 Rhizopus bread mould is a familiar fungus. It usually reproduces asexually, but
under some circumstances two separate mycelia produce spores using sexual reproduction.
Sac Fungi (Phylum Ascomycota)

From the powdery mildews that grow on leaves to the morels and truffles used in
ascus (plural asci) a
small finger-like gourmet meals, ascomycotes are the largest group of fungi. Fungi in this phylum
structure in which sac develop small finger-like sacs called asci (singular ascus) during sexual reproduction.
fungi develop spores Most sac fungi obtain nutrition by breaking down materials in wood and bone.
Other species are parasites of plants, producing leaf curl, chestnut blight, and Dutch
elm disease. Sexual reproduction in this group involves the fusion of two mating types
to form spore-bearing asci.
SuggestedInvestigation This group also includes single-celled yeasts. Yeast cells usually reproduce asexually
by budding, as shown in Figure 3.20. The cell nucleus divides by mitosis, and a small
Inquiry Investigation 3-C,
part of the cell containing one of the nuclei pinches off from the parent to form a new
Classifying Common Fungi
individual.
Figure 3.20 Yeast cells form a tiny bud scar every time a bud pinches off from its parent cell.
Note the bud scars on the parent cell.

Club Fungi (Phylum Basidiomycota)
The basidiomycotes include the mushrooms that grow on lawns and the puffballs and
basidium (plural
stinkhorns found on woodland floors. These are all short-lived fruiting bodies of these basidia) a club-shaped
organisms. The fruiting bodies of club fungi release spores called basidiospores from hypha found in members
club-shaped hyphae called basidia (singular basidium). Some club fungi are parasites of the Basidiomycotes;
of plants and can cause serious damage to crops such as corn, wheat, and rye. they bear spores called
basidiospores
Although it is easy to imagine that the mushrooms we see growing on the ground
lichen an organism
are the complete organism, the largest part of the club fungus is a vast, sprawling that results from a
network of hyphae that spread underground. You can see evidence of this hidden mutualistic relationship
mycelium in the circles of mushrooms that sometimes appear on lawns and forest between a fungus and
floors. The centre of the circle is the point at which the mycelium began growing, a photosynthetic plant
or alga
expanding outward like the spokes of a wheel to produce fruiting bodies at the ends of
the hyphae. The complete reproductive cycle of a club fungus is shown in Figure 3.21.
A The above-ground structure of B Gills extend out from the stalk on the
a mushroom usually consists of a underside of the mushroom cap like
stipe that supports a cap. spokes on a wheel. Club-shaped
basidia line the gill surfaces.
cap
gills
basidiospores
stipe
basidia
basidiospore
G As these basidiospores mature, C When a basidiospore lands in a
suitable environment, it germinates
they detach from the basidia
and produces hyphae that grow
and are dispersed to new
down into the soil. These grow to
locations by the wind.
form a haploid mycelium.
+ mating - mating
meio type type
sis
basidia
use
clei f D Mycelia are different mating types.
o id nu
hapl When mycelia from two different
mycelium
m mating types come together, the
F A button develops into a mushroom. hyphae fuse. A new mycelium forms.
Inside each basidium, the haploid Each cell contains one haploid nucleus
nuclei join to form a diploid cell. from each of the mating types.
Meiosis occurs, producing four
haploid nuclei, each one becoming
a basidiospore. Two mating
m types fuse.
Nuclei remain separate.
Nucle
E Eventually buttons, new mycelium—

or compact masses of each cell with two nuclei
hyphae, form under
the soil’s surface.
Figure 3.21 The life cycle of a mushroom. The above-ground fruiting body is the
sexual structure.
Lichens
Lichens, shown in Figure 3.22, are called composite organisms because they form
a unique organism that depends on a relationship between different species. In
lichens, the two species always consist of a fungus and a photosynthetic organism,
such as a unicellular green alga or a cyanobacterium. Some lichens are able to live
in environments that are harsh, such as those with extreme temperatures or that are
nutrient poor. Lichens are an important food source for many animals, including deer,
elk, and especially caribou. They are used as a source of natural dye to colour wool Figure 3.22 Lichens can
and to make litmus paper. You may have used litmus paper to test the pH of a liquid. grow on bare rocks.

Section Summary
• The basic body form of fungi consists of a mycelium and • Some fungi reproduce through asexual reproduction,
spore-producing and gamete-producing structures. such as budding and fragmentation. Others reproduce
• Fungi are nourished by parasitic, predatory, mutualistic, through sexual reproduction. Some reproduce using both
or saprobial means. asexual and sexual reproduction.
• Fungi are divided into five groups based on reproduction
and the structure of the fruiting body produced.
• Lichens are composite organisms made of a fungus and a
photosynthetic organism.
Review Questions
1. K/U Identify the main characteristics of a fungus. 8. C Make a table to organize information about the
2. C Draw and label the basic structure of a five phyla of fungi described in this section. Columns
multicellular fungus. should allow you to include a general description and
examples, information about how nutrition is obtained,
3. T/I Design an experiment in which you could
reproduction, and impact on humans.
quantify, or measure, the role fungi have in
decomposing organic materials and recycling nutrients 9. T/I Refer to Figure 3.19. A student observes bread
in a forest ecosystem. mould (Rhizopus) using a dissecting microscope. The
student noted that there were “tunnels” in the bread.
4. A Leaf cutter ants, like the ones shown below, are
Infer what might have caused these tunnel-like
found in the tropical regions of Central and South
structures in the bread.
America. They have underground chambers where
they grow fungi that consume the leaf pieces collected 10. K/U Which two groups of fungi produce fruiting
by the ants. The fungus on the leaves grows a structure bodies known as mushrooms? What are the
that is consumed by the ants. What nutrition category spore-producing structures of each called?
do you think these fungi belong in? Infer the type of 11. C Use a flowchart to summarize the life cycle of a
ecological relationship that exists between the ant and mushroom.
the fungus. 12. A The fungus Puccinia graminis causes a disease in
plants called stem rust. An epidemic of stem rust on
wheat is currently spreading across Africa, Asia, and
most recently into the Middle East. Stem rust
eventually kills infected plants, leaving the grain
inedible. Predict the global impact of this disease if
scientists cannot come up with a way to stop its spread.
13. K/U Explain what a composite organism is and give
an example of one.
14. T/I Infer how each organism that makes up a lichen
benefits from the relationship.
15. A Lichens are sensitive to air pollution. The fungus
5. C Use a graphic organizer to identify and describe
readily absorbs materials from the air. If pollutants are
the different forms of asexual reproduction used by
present, the fungus may not survive. Without the
fungi.
fungal partner of the lichen, the photosynthetic partner
6. T/I Infer why being able to reproduce using spores also dies. Predict what could happen to populations of
that can be widely dispersed is such an important animals in northern Canada that depend on lichens as
adaptation for fungi. a food source should air pollution levels continue to
7. K/U Give two examples of parasitic fungi and explain increase in that region.
how each obtains its nutrition.

SECTION
The Animal Kingdom
3.4
At mention of the word animal, many people think of furry mammals, while others Key Terms
may think of reptiles, birds, or fish. But these familiar animals only represent a single
invertebrate
phylum of the 35 phyla that make up the animal kingdom. Animals in the remaining
vertebrate
34 phyla, such as sponges, sea cucumbers, and the sea anemone shown in Figure 3.23,
make up 95 percent of the animal kingdom. This section explores only a selection of radial symmetry
these phyla. Over half of animal phyla consist of worms that are generally unknown to bilateral symmetry
non-scientists. The largest number of animal species that have been identified, about coelom
800 000, are in Phylum Arthropoda, which includes insects, spiders, lobsters, and crabs. segmentation
polyp
What Is an Animal? medusa
Animals have several characteristics that make them different from organisms in mantle
the other kingdoms you have read about. In general, all animals share the following exoskeleton
characteristics: notochord
cartilage
• They are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms. Their cells do not have cell walls.
tetrapod
• They are heterotrophs that usually ingest (take in) and then digest their food.
ectothermy
• They are usually mobile, or have the ability to move, in at least one stage of their lives. endothermy
• They reproduce sexually and produce an embryo that undergoes stages of development. mammary gland
placenta
Characteristics Used to Classify Animals
One of the main characteristics used to classify animals is whether the organism has a
invertebrate an animal
backbone. Animals without backbones are referred to as invertebrates. Animals that that does not have a
have an internal skeleton and a backbone are called vertebrates. About 95 percent of backbone
animals are invertebrates. Other characteristics used to help classify animals include vertebrate an animal
• levels of organization with an internal skeleton
and a backbone
• number of body layers
• symmetry and body plans
• body cavity
• segmentation
• movement
• reproduction
With well over a million identified species of animals, there exists great diversity among
these characteristics.
Figure 3.23 About
A B C 95 percent of animals
are invertebrates.
(A) Sponges live in aquatic
environments, attached to
solid surfaces such as rocks,
coral, or the shell of another
animal. (B) Sea anemones
use their stinging tentacles
to catch food. (C) Sea
cucumbers feed on dead
and decaying matter.

Levels of Organization
endoderm mesoderm Animals are classified on the basis of differences in their structure, tissues, and organ
systems. All animals have cells and, with the exception of sponges, the cells of animals
are organized into tissues. A tissue is a group of similar cells that is specialized to
perform specific tasks. For example, in the human body, muscle tissue generates the
force needed to move the body. Tissues, in turn, are organized into organs and organ
systems, each with particular functions. As you will read, animals have varying levels
of structure and complexity in organ systems such as the digestive system, the nervous
ectoderm
system, the respiratory system, and the circulatory system.
Figure 3.24 Most animals Number of Body Layers

develop three layers of
cells at an early stage in the All animals except sponges and animals in Phylum Cnidaria (corals, hydras, jellyfish,
growth of the embryo. and sea anemones) have three layers of cells. These layers, shown in Figure 3.24, are
the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm. The ectoderm is the outer layer, the
mesoderm is the middle layer, and the endoderm is the inner layer. The layers develop
during the early stages of growth in an embryo. The development of these three layers
helps sort cells into an arrangement that produces specialized tissues and organs in the
adult animals. In humans, for example, the ectoderm produces the skin, nerve tissue,
and some sense organs. The mesoderm produces the muscles, blood, kidneys, and
reproductive organs. The endoderm produces the lungs, liver, pancreas, bladder, and
stomach lining.
Symmetry and Body Plans

radial symmetry
Different groups of animals have different arrangements of cells, tissues, and organs.
a body plan that can The different arrangements lead to different body plans, as shown in Figure 3.25. Some
be divided along any animals have an asymmetrical body plan, which means their body shape is irregular.
plane, through a central Sponges are examples of animals with an asymmetrical body plan. Some animals
axis, into roughly equal
have radial symmetry, which means they can be divided along any plane parallel
halves
with the body axis. Animals with radial symmetry include corals and jellyfish. Other
bilateral symmetry
a body plan that can be animals, such as worms, insects, and vertebrates, have bilateral symmetry. Animals
divided along one plane, with bilateral symmetry can be divided into two mirror halves only along one plane
through the central axis, through the central axis.
into equal halves
Radial symmetry Bilateral symmetry
A B
dorsal
posterior
anterior
Figure 3.25 (A) The cnidarian that is known as a hydra shows radial symmetry. (B) The turtle
shows bilateral symmetry.

Body Cavities
Some animals have their digestive tract and other organs suspended in a fluid-filled
coelom a fluid-filled
body cavity called the coelom, which is shown in Figure 3.26. Animals with a coelom, body cavity that
including some worms, molluscs, insects, and vertebrates, are called coelomates. Animals provides space for
without a coelom, such as corals, jellyfish, and flatworms, are called acoelomates. the development and
Why is a coelom important? Imagine a length of thin rubber tubing. Now imagine suspension of organs
and organ systems
the same tubing closed at both ends and filled with water. The empty tube is like a
segmentation the
flatworm, which has a flat body. The water-filled tube is like an earthworm, which has division of multicellular
a round body. With fluid inside it, the tube is more solid and rigid. For animals, this bodies into a series of
gives their muscles a structure to brace against, allowing them to move and respond repetitive parts
more quickly. In addition, a fluid-filled body cavity allows for the development of more
complex organ systems. For example, the digestive tract can grow longer than the
body, because it can bend and fold back on itself within the coelom. In more complex
animals, such as vertebrates, the coelom is subdivided into separate cavities around the
heart and lungs, as well as around the digestive tract.
Acoelomate body plan Coelomate body plan

A B
Ectoderm fluid-filled cavity

Mesoderm
Endoderm
Figure 3.26 (A) Acoelomate animals have flattened bodies. (B) Coelomate animals have a body
cavity in which complex internal organs can develop.
Segmentation
Some animals, such as worms and the scorpion shown in Figure 3.27, are segmented.
Segmentation is the division of the body into repetitive sections, or segments. One
advantage of segmentation is that a single segment can be damaged, but the other
segments can continue to function properly. Second, mobility is more effective
because segments move independently, allowing for complex patterns of movement.
Movement
The evolution of nerve and muscle tissue in animals allowed the development of
Figure 3.27 The body of a
both complex and fast movement. However, some animals, such as sponges and sea scorpion is segmented.
anemones, are sessile, or stationary, as adults. They live attached to one place, such as the
bottom of the ocean, a rock, or even the shell of another animal. Like most animals,
sessile animals have a body form that can move during juvenile stages of development.
Learning Check
25. List the five characteristics that all animals share. 28. Identify the three layers of cells found in most
26. Distinguish between tissues and organs. animals, and describe the importance of these layers.
27. Distinguish among asymmetrical, bilaterally 29. Compare and contrast an acoelomate body plan
symmetrical, and radially symmetrical body and a coelomate body plan. Which type of plan do
plans. Give an example of an organism that humans have? Explain your answer.
exhibits each type. 30. Make a graphic organizer that shows the advantages
of segmentation.

Reproduction
Most animals reproduce sexually using gametic reproduction. Recall from Chapter 2
that in gametic reproduction a zygote develops into a diploid organism, and the only
haploid cells are eggs and sperm. Zygotes are produced by either external or internal
fertilization. External fertilization occurs when gametes combine outside the body.
External fertilization is common among animals that live in aquatic environments,
such as fish and amphibians. Internal fertilization occurs when the egg and sperm
combine inside the female body.
Some animals can reproduce asexually. For example, some species, such as aphids,
alternate between sexual and asexual modes, reserving sexual reproduction for when
environmental conditions deteriorate and tough conditions are likely to follow.
Invertebrate Animals
Invertebrates occupy almost all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems on Earth. They have
existed for hundreds of millions of years, and those with hard parts form substantial
parts of the fossil record. Invertebrates are divided into 34 different phyla.
Sponges and Cnidarians

Sponges (Phylum Porifera), shown in Figure 3.28 (A), are found in both marine and
freshwater environments. Unlike all other animals, they have an asymmetrical body
plan and they have no tissues. The body of a sponge consists of only two layers of
cells. The individual cells that make up a sponge are so independent that if you were
to squeeze a living sponge through a filter to separate it into clumps of cells, the cells
would be able to reassemble themselves into a whole sponge. Sponges are sessile as
adults. They feed by trapping food particles in water as the water passes through the
internal channels of their bodies.
The cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria) are one of the oldest animal groups.
Cnidarians include a variety of classes, including freshwater hydras (Class Hydrozoa),
marine jellyfish (Class Scyphozoa), and sea anemones and corals (Class Anthozoa),
shown in Figure 3.28 (B). Like sponges, they only have two layers of cells. However,
cnidarians do have tissues, including muscle tissue, as well as a simple nervous
system. This allows them to swim and capture prey, which they do by using stinging
tentacles around their mouth opening. Food is then digested in the body cavity,
referred to as a gastrovascular cavity. Cnidarians have radial body symmetry and
two basic body forms.
A B
Figure 3.28 (A) Sponges are animals that have no tissues, no organs, and an asymmetrical body
plan. (B) Corals are cnidarians that can form reef environments.

Two Body Forms
The two basic body forms of cnidarians are shown in Figure 3.29. A polyp is a
polyp the tube-shaped
cylindrical form that attaches to a surface, extending tentacles upward and outward, sessile body form of
waiting for prey. Adult sea anemones, corals, and hydras exist in polyp form. A medusa cnidarians
(plural medusae) is a more flattened, mouth-down form that is not attached. A medusa medusa the umbrella-
moves passively with currents or actively by body contractions, such as the jellyfish shaped, free-swimming
in Figure 3.29 (B). Some cnidarians occur only as polyps and some only as medusae. body form of cnidarians
Others alternate between these two forms during their life cycle. For example, the
larval stage of a coral is a medusa, while the adult organism is a polyp.
tentacle gastrovascular cavity

A mouth B
mouth tentacle
polyp medusa
Figure 3.29 There are two basic forms of cnidarians: polyps and medusae. (A) Polyps, such as eyespots
adult sea anemones, are sessile. (B) Medusae, like the jellyfish shown in the photo, are mobile.
Describe the difference in orientation of polyps and medusae.
Worms
Although you might describe a worm as just a long, wiggly invertebrate animal, worms
have several characteristics that are not seen in simpler animals. Flatworms (Phylum
Platyhelminthes) are the least complex worms. They are acoelomates with three layers
of cells. This group includes parasitic tapeworms, flukes, and the free-living planarians
shown in Figure 3.30. They have a simple nervous system with a brain-like concentration
of cells, including an eyespot, at the head end. The characteristic of a body with a
distinct head end is a different body plan than the animals you have read about so far.
Another characteristic found in some worms that does not exist in simpler animals Figure 3.30 Planarians
is a segmented body. Segmented worms (Phylum Annelida) have long tube-like bodies have a distinct head end,
that are divided into a series of ringed segments. As shown in Figure 3.31, segmented which includes eye spots.
worms have a distinct head end and several organ systems.
brain Digestive system

mouth A fairly simple tube runs from
mouth to anus.
Circulatory system
Blood vessels supply each segment,
while five pairs of enlarged vessels
Figure 3.31 Segmented
function as hearts. worms, like this earthworm,
are coelomates that are
segmented on the inside
as well as on the outside.
Excretory system
Nephridia are excretory structures
anus that eliminate metabolic wastes.
Nervous system
A central nerve cord runs the
length of the body, with branches
in each segment. A simple brain
co-ordinates the system.

Molluscs
The molluscs (Phylum Mollusca) are the second-most diverse animal phylum, with
about 100 000 species. All molluscs have bilateral symmetry, three layers of cells, a
coelom, and two body openings. Molluscs have a soft body that is protected in many
species by a hard shell. Three of the main classes of molluscs are shown in Figure 3.32.
A B C
Figure 3.32 Three of the major classes of molluscs are (A) the bivalves, represented here by a
file clam; (B) the gastropods, represented by a land snail; and (C) the cephalopods, represented
by an octopus.
The clams, mussels, oysters, and scallops (Class Bivalvia) are marine and freshwater
species that are protected by a hinged shell. The shelled snails and non-shelled slugs
(Class Gastropoda) are found in terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems. The
shell, when present, is usually coiled. The octopuses and squids (Class Cephalopoda)
are marine organisms with grasping tentacles. They can propel themselves with great
bursts of speed by drawing in water and then forcefully releasing it.
Despite the diversity in form, habitat, and behaviours, all molluscs have a similar
mantle a membrane
that surrounds a body plan, as shown in Figure 3.33. A mantle surrounds the internal organs and
mollusc’s internal organs secretes calcium carbonate for the shell. A mollusc’s body contains organ systems,
including digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, reproductive, and nervous
systems. Molluscs also have a muscular foot, which is usually used for movement.
Some species have well-developed eyes and other sense organs. The octopus has a
relatively large brain and is capable of learning complex tasks.
coelom
shell
heart
nephridium
stomach
mouth muscle
anus excurrent
siphon
muscle siphons
mantle cavity incurrent

gills siphon
intestine
mantle cavity
foot
Figure 3.33 The internal anatomy of a clam illustrates the well-developed organ systems
in molluscs.

Learning Check
31. Compare and contrast external and internal 34. Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast a
fertilization. polyp and a medusa.
32. How do sponges differ from other animals? 35. Use Figure 3.31 as a guide to list the main
33. What are the three major classes of cnidarians, characteristics of segmented worms.
and what three traits do they have in common? 36. Name three classes of molluscs and the ecosystems
they can each occupy.
Echinoderms
Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) include sea stars, sea urchins, sea cucumbers,
and sand dollars, which are shown in Figure 3.34. Echinoderms are marine animals
with radial symmetry, spiny endoskeletons, and tube feet. An endoskeleton is an
internal skeleton that protects organs and provides support for muscle attachment.
In echinoderms, the endoskeleton is made of calcium carbonate plates, often with
spines attached. A thin layer of skin covers the endoskeleton. Tube feet are small
muscular, fluid-filled tubes that end in structures that are similar to suction cups.
Echinoderms have a water-vascular system, which is a system of closed tubes that
includes the tube feet. By using muscles, the animal forces water into the tube feet,
making them extend. In some sea stars, the force applied by tube feet is strong enough
to open mollusc shells, as shown in Figure 3.34 (D).
A B
C D
Figure 3.34 (A) Sea urchins, (B) sea cucumbers, and (C) sand dollars are all members of
the echinoderm phylum. (D) A sea star uses its tube feet to open the two shells of a clam.

Arthropods
The majority of animal species are arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda), making up the
exoskeleton an
external skeleton largest animal phylum. Arthropods include spiders, scorpions, crustaceans (such as
that protects organs, lobsters), and insects. The term arthropod means jointed foot, and arthropods are
provides support for characterized by having legs made up of movable sections connected by joints. They
muscle attachment, and also have a body divided into segments and a hard exoskeleton, as shown in the
protects against water
loss and predation examples in Table 3.5. The exoskeleton, which is constructed of protein and chitin,
is periodically shed or moulted as the animal grows. Its rigidity protects the animal,
and it provides points of attachment for the muscles that move the legs. Because
the exoskeleton also resists drying out, this feature enabled arthropods to colonize
terrestrial ecosystems several hundred million years ago.
Table 3.5 Characteristics of Arthropod Groups
Arthropod Group Distinguishing Characteristics Example
Chelicerates: • two body segments—a cephalothorax and
spiders, mites, and scorpions abdomen
• six pairs of jointed appendages
• no antennae
• special appendages for feeding
• some are poisonous
Myriapods: • each segment has one or two pairs of legs

millipedes and centipedes • have a single pair of antennae and, in most
cases, simple eyes
• live in moist habitats, under logs or stones
• centipedes are poisonous
• millipedes are not poisonous
Crustaceans: • five pairs of jointed appendages

crabs, lobsters, shrimp, • two pairs of antennae
and barnacles • have fewer body segments, with a tendency
for segments in the head and thorax regions to
fuse and become specialized
Insects: • three body segments—head, thorax, and

beetles, bees, butterflies, abdomen
moths, ants, and flies • three pairs of legs
• one or two pairs of wings, or no wings
• mouthparts specialized for siphoning,
piercing, sucking, and chewing

Vertebrate Animals
Vertebrate animals (Phylum Chordata) are the most familiar group of animals. notochord a flexible,
The roughly 50 000 species in this phylum are divided into five major classes—fish, rod-shaped structure
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Animals in Phylum Chordata have several found in chordate
important features in common. One significant feature is a notochord, a rod-shaped animals; during
vertebrate development
structure that extends the length of the body, used for the attachment of movement
it is replaced by the spine
muscles. A second important feature of chordates is a dorsal nerve cord, a tube-shaped
cartilage the
cord that extends along the back of the body. flexible, non-bony,
Most chordates are vertebrates. In vertebrate animals, the notochord forms in the tough material
embryo. During development, the nerve cord becomes the brain and spinal cord, which found in vertebrate
are eventually enclosed in the skull and spine respectively. endoskeletons
Fish
About half of all vertebrate species are fish. They occupy freshwater and saltwater
habitats. Fish range in size from the 12 m whale shark to a dwarf carp, less than a
centimetre long, which is found in Asian forest swamps.
Lampreys, shown in Figure 3.35 (A), are the oldest living vertebrates. Like all fish,
they have gills to obtain dissolved oxygen from water. But unlike more recently evolved
fish, they are jawless and lack paired fins and bony skeleton. They rely on a suction
mouth for holding on to food. The sea lamprey has managed to invade the Great Lakes
using the lock system made for shipping. This has caused devastation to native fish
populations, including lake trout.
The two major groups of fish developed around 400 million years ago. These groups, SuggestedInvestigation
shown in Figure 3.35, have paired fins and jaws. The first are the sharks and rays (Class
Inquiry Investigation 3-D,
Chondrichthyes). Like the lampreys, they have a skeleton of cartilage rather than bone.
Classifying Arthropods
The second are the bony fish (Class Osteichthyes), a group that contains guppies, tuna,
and salmon. As the name implies, bony fish have a skeleton made of bone. Most bony fish
have an air sac called a swim bladder. By filling the swim bladder with oxygen and then
emptying it, a fish is able to rise and sink in the water column.
B C
Figure 3.35 (A) The sea lamprey is thought to be the most ancient of all living vertebrates.
It is jawless and has a cartilaginous skeleton. This species uses its mouth to hold on to and
penetrate the bodies of prey. (B) The cartilaginous fish include the sharks and rays, like this
manta. (C) The bony fish include the vast majority of the Earth’s current fish diversity, such as
Ontario’s pumpkinseed sunfish.

Amphibians
The fossil record of about 360 million years ago shows that the fins of some of the
tetrapod a vertebrate
with two pairs of limbs; bony fish changed over time into limbs. These organisms, which now include modern
an amphibian, reptile, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, are known as tetrapods. The first limbs
bird, or mammal were basically modified fins. However, the structural diversity of limbs has increased
dramatically over time, leading to the legs of frogs, the wings of birds, and the arms of
humans, to name a few.
The first tetrapods to appear and live a portion of their life cycle on land were the
amphibians (Class Amphibia). Most amphibians are in one of two orders, the frogs and
toads (Order Anura) and the salamanders (Order Urodela), as shown in Figure 3.36.
In addition to lungs, most amphibians use their moist skin to assist in gas exchange.
Most species reproduce using external fertilization.
In many places on Earth, dramatic declines in amphibian populations have been
well documented since the 1980s. Some species with limited distributions, such as
Costa Rica’s golden toads, have disappeared completely, while other species have
experienced population crashes. Human activities that change climate or that increase
habitat destruction, pollution, and the movement of diseases around Earth are all being
considered as contributing factors.
A B
Figure 3.36 In Ontario, there are representatives of the two major amphibian orders.
The bullfrog (A) is an anuran (frogs and toads), and the spotted salamander (B) is a urodelan
(salamanders and newts).
Reptiles
The first members of Class Reptilia appear in the fossil record about 300 million years
ago, and the first dinosaurs date back to about 250 million years ago. Today, there
are four major groups remaining, placed in three orders: lizards and snakes (Order
Squamata), turtles (Order Testudines), and crocodilians (Order Crocodilia), shown
in Figure 3.37.
Unlike amphibians, which remain tied to wet ecosystems, reptiles have body scales
that create a waterproof barrier that helps prevent dehydration in dry air. Lacking the
moist skin of amphibians, most reptiles use only their lungs for gas exchange. Shelled
eggs that also resist drying out represent a second advantage that reptiles have for
land-based existence. Fertilization in reptiles is internal. After egg and sperm join
inside the female, several layers of membranes develop around the egg prior to the
secretion of the shell. This type of egg is referred to as an amniotic egg.
Female reptiles deposit eggs in places that provide environmental heat for
incubation, such as sun-warmed sand or a pile of rotting vegetation. Commonly, the
incubation temperature determines the sex of the offspring. A few species of reptiles,
especially those that live in colder environments, give birth to live offspring rather
than laying eggs.

A B
C D
Figure 3.37 The four major groups of living reptiles are the snakes, lizards, turtles, and
crocodilians. The eastern foxsnake (A), five-lined skink (B), and wood turtle (C) are all Ontario
residents. The gavial (D) is an endangered species on the Indian subcontinent.
Activity 3.3 Classifying Animals
As you have read, animals are organized into phyla based on Questions
similarities and differences in their structure and way of life. 1. Which of the animals on the list are invertebrates?
Which are vertebrates?
Materials
• reference books 2. What is the main difference between invertebrates
• computer with Internet access and vertebrates?
3. Which animals on the list are echinoderms?
Procedure Which are arthropods? What are some of the main
1. Use reference books or the Internet to determine the differences between organisms in these two phyla?
phylum into which each organism listed below is classified.
4. Which two examples on the list are worms? Explain
2. Create a table to record the classification of each animal why these species are not in the same phylum.
and the characteristics of each phylum.
Animals from Eight Phyla

• leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) • housefly (Musca domestica)
• common comet star (Linckia guildingii) • barrel sponge (Xestospongia testudinaria)
• Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) • Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis)
• black-footed spider (Cheiracanthium mildei) • monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus)
• brown snake (Storeria dekayi) • blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata)
• freshwater planarian (Triclad planarian) • green frog (Rana clamitans)
• green finger sponge (Iotrochota birotulata) • giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila)
• elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) • sand dollar (Clypeaster subdepressus)
• jumbo squid (Dosidicus gigas) • northern shrimp (Pandalus borealis)
• swordfish (Xiphias gladius)
Learning Check
37. What are tube feet and what are they used for? 40. What are some possible advantages of having a swim
38. Describe the advantages of the insect exoskeleton. bladder?
39. What features do animals in Phylum Chordata have 41. Why are birds and mammals called tetrapods?
in common? 42. List four reasons why reptiles were able to move into
dry, terrestrial environments.

Birds
Birds (Class Aves) are defined as a separate class, but evolutionary biologists have
found evidence that birds are related to at least one group of dinosaurs. This makes
them highly modified reptiles, as shown in Figure 3.38. Among the best evidence for
the link between birds and reptiles are dinosaur fossils that clearly show some small
species were feathered and had wing-like forelimbs. Birds also have scales on their legs,
and there are skeletal similarities between birds and dinosaur fossils.
Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals
extinct
salamanders frogs turtles lizards snakes crocodilians birds mammals
dinosaurs
dinosaurs
reptiles & birds mammals

Time
aquatic larvae the amniotic egg
tetrapod body
Figure 3.38 Among the tetrapods, the amphibians and the mammals are clearly separate
groups, based on evolutionary history. Birds are considered a separate class (Aves), but current
thinking is that they are really a group of modified dinosaurs.
There are differences between reptiles and birds, too, and this has led to some
ectothermy the
reliance on disagreements among biologists. Reptiles, for example, are ectothermic and have a
environmental heat for three-chambered heart. Birds are endothermic and have a four-chambered heart, like
determining internal mammals. Birds also have a high body temperature and a unique respiratory system.
body temperature A bird’s respiratory system promotes one-way movement of air through the use of air
endothermy the sacs that connect to the lungs.
use of metabolic
heat to maintain a
There are almost 9000 species of birds on Earth. Their structural diversity is great,
high, constant body ranging from the small black-capped chickadee to the giant running ostrich, both
temperature shown in Figure 3.39. Birds first appeared in the fossil record about 150 million years
ago. Most birds can fly. Most also have weight-saving adaptations for flight, in addition
to feathered wings. Bones that are lightweight and hollow, a toothless skull, and a
compact body all help keep body weight low. More than half of all living birds have
distinctive song-like voices and calls, and they are commonly known as songbirds.
A B
Figure 3.39 (A) Black-capped chickadees are small songbirds whose range covers parts of Canada
and the United States. (B) Ostriches are large birds that do not fly. They live in desert and grassland
regions of Africa.

Mammals
The most distinctive features of mammals are the mammary glands of females.
mammary gland a
Mammary glands produce and secrete milk to nourish developing young, as shown in mammalian gland that
Figure 3.40. Mammals are also distinguished by having hair. Hair has multiple functions produces and secretes
in mammals, including insulation, camouflage, waterproofing, and communication. milk for nourishing
Specialized hairs can be used in defence, such as the quills of porcupines. Some types developing young
of hair, such as eyelashes, are used for sensory detection. In some species, the hair is placenta an organ in
the pregnant uterus that
greatly reduced, such as in naked mole rats, elephants, marine mammals, and humans. exchanges nutrients and
oxygen between the
mother and developing
offspring
Figure 3.40 The most

distinguishing characteristic
of mammals is that they
have mammary glands used
to nurse their young.
Mammals have other traits in common, too. These include being endothermic,
having hearts with four chambers, and having highly developed brains. Class
Mammalia is divided into three main groups: momotremes, marsupials, and placental
mammals. The characteristics of each group are summarized in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Characteristics of Mammal Groups
Mammal Group Distinguishing Characteristics Example SuggestedInvestigation
Monotremes • egg-laying mammals
duck-billed platypus ThoughtLab Investigation
• only living examples are the
3-B, Classification Guide to
duck-billed platypus and the
echidna Park Mammals
• found only in Australia and
New Guinea
Marsupials • pouched mammals koala bear

• have a short gestation period
(the amount of time offspring
develop in the uterus)
• mostly found in Australia
• examples include koala bears and
kangaroos
• opossum is the only North
American marsupial
Placental • have a placenta
mammals • have great diversity in species
and structure
• include bears, bats, whales,
primates, and humans
polar bear

Section Summary • Most amphibians depend on aquatic ecosystems.

• Animals are heterotrophic eukaryotes that ingest • Reptiles include the now extinct dinosaurs and perhaps
their food. also the modern birds.
• Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry, • Most mammals, including humans, are placental and
including radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry. have long gestation periods.
• The first vertebrates were marine, but the tetrapods
include several successful classes of terrestrial animals.
Review Questions
1. C Use Figure 3.25 as a guide to sketch an animal 10. C Use a table to compare and contrast the
with radial symmetry and an animal with bilateral characteristics of the four groups of arthropods
symmetry. Write a caption for your sketches. identified in Table 3.5 on page 118. The characteristics
2. K/U What is a coelom, and what does it provide you could look at are number of body segments, pairs
coelomate animals? of legs, antennae, and other features.
3. C Aphids reproduce both sexually and asexually. 11. T/I Unlike bony fish, sharks do not have gas-filled
Create an image of the life cycle of aphids. Include both swim bladders for buoyancy. Predict what would
the asexual and sexual reproductive components, and happen to a shark if it stopped swimming for a long
their relationship to environmental conditions. period of time.
4. K/U Describe how cnidarians use their tentacles to 12. C Identify some of the environmental changes that
obtain nourishment. ecologists think may be contributing to widespread
amphibian declines. For each issue, state what you
5. A The Portuguese man of war lives at the surface
think could be done to solve the problem.
of the ocean. It has an air bladder that allows it to float
on the surface. Below the main body dangle long 13. C Make a T-chart that lists the three features of
tentacles which occasionally reach 50 metres in length reptiles that enable them to occupy drier terrestrial
below the surface. Each tentacle bears stinging, habitats than amphibians in one column. In the second
venom-filled thread-like structures that sting and kill column, explain how each feature benefits the reptile in
small sea creatures such as small fish and shrimp. a terrestrial habitat.
Based on this information, identify the phylum of this 14. T/I As birds evolved they developed the ability to
organism and identify its basic body form. fly, which gives them much greater mobility than most
6. K/U What is a mantle? mammals. Unlike a dog pregnant with a litter of
puppies, a bird is unable to carry its developing
7. C Use a T-chart to show why molluscs are
offspring in its body. How are laying and incubating
considered to be more complex than flatworms.
eggs outside the body an adaptation for flying?
8. K/U Into which phylum is the organism below
classified? What are the main characteristics of
organisms in this phylum?
15. T/I The only egg-laying monotremes are found in

and near Australia, which is also where most of the
marsupials are. The placental mammals occur in
greater numbers and are more diverse elsewhere. If you
9. K/U Explain how an adaptation such as an assume that monotremes and marsupials evolved
exoskeleton allows insects to inhabit terrestrial before placental mammals, write out a hypothesis
ecosystems. about how this pattern may have come about.

SECTION
The Biodiversity Crisis
3.5
One of the costs associated with human overpopulation and development is an Key Terms
accelerated extinction rate. Many ecologists believe that the current extinction rate is
mass extinction
high enough to match the great mass extinctions of the past. This threat to species
biodiversity crisis
diversity is known as the biodiversity crisis, and the causes are many.
modelling
temperature sex
The Threat of Climate Change to Biodiversity
determination
Species can experience multiple threats: habitat destruction, competition from invasive
species, illegal trade, and pollution. Climate change, characterized by changing patterns
of precipitation and temperature, is another major threat to the survival of species.
Scientists who study the impact of climate change use a variety of methods for mass extinction
their analyses. They examine long-term data, such as the flowering times of plants or a large-scale dying out
the migrating times of birds. They expose organisms or small ecosystems to artificially of a large percentage
changed climates (in controlled settings) and then measure the results. They also use of all living organisms
within an area over a
the predictions of climate scientists about future precipitation and temperature to make
short time
their own predictions about the impact of climate change on ecosystems. This method
biodiversity crisis
is known as modelling. the current decline in
genetic, species, and
Climate Change and Food Sources ecosystem diversity that
A 2009 study by scientists at the University of Alberta reported that caribou and may represent a mass
extinction
reindeer populations throughout the world have decreased by almost 60 percent over
the last three decades. The scientists suggested that climate change is at least partially modelling a scientific
method in which an idea
responsible for the decline in these populations. They hypothesized that climate change about a mechanism is
has several impacts on caribou. formulated and real-life
One impact relates to lichens, the primary winter food source of caribou. As shown in data are then used to
Figure 3.41, caribou dig through the snow to find lichens throughout the winter. Warmer see if the data fit the
model
summers favour plant growth over lichen growth, resulting in less winter forage. Warmer
winters are accompanied by more precipitation. This causes more snow or freezing rain at
times, further reducing the ability of the caribou to access the lichens that remain.
Another impact of climate change is an earlier spring, which has resulted in earlier
plant growth in northern regions. This change in timing means that when migrating
caribou arrive, the plants have already reached their peak growth and have less
nutritional value. One study of caribou in West Greenland found that the birth rate of
calves is declining, while the mortality rate is increasing. Scientists attributed this trend to
the mismatch in the timing of migration and food resources with reproductive patterns.
Figure 3.41 Caribou

(Rangifer tarandus) dig
through the snow to
find lichens.

Climate Change and Habitat
As altitude increases, plant communities change in a way that is similar to the way they
change with the increase in latitude from the equator to the North Pole. This is because
temperatures decrease with increasing altitude, producing different vegetation zones.
Plant communities that thrive in warmer temperatures are found at low elevations, and
cold-tolerant plant communities are found farther up. In mountainous regions that are
experiencing long-term warming, the average temperatures in all the zones are shifting
upward. Since there is less land near the top of a mountain, the upper zones tend to
be smaller than the lower zones. Warming trends tend to make the upper zones even
smaller, as shown in Figure 3.42.
Snow-bed plant communities consist of high-altitude flowering plants that live in
areas where snow accumulates during the winter. These communities are vulnerable to
the upward shift in vegetation zones associated with changing climate, for two reasons.
First, warming results in habitat loss, since it reduces the amount of suitable land
temperature sex
determination
area on which these plants can grow. Second, the remaining areas that are suitable for
a system in which growth tend to become more fragmented. This can lead to isolated plant populations,
the sex of offspring which can lead to a lack of genetic diversity. As you know from Chapter 1, a lack of
is determined by genetic diversity within such “mountain-top islands” can be a problem. Parts of Europe
incubation temperature
are experiencing the shift in zones shown in Figure 3.42. Upward-moving alpine
rather than by genes
grasslands are replacing higher-zone snow-bed communities.
Before global warmimg After global warmimg
extinct
apline species
snow-bed plant species
lowland species
Figure 3.42 As temperatures increase, the vegetation zones in mountainous regions shift.
Upper zones become smaller and may even be eliminated.
Climate Change and Reproduction

In many reptile species, the temperature at which the eggs are incubated determines
the sex of the offspring. For example, most Ontario turtles lay their eggs in sand. The
eggs of several species produce females when temperatures are relatively warm and
Figure 3.43 The tuatara
(Sphendon punctatus) is
males when temperatures are cooler. Global warming is especially concerning for such
sometimes referred to as a species. An increase in temperature could lead to too few males and too many females
living dinosaur. Although it being produced.
looks like a lizard, its closest The lizard-like tuatara in New Zealand, shown in Figure 3.43, also has temperature
relatives are an extinct
sex determination. In this species, warmer temperatures produce males. Studies
group of reptiles that lived
about 200 million years indicate that a population is not likely to survive if it is more than 75 percent male.
ago, during the time of the Based on continuing warming trends, some climate models predict that only male
dinosaurs. tuataras will be born later in this century.

Learning Check
43. What is the biodiversity crisis? 46. Identify the effects of climate change on caribou.
44. What are three main methods for investigating the 47. Identify two effects on snow-bed plant communities
effects of climate change on biodiversity? of an upward shift in vegetation zones associated
45. Create a flowchart that shows the changes that occur with climate change.
in altitude, temperature, and vegetation as you climb 48. Explain how an increase in average temperatures
a mountain. could affect turtle populations in Ontario.
Climate Change, Plants, and Animal Pollinators

As you learned in Section 3.2, pollen is necessary for sexual reproduction in plants.
A plant and its pollinator, such as an insect, bird, or bat, are dependent on each other.
The pollinator needs the plant for food, and the plant needs the pollinator to move
pollen from one flower to another. Often, there is only one pollinator species for a
flower species. Part of the success of the relationship between a plant and its pollinator
depends on timing. For example, the pollinator must be in the right stage of its life
cycle or migration cycle to be present when the plant flowers.
Warmer temperatures are not likely to upset a pollination relationship if a plant
flowers earlier and its partner pollinator becomes active equally earlier. However,
warming does not always influence both partners’ cycles in the same way. European
researchers have documented cases in which pollination relationships have lost their
matched timing. For example, there are cases in which the insect pollinator emerges
after the winter earlier than normal because of a milder winter or earlier spring. Even
though the plant is flowering earlier as well, it is not flowering early enough for its peak
flowering to match the peak flying time of its pollinator.
So, under the original conditions, upon spring emergence, the insect pollinator
finds the plant from which it consumes nectar ready for flowering. Under the altered
conditions, the insect pollinator emerges but its preferred plant is not yet ready for
flowering. This results in a scheduling mismatch, with the early insect foraging without
sufficient food resources. Then, when the flowers are ready for pollination, there are not
enough insects left. Many experiments have shown that reduced pollination in plants
causes a reduction in the number of fruits and seeds that these plants produce.
Climate Change and Aquatic Ecosystems

Recall, from Chapter 2, the effect of increasing temperatures on corals. Increasing
temperatures associated with climate change also affect freshwater organisms. For
example, an experiment that artificially warmed a Toronto area stream by 2 to
3°C produced significant changes to the invertebrate community in this stream.
Invertebrate growth rates increased, but population densities decreased. Also, adult
insects emerged earlier, and the male to female sex ratio in some species changed.
Invertebrates, such as the stonefly shown in Figure 3.44, are a vital part of all stream
communities. In their early life stages, they are food for other stream inhabitants.
As adults, they are food for nearby terrestrial organisms, such as birds.
Similar experiments subjected rainbow trout in Lake Ontario to water temperature
increases of 2°C. These experiments showed that temperature increases have different
effects in summer and winter. Warmer summer water decreased the appetite of the fish. Figure 3.44 The adult
It also caused a decline in their growth rate. Warmer winter water had the opposite stonefly emerged a week
earlier than normal when
effect. The fish ate more and consequently grew more. However, they consumed a lot Valley Spring, a stream
more of the dissolved oxygen in the water. Over the whole year, the growth of the fish near Toronto, Ontario, was
was reduced and their consumption of oxygen increased. heated by several degrees.

STSE
Quirks &
Quarks
with BOB MCDONALD
THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS
Tree Lines on the Move Related Career

Bob McDonald, the host of CBC
Dr. Ryan Danby of the University of Alberta By studying climate data, Danby observed Radio’s Quirks and Quarks, is a
has been studying trees in the mountainous that there was a gradual warming of the science journalist. He looks for
Kluane region in southwestern Yukon. He’s Arctic region between 1900 and 1950. He also new developments in scientific
interested in the boreal forest, the tundra, and found evidence of two years when a sudden research and interviews
the transition zone (between the forest and abundance of tree seeds coincided with the researchers about their
the tundra), which ends with the tree line. Bob warm, wet growing seasons. This combination findings. Bob asks the questions
McDonald interviewed Dr. Danby to find out if created a big increase in the tree population non-scientists want to ask and
makes sure the answers can be
the tree line has changed much over the years. in 1925 and again in 1940. Weather in
understood by all of his listeners.
subsequent years did not affect the growth
Tree Rings and Climate Data of these new trees in a negative way.
Dr. Danby took samples from almost 1000
white spruce to assess the forest and Using a Climate Model
transition zone during the past 300 years. Scientists used Danby’s data to build a
Through tree ring analysis, he learned how climate model. They predicted that by
long various groups of trees had been in the year 2100, the area would see an
their location and the climate they had average increase of 4°C in the annual
experienced. Thick rings indicated warm temperature. They suggested that the
years and thin rings indicated cold years. tree line could advance another 500
Danby found indications of little change to 550 metres up mountainsides, thus
in the areas of boreal forest and the tree line expanding the area of forest habitat
between 1700 and 1925. However, between and reducing the area of the tundra.
1925 and 1950, the tree line on the south
faces of the mountains moved up by If climate change moves the tree line farther north,
100 metres. On the north faces, where moose will have a larger habitat, but Dall sheep will
the tree line did not move, the density have to move somewhere else to survive.
of the forest increased.
QU ES T I ONS
1. Based on the data Dr. Danby collected, what do you

conclude about how past climate change affected
the tree line in southwestern Yukon?
2. Dall sheep and caribou thrive in tundra-like
conditions, and Aboriginal communities hunt them
for food. Moose flourish in forests. If the climate
models are correct, how might the predicted
changes affect the wildlife and people in this region?
3. Research more information about being a science
journalist. What qualifications does a person need
to be a science journalist?

Section Summary
• The many modern threats to species and their ecosystems • Climate change may alter the boundaries of plant
are creating a biodiversity crisis. communities vertically in mountainous regions.
• Climate change can affect the food sources of animals • Aquatic ecosystems are affected by temperature change.
such as caribou.
Review Questions
1. K/U What is the connection between mass extinction 7. T/I When the surface of a lake warms in the spring,
and the biodiversity crisis? a warm upper layer of water traps a colder layer
2. K/U List possible threats that may result in the beneath it, so there is very little mixture between the
decline of a species. two layers during the summer. Some climate change
models suggest that faster surface heating of water
3. T/I In some reptile species with temperature sex
in the spring can trap the lower layer at a cooler
determination, average temperatures produce male
temperature than slower surface heating does. Predict
offspring and cooler or warmer temperatures produce
how this scenario could affect lake ecosystems.
female offspring. Do you think these species would be
any more resistant to a warmer climate than species in 8. T/I Biomes are large ecosystems. Examples of
which warmer temperatures produced more males? biomes include the boreal forest, grasslands, tropical
Explain your reasoning. rainforests, and the tundra. The characteristics used to
classify biomes include climate and type of vegetation.
4. K/U Explain how temperature changes can influence
The location and size of each biome is usually well
stream invertebrates.
defined. How do you think climate change could lead
5. A Between 1981 and 2005, the Netherlands to shifts in the location and size of different biomes?
generally experienced an increasingly earlier spring.
9. T/I One of the known causal factors of skeletal
The graph on the left shows the peak of caterpillar
malformations in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
abundance from 1985 to 2005. The graph on the right
is water temperature during egg incubation. European
shows the changes in hatching date for a songbird
studies have demonstrated that the best results were
species that consumes this species of caterpillar.
obtained when eggs were incubated at 10°C, and that
Use the graphs to comment on the degree to which
relatively small effects on malformations were observed
these two species have or have not responded to a
between 8°C and 12°C. Temperatures greater than
changing climate.
12°C and less than 8°C were likely to induce skeletal
Date of Peak Hatching Date of malformations. Based on this information, predict the
Caterpillar Numbers Songbird
impact of climate change on rainbow trout populations.
June 09 June 09
10. K/U Summarize the impact climate change could
May 30 May 30
have on flowering plants and pollinator species.
May 20 May 20
Date
Date
May 10 May 10 11. A Hoary marmots (Marmota caligata) are

April 30 April 30 herbivorous rodents that live in the mountains of
April 20 April 20 western North America. One of the cues marmots use
85
90
95
00
05
85
90
95
00
05
to emerge from hibernation is warm air temperature.

19
19
19
20
20
19
19
19
20
20
Year Year In recent years, scientists have reported a trend of

warmer spring temperatures occurring earlier than
6. A Many Canadian birds set the timing of their
normal in alpine habitats. However, possibly due to
spring migration to the photoperiod (the amount of
increased precipitation rates, the snow is not melting
daylight each day). This system has allowed them to
earlier. As a result, when marmots emerge earlier, snow
return at the correct time each spring. The photoperiod
is still on the ground. This increases the length of time
does not change from year to year, and it is not affected
during which marmots draw on remaining fat reserves
by global warming. What might happen if spring arrives
to maintain normal body temperature and initiate
earlier due to global warming, but birds continue to set
reproduction. Predict the impact of climate change on
the timing of their spring migration to the photoperiod?
the hoary marmot population.

Plan Your Own 3-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Classifying Conifers
In this investigation, you will study the characteristics of several different species
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
of coniferous plants and develop a key to identify them.
✓ Communicating
Pre-Lab Questions
Safety Precautions 1. What are the main characteristics of gymnosperms?
Wash your hands with soap and
2. Which parts of a coniferous tree are important to collect as samples for
water after handling the samples.
identification?
Suggested Materials 3. What methods will you use to collect samples safely?
• twigs, needles, and cones collected
Question
from several different conifers in
your area How can you identify and classify different species of conifers found in your area?
• a field guide to trees Plan and Conduct

1. Make a list of characteristics in which species of conifers might differ. Decide
which of the characteristics would be most useful in a dichotomous key.
2. Decide in which order the characteristics should appear in the key.
3. Collect samples from different local conifers or obtain samples from
your teacher.
4. Recall that traits in a dichotomous key are described as sets of two
alternative choices. For example, if you decide that the arrangement of
needles is a useful characteristic for identification, one choice in your key
might be needles grouped in bundles, or needles growing singly.
5. When writing your key, remember that it must be clear enough to be used
by someone not familiar with conifer identification.
6. Create your key. Examine your conifer samples and list the characteristics
you observe. Identify the samples that you collected using your key.
Analyze and Interpret

1. Which characteristics did you use to make your key?
2. Exchange your key with other students. Using the new key, identify your
conifer specimens. Does the key work? Explain why or why not.
Conclude and Communicate

3. Is there only one correct way to design a key to identify conifers? Explain.
Extend Further
4. INQUIRY Mount and label your specimens. Display them in your classroom
along with other students’ specimens. Be sure to highlight the identifiable
characteristics of each sample.
5. RESEARCH Choose one species of conifer from your samples. Research
more information about the characteristics that distinguish this species
from others in the same genus. Present your results in a graphic organizer.

ThoughtLab 3-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Classification Guide to Park Mammals
In this investigation, you will create a classification guide to the mammals that
live in an Ontario provincial park of your choice.
✓ Communicating
Pre-Lab Questions
Materials 1. What characteristics do all members of Class Mammalia share?
• field guides to North American
2. What characteristics can be used to distinguish the families of mammals?
mammals
• access to the Internet Question
• coloured markers or pencils Can you create a classification guide for mammals that inhabit a provincial park?
Organize the Data

1. Use the Internet to research the provincial parks in Ontario. Choose a park.
2. Use the guidebooks and the Internet to research the different mammals that
live in the park.
3. For each animal, determine the family in which it is classified. Research and
record the characteristics of that family.
4. For each species within that family, determine and record the characteristics
that distinguish it from other species within the family.
5. Decide how you will present this information in a format that a visitor to
the park could use as they hike. Identify each organism by its scientific
name and its common name. Include any drawings that might support the
written information, such as sketches of the animal or its tracks.
6. Create your classification guide for park visitors.

1. How could knowing the characteristics of a family of mammals be helpful
for identifying a mammal that is not included in your classification guide?
Conclude and Communicate

2. Suppose you are the park naturalist. A class of Grade 6 students will be
visiting the park, and they will be using your classification guide as they
hike. How would you explain your guide to these younger students?
3. Share your classification guide with your classmates. How is your guide
similar to those of your classmates? How is it different?
Extend Further
4. RESEARCH Choose two mammals in your classification guide that are from
the same family. Research more information about the two animals and
create a dichotomous key that could be used to identify each animal.
5. INQUIRY Suppose you were going to make a similar classification guide
for fish. This time, you are going out into the field to survey the organisms.
What characteristics would you collect data on? What materials would you
need to complete this task? Write a paragraph that summarizes your plan.

Inquiry 3-C
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Classifying Common Fungi
The different groups of fungi you have learned about can be distinguished by
their reproductive structures. In this investigation, you will study various fungi,
✓ Communicating
note their characteristics, and classify them into their appropriate groups.
Safety Precautions Pre-Lab Questions

1. What characteristics do fungi have in common?
• Wash your hands after handling 2. What characteristics help identify different fungal groups?
fungi. 3. List the reproductive structures of different fungi. Note which groups
have sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction, or both.
Materials
4. What should you do after you handle the fungi samples?
• cultures of fungi
• clear adhesive tape Question
• microscope slides How can you classify samples of fungi based on your observations of the
• compound light microscope characteristics of fungi?
Conidia Zygospore
Structure of imperfect fungi Reproductive structure of zygospore fungi
conidia
sporangium
spores
zygospore
sporangiophore
Basidiospre Ascus
Reproductive structure of club fungi Reproductive structure of sac fungi
ascospore
basidia
ascus
Go to Using a Microscope in Appendix A basidiospores

for help with working with your microscope.

Procedure Conclude and Communicate
1. Prepare a table to record your data. Include a title 3. Why are fungi identified by their reproductive
and columns to record the appearance of the fungus, structures rather than by spores alone?
its colour, and its type of reproductive structure. As
4. Write a short description of the reproductive strategies
well, ensure you have a column to record in which
of the different fungi. Based on your observations,
group the fungus is classified and space for a drawing
comment on how the physical structures of the fungi
of each sample.
relate to these different strategies.
2. Examine a fungus sample and record its colour and
appearance.
Extend Further
3. Gently touch the sticky side of a piece of clear adhesive
tape to the reproductive structures of the fungus. 5. RESEARCH Some fungi are edible, but others are not.
4. Carefully place the tape, sticky side up, on a In fact, some are deadly poisonous, and others can
microscope slide. make you very sick. Conduct some research using
5. Observe the reproductive structures under low power print or electronic resources. What advice do fungus
and draw them in your table. Label the drawing using experts give to people who are interested in collecting
the illustration on the previous page as a guide. wild mushrooms?
6. Identify the group to which the sample belongs and 6. INQUIRY Some fungi cause disease in plants.
record it in your table. Preventing fungal infections in agricultural crops is
an important part of farming. Some growers apply
7. Repeat the procedure for each fungus sample provided
fungicides (chemicals that kill fungi) to the soil or
by your teacher.
plants to prevent infection. Design an experiment
8. Use the data you have collected to create a to test the effectiveness of a new fungicide against a
dichotomous key to identify the fungi you examined. fungus that infects corn.
9. Follow your teacher’s instructions on how to clean up
and dispose of the fungal samples.

1. Describe the spores you observed. Include information
on their shape, size, and numbers.
2. Describe any differences, other than those based
on reproductive structures, that you were able to
distinguish among your samples.

Inquiry 3-D
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Classifying Arthropods
Approximately 80 percent of the world’s species are in Phylum Arthropoda.
They can be found in almost all habitats and have been on Earth for at least
✓ Communicating
500 million years. The three largest classes of arthropods are insects, arachnids,
and crustaceans. As arthropods, all of these animals share certain characteristics.
Safety Precautions The members of each class, however, are classified based on their differences.
Pre-Lab Questions
Materials 1. What characteristics do all arthropods share?
• preserved spider 2. Where are the head, thorax, and abdomen located?
• preserved crayfish 3. What is an appendage?
• preserved grasshopper 4. What is an exoskeleton?
• dissecting tray 5. How will you protect your hands, eyes, and clothing when handling
• hand lens preserved specimens?
• dissecting probe Question

Which characteristics are most useful for identifying members of different
arthropod classes?
Prediction
List the characteristics that you think will be most helpful in distinguishing the
classes of arthropod.
Procedure
1. Place all three arthropods in the dissecting tray. Prepare a table to record
your observations and comparisons.
spider
2. Carefully examine the exterior of each animal in turn and record your
answers to the following questions for each:
a. Is any part of its body segmented? If so, which part?
b. Does it have an exoskeleton?
c. How many legs does it have?
d. Are its legs jointed?
e. Does it have any other limb-like appendages? If yes, describe each of
them and suggest a function for each based upon its appearance.
crayfish f. The body regions of an arthropod are the head, thorax, and abdomen. In
some arthropods, the head and thorax are fused into one cephalothorax.
Does the animal have three body regions or two?
g. Does it have wings? If so, how many?
h. How many simple eyes and compound eyes does it have?
i. Does it have antennae? If so, how many?
3. Clean up and wash your hands thoroughly.
grasshopper

Analyze and Interpret Conclude and Communicate
1. Which characteristics are unique to insects? 4. Which characteristics are the same in all three
2. Which characteristics are unique to crustaceans? animals you studied, and therefore identify Phylum
Arthropoda?
3. Which characteristics are unique to arachnids?
5. Do members of the same phylum share more
characteristics than members of the same class?
Spider Explain.
abdomen 6. What characteristics would you expect to find in a
silk glands
walking legs centipede, a member of the arthropod class Chilopoda?
openings to
What characteristics distinguish a centipede from
book lung other arthropods?
simple eye 7. Create a dichotomous key to help classify an organism
cephalothorax pedipalps as an arachnid, crustacean, or insect.
mouth parts (fangs) Extend Further

are obscured
8. INQUIRY What else could you investigate about

Crayfish arthropods to help you classify them? Write a
cephalothorax abdomen tail procedure to explain how you would proceed.
9. RESEARCH Find out why arthropods have been
claw walking legs
successful. What importance do they serve in
compound swimmerets ecosystems?
eye
antenna
mouth parts
Grasshopper
head thorax abdomen
forewing
compound
simple eye hind wing
eye
mouth
parts
antenna
jumping leg
walking legs

Chapter 3 SUMMARY
Section 3.1 From Algae to Terrestrial Plants
Land plants evolved from aquatic green algae, • Algae are divided into three groups, based on colour—
developing embryos, vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers. brown, red, and green.
• Plants produce embryos during reproduction, and most
KEY TERMS
live in terrestrial ecosystems.
alga gametophyte sporic reproduction
embryo plant sporophyte • Vascular plants have xylem and phloem, which are tissues
that transport materials throughout a plant.
KEY CONCEPTS • Plants use sporic reproduction, and thus have a diploid
• Algae, especially green algae, are the link between the sporophyte stage and a haploid gametophyte stage.
plant-like protists and the plant kingdom.
Section 3.2 The Plant Kingdom
Plant species are diverse in structure as well as in the • Ferns are the best-known seedless vascular plants. They
ecosystems they occupy. have specialized tissue for internal transport but no flowers
or seeds.
KEY TERMS
• Seed-producing vascular plants are divided into two
angiosperm dicot gymnosperm
groups: gymnosperms and angiosperms. Gymnosperms,
bryophyte flower monocot
which include conifers, are vascular plants that have
cone fruit
cones. Angiosperms produce flowers, and their seeds are
KEY CONCEPTS contained in fruit.
• Bryophytes, including mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, • Angiosperms are divided into two groups: monocots and
do not have vascular tissue, flowers, or seeds. dicots. Monocots have only one cotyledon, whereas dicots
have two.
Section 3.3 The Fungus Kingdom
Fungi are heterotrophic eukaryotes that digest food • Fungi are nourished by parasitic, predatory, mutualistic, or
externally and use various means of reproduction. saprobial means.
• Some fungi reproduce through asexual reproduction, such
KEY TERMS
as budding and fragmentation. Others reproduce through
ascus fungus mycelium
sexual reproduction. Some reproduce using both asexual
basidium hypha zygospore
and sexual reproduction.
fruiting body lichen
• Fungi are divided into five groups based on reproduction
KEY CONCEPTS and the structure of the fruiting body produced.
• The basic body form of fungi consists of a mycelium and • Lichens are composite organisms made of a fungus and a
spore-producing and gamete-producing structures. photosynthetic organism.
Section 3.4 The Animal Kingdom
The majority of animal species are invertebrates. KEY CONCEPTS

• Animals are heterotrophic eukaryotes that ingest their food.
KEY TERMS
• Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry,
bilateral symmetry invertebrate polyp
including radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry.
cartilage mammary gland radial symmetry
coelom mantle segmentation • The first vertebrates were marine, but the tetrapods include
ectothermy medusa tetrapod several successful classes of terrestrial animals.
endothermy notochord vertebrate • Most amphibians depend on aquatic ecosystems.
exoskeleton placenta • Reptiles include the now extinct dinosaurs and perhaps
also the modern birds.
• Most mammals, including humans, are placental and have
long gestation periods.

Chapter 3 SUMMARY & REVIEW
Section 3.5 The Biodiversity Crisis
Human impact on the biosphere has resulted in many KEY CONCEPTS

species and ecosystems being threatened with extinction. • The many modern threats to species and their ecosystems
are creating a biodiversity crisis.
KEY TERMS
• Climate change can affect the food sources of animals such
biodiversity crisis temperature sex
as caribou.
mass extinction determination
modelling • Climate change may alter the boundaries of plant
communities vertically in mountainous regions.
• Aquatic ecosystems are affected by temperature change.
Knowledge and Understanding 7. Identify the larger, longer-lasting, dominant form in

Select the letter of the best answer below. bryophytes.
a. haploid gametophyte
1. Which group exhibits radial symmetry?
b. haploid sporophyte
a. sponges d. cnidarians
c. diploid gametophyte
b. crustaceans e. tetrapods
d. diploid sporophyte
c. mammals
e. diploid zygote
2. Which is an arthropod?
8. What is the name of a mushroom’s spore-producing
a. bullfrog d. octopus
reproductive structure?
b. centipede e. sea star
a. diploid zygote
c. coral
b. mycelium
3. What is true about an insect skeleton?
c. fruiting body
a. It is an endoskeleton made of cartilage.
d. hyphae
b. It is an endoskeleton made of chitin.
e. bud
c. It is an exoskeleton made of cellulose.
Answer the questions below.
d. It is an exoskeleton made of chitin.
e. It is an exoskeleton made of cartilage. 9. Distinguish among the cells of plants, fungi, and
animals by reference to cell walls.
4. Which class of vertebrates is hypothesized to be most
closely related to reptiles? 10. Identify the main characteristic that distinguishes
invertebrates from vertebrates. How many of the
a. cartilaginous fish
animal kingdom’s phyla are invertebrates?
b. bony fish
c. amphibians 11. Fossils of the first tetrapods show that the limbs of
these organisms were not highly specialized. Compare
d. birds
and contrast five types of limb modifications that
e. mammals
occurred in later evolving tetrapods.
5. Which of the following have eggs that have a shell
12. Identify two features that birds and mammals have in
covering?
common.
a. monotremes and placental mammals
13. Why was segmentation an important development in
b. reptiles and placental mammals
the evolution of complex animals?
c. birds and reptiles
d. marsupials and amphibians 14. Why is it difficult to distinguish plants from algae even
though they are classed in different kingdoms?
e. amphibians and reptiles
15. Clarify the difference between a spore and a seed. Give
6. Which is an alga?
an example of plants that use each.
a. clam d. rockweed
b. hydra e. sea urchin 16. Explain, using a familiar example, the phrase mass
extinction event.
c. millipede

Chapter 3 REVIEW
Thinking and Investigation 22. The graph below shows the percentage of each gender
17. Plants often store starch in seeds or other specialized of offspring of live-bearing lizards kept at different
organs. Seeds need a supply of food to support the temperatures during gestation.
embryo plant until it can manufacture its own food. Percentage of Gender of Offspring
In monocots, there is usually a supply of food, called Born at Different Temperatures
endosperm, inside the seed coat but separate from 120 Male
Percentage of Male/
the cotyledon. In dicots, the cotyledons contain 100 Females
Female Offspring
the endosperm. Design a simple investigation to 80
demonstrate that monocots (corn seeds) and dicots 60
(bean seeds) contain starch. Note: Iodine is commonly 40
used as a starch indicator. Iodine changes colour from 20
orange to purple in the presence of starch. 0
25 30 32
18. In the lab, you could use a hand lens or a dissecting Temperature (˚C)
microscope to observe the gills under the cap of a
mushroom. Draw and label a sketch of what you would a. Which temperature yielded the closest ratio of male
see, and explain how this structure is related to the name and female offspring?
of the phylum in which mushrooms are classified. b. If a lizard is kept at 28°C, predict whether there
would be more male or female offspring.
19. Identify the safety precautions you would take if you
c. Temperature-dependent sex determination is a
were handling and observing live, unknown specimens
system in which the temperature eggs experience
of mould in a laboratory. Explain why you would take
during gestation determines the gender of the
these precautions.
organisms that hatch. Predict what will happen to
20. The diagram below shows the trend in size of the this species of lizard if average global temperatures
gametophyte and sporophyte generations among continue to increase.
bryophytes, ferns, and seed-producing plants.
increasing sporophyte size Communication
gametophyte
sporophyte
generation
generation
Spermatophytes
23. Create a graphic organizer in which you compare
Bryophyta Pterophyta (seed-producing zygotic, gametic, and sporic reproduction, being sure
(mosses) (ferns) plants)
to indicate
decreasing gametophyte size a. whether the dominant stage is diploid or haploid (or
whether there are two stages)
a. Describe the trend that occurs in the size of
the gametophyte generation as you move from b. which eukaryotic groups are typical of each
bryophytes to spermatophytes. c. what meiosis creates
b. Describe the trend that occurs in the size of the d. whether spores are produced
sporophyte generation as you move from the 24. Create a five-minute lesson that you would present to a
bryophytes to the spermatophytes. Grade 6 class about lichens. Include information about
c. Suppose you are looking at an eastern white pine a. what lichens are
(Pinus strobus). This species, which is found in most b. what lichens look like
of Ontario, can grow to be more than 40 metres tall. c. where lichens are found
You notice that this specimen has skinny needles d. how lichens are important to ecosystems
that are 6 to 12 centimetres long, and these needles
25. Divide a piece of paper or a page on the computer
are growing in bunches of five. Which generation is
screen in half, writing Exoskeleton on the left side of
it in, and how do you know?
the page and Endoskeleton on the right side of the
21. You are examining a free-living animal using a page. Draw pictures, cut them out from magazines
dissecting microscope. You observe that it has a thin, and paste them to the paper, or download pictures
solid body with two surfaces. You note that it has an from the Internet to create a collage of animals with
eye-spot with a distinct head, and it displays bilateral exoskeletons on the left and a collage of animals with
symmetry. Into which invertebrate group would you endoskeletons on the right.
place this animal? Justify your answer.

26. Human activities affect the diversity of 34. Propose a course of action to raise awareness about the
living things in ecosystems. Explain how it plight of amphibians worldwide.
is possible to view this statement in both a positive and 35. In what ways have wings been an adaptive advantage
negative light. for insects?
27. All living things can be classified according 36. Recently discovered genetic evidence shows that
to their anatomical and physiological multicellular land plants, such as corn and wheat, are
characteristics. Choose one animal phylum. Draw all of one lineage—they all arose from a single type
an organism from the phylum. Label the drawing to of alga. Fossil evidence suggests that other types of
point out the main anatomical and physiological algae did not have the needed complexity to move into
characteristics that are used to classify organisms into terrestrial ecosystems. Explain the adaptations that
this phylum. algae would need to be able to survive on land.
28. Use a Venn diagram or other graphic organizer to 37. Use the information in the dichotomous key below to
compare and contrast monocot and dicot plants. classify the organism shown. List the steps that you
29. Use a graphic organizer to compare and contrast the used in this key to explain how you determined in
three groups of molluscs identified in Figure 3.32. which class this organism belongs.
30. Draw a cartoon to help a class of Grade 4 students
understand the differences among monotremes,
marsupials, and placental mammals.
31. Summarize your learning in this chapter using
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 3
Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts.
Refer to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to
help you decide which graphic organizer to use.
Application
32. The more complex members of the different kingdoms,
1a. Hair present …………… Class Mammalia
especially angiosperm plants, birds, and mammals, are
1b. Hair absent ………… go to 2
found in more recent fossil layers. Explain why this
2a. Feathers present ………… Class Aves
occurs. If more complex organisms appeared in older
2b. Feathers absent ………… go to 3
rock layers, and more simple organisms in younger
layers, what would that suggest about theories of 3a. Jaws present ………… go to 4
changes in diversity? 3b. Jaws absent …………… Class Agnatha
4a. Paired fins present ………… go to 5
33. The circle graph shown below represents the relative
4b. Paired fins absent ………… go to 6
proportions of species in each of Earth’s six kingdoms.
a. Which kingdom contains the most species? 5a. Skeleton bony …………… Class Osteichthyes
5b. Skeleton cartilagenous … Class Chondrichthyes
b. If 1 degree of the circle represents 6 000 species and
Plants represents about 50 degrees, approximately 6a. Skin scales present ……… Class Reptilia
how many species of plants are there on Earth? 6b. Skin scales absent ……… Class Amphibia
c. Explain why the number of degrees that represent 38. Suppose you had a packet of unlabelled plant seeds.
any of the kingdoms on the graph could change. Describe two ways that you could determine if they
The Six Kingdoms were monocots or dicots.
Protists
39. Research more information about how climate change
could affect agriculture in Canada. Consider the
Plants Fungi
following questions as you conduct your research.
Bacteria a. How might climate change affect the length of the
Animals growing season?
b. How might climate change affect biodiversity in
Archaea agricultural ecosystems?

Chapter 3 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 6. K/U At one time, fungi were included in the plant
1. K/U Which group of organisms are the main kingdom. Although fungi look like plants, they are
producers found in most aquatic food chains? more closely related to animals than they are to plants.
a. algae d. amoebas What is one characteristic of fungi that clearly
b. slime moulds e. mushrooms separates them from all plants?
c. protozoans a. Some fungi develop a mycelium.
b. Some fungi can reproduce by producing spores.
2. K/U Which of the following is an adaptation plants
c. Fungi are sessile.
required before they could permanently inhabit
terrestrial environments? d. Fungi are heterotrophic, eukaryotic organisms.
a. cell walls e. Fungal cells have cell walls.
b. cells with chlorophyll a 7. K/U Which statement about animals is true?
c. cells with chlorophyll b a. All members of the animal kingdom have a coelom.
d. a system to transport water and dissolved b. All members of the animal kingdom are composed
substances of only two cell layers.
e. the ability to store food energy in the form of starch c. All members of the animal kingdom have
segmented bodies.
3. K/U Which of these is an example of a non-vascular
plant? d. All members of the animal kingdom are
heterotrophic.
a. fern d. pine tree
e. All members of the animal kingdom use sexual
b. liverwort e. dandelion
reproduction only.
c. horsetail
8. K/U What separates vertebrate animals from
4. K/U Which statement describes the sporophyte (2n)
invertebrate animals?
generation of the fern?
a. Vertebrate animals have a spinal cord, while
Life Cycle of a Fern
mitosis
invertebrates lack this structure.
spores b. Vertebrate animals are heterotrophic, while some
haploid stage invertebrates are autotrophic.
m
organism
ei
os
c. All vertebrate animals are ectothermic, while all

is
haploid mitosis invertebrate animals are endothermic.

diploid
d. Vertebrate animals are all carnivores, while
diploid stage gametes invertebrates are mostly herbivores.
fe
r
organism mi
til
to s i s e. Vertebrate animals all bear live young, while most

iza
tio
invertebrates reproduce by laying eggs.

n
zygote
9. K/U Which group of vertebrate animal remains
a. plant with fronds that produces spores by meiosis
partially tied to aquatic ecosystems?
b. plant with fronds that produces spores by mitosis
a. mammals d. amphibians
c. the prothallus that produces spores by meiosis
b. birds e. fish
d. the prothallus that produces spores by mitosis
c. reptiles
e. the gametophyte that is produced by meiosis
10. K/U Identify the group of plants that best matches
5. K/U Which statement about seeds is false?
the following description.
a. Seeds allow plants to reproduce sexually without
These plants grow closely packed together in mats
needing water.
on rocks or soil. The most obvious stage in this group’s
b. Seeds allow protection against harsh environmental life cycle is the haploid, gametophyte generation. Plants
conditions. in this group never form xylem tissue.
c. Seeds can develop into root-like structures called a. bryophytes d. seedless vascular plants
rhizoids.
b. ferns e. angiosperms
d. Seeds can survive without water for many years.
c. gymnosperms
e. Seeds can be dispersed by different means.

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 22. A Members of Class Malacostraca have a primitive
questions below. body plan that is divided into three segments. In most
11. C Make a table to compare and contrast the of these species, there is a pair of jointed appendages in
physical structures, pigments, and habitats of the three each body segment. They also have a hard, calcified
groups of seaweeds. exoskeleton. The 25 000 species of malacostracans are
distributed worldwide in marine, freshwater, and
12. K/U List the evolutionary evidence linking green
terrestrial environments. Based on this information,
algae to land plants.
identify the phylum in which these animals belong.
13. K/U Compare and contrast the characteristics of
Explain why you placed them where you did.
monocots and dicots.
23. A Ornithorhynchus anatinus is a semi-aquatic
14. T/I Angiosperms are found worldwide and include animal found only in eastern Australia. The female lays
the greatest number of known plant species. Identify, eggs and does not have nipples. However, the offspring
describe, and evaluate the characteristics of species in obtain milk from patches on her abdomen. This species
this division that contribute significantly to their ability has a bill, webbed feet, and flattened tail, and its body
to thrive in a variety of ecosystems. Explain your is covered with hair. Based on this information,
choices. identify the class of vertebrate this species belongs to
15. C Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast and explain why you placed it in this class.
the fertilization process of ferns and gymnosperms. 24. T/I The graph below shows the results of an
16. C Draw and label a sketch of a typical fungus. investigation.
Identify the features that separate fungi from members 15
of the plant kingdom.
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
14
17. A Explain why some scientists think that 13
classifying lichens in a single kingdom is impossible. 12
11
18. T/I Infer how the development of the seed might
10
have affected the lives of herbivorous animals living in
9
Earth’s ancient forests.
8
19. T/I Some scientists predict that climate change will 7
affect global rainfall amounts and patterns. One model 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Water Temperature (˚C)
suggests precipitation will increase in higher latitudes
and decrease in most subtropical land regions. While a. Write a suitable title for this graph.
regional precipitation will vary, the number of extreme b. Identify the dependent and independent variables
precipitation events is predicted to increase. Based on in this investigation, and explain your decision.
this information, predict the possible impact of climate c. Describe the relationship between the two variables
change on grain farming on the Canadian prairies. displayed on this graph.
20. C Illustrate the difference between an acoelomate d. Infer how the information in the graph and the
and a coelomate animal. Provide a caption for your additional facts given below are linked to climate
illustration that identifies an example of each. change and the biodiversity crisis.
21. A Synapta maculata is an invertebrate animal that Fact 1: The metabolic rate of most aquatic
lives in tropical marine ecosystems. It has a spiny organisms increases as water temperature increases.
endoskeleton and a water vascular system. Its large Fact 2: The demand for oxygen in most aquatic
tube feet make it look prickly. Based on this organisms increases as water temperature increases.
information, identify the phylum in which these 25. K/U Explain why biodiversity is important in
animals belong. Explain your answer. maintaining viable ecosystems.
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
question...
Review
3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.2 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.5 3.5
section(s)...

Unit 1 Project
Conduct an Inquiry
Classifying and Comparing

Organisms in Two Ecosystems
An urban park is an example of a human-made, or artificial, ecosystem. Other artificial
ecosystems include flower gardens, farms, and water-filled quarries. How do you think the
biodiversity of an artificial ecosystem differs from the biodiversity of a comparable natural
ecosystem, such as a forest, a meadow, or a lake?
Biodiversity can be measured by examining the different species present. A diverse
community has many species, with each species represented in relatively large numbers. A less
diverse community may have many species but with one or two being dominant, or have fewer
species with large numbers of each. In this activity you will survey organisms in two ecosystems,
one natural and one artificial, and compare and draw conclusions about the biodiversity of
the two ecosystems.
How can you compare and contrast the biodiversity of a natural

ecosystem and the biodiversity of an artificial ecosystem?
Safety Precautions 5. Decide how you will identify and document the species
present in each ecosystem. Will you photograph or
sketch an example of each species? What will you do if
Initiate and Plan you cannot identify a species in the field?
1. As a class, you will study two ecosystems. One will be a 6. As a class, make a list of all the safety precautions to
natural ecosystem and the other will be a comparable follow while you are conducting your surveys. Keep
artificial ecosystem. For example, your class may study factors such as these in mind:
a forest and a park, a meadow and a farm, a fishpond • Some species of plants and fungi are poisonous or
and a wetland, a meadow and a flower garden, or a may cause skin irritation. Do not eat or touch any
natural lake and a human-made pond. species with your bare hands.
2. Work in groups. Your teacher will assign your group • Plan how you might safely collect a small sample to
to survey a particular group of organisms within each analyze later, such as a leaf from a plant or the fruiting
ecosystem. For example, your group’s task may be body of a fungus.
to survey the fungi, the invertebrate animals, or the • Discuss how you will make the least impact on the
vascular plants in your two ecosystems. ecosystems. There should be little or no evidence that
3. Think about the two ecosystems that you will be you visited them.
studying. Predict which ecosystem will have greater • Ensure that no member of the class becomes
biodiversity. Consider characteristics such as number separated from the main group.
of species and the relative abundance of each species. If necessary, research more information about how
4. Discuss the appropriate sample area to use for your you will address safety concerns as you carry out
field studies. How will you survey the organisms in each your survey.
ecosystem? Will you use 1 m × 1 m quadrats? Will you 7. As a group, list the materials you will need to bring
restrict your survey to paths and only record specimens to help you safely document the species present in
visible from the path? If you are studying aquatic each ecosystem.
ecosystems, how will you obtain your samples?

8. Prepare a data table like the sample below for each Communicate Your Findings
ecosystem to record the species found and the relative 5. Create a pie chart that shows the percentage of different
abundance of each species in the ecosystem. groups of organisms—such as fungi, non-vascular
B od
Bi div
ve
errsi
s ty in an
a EEco
c sy
co syst
stem
st e
em plants, angiosperms, gymnosperms, arthropods, birds,
Sketch or Number of and mammals—within each ecosystem.
Species Description Photo Individuals
6. Prepare a dichotomous key that could be used to
Sugar maple Woody tree, 4 classify the species your group identified.
(Acer saccharum) palmate leaves
7. Summarize your study by comparing and contrasting
the biodiversity of the two ecosystems you studied.
You may wish to use a graphic organizer to do this.
8. On the basis of your summary, state a general
9. Have your teacher approve your plan before you conclusion about the impact of human activity on the
conduct your survey. biodiversity in an ecosystem.
Perform and Record
1. Following your teacher’s instructions, visit the Assessment Criteria
ecosystems and record your observations. Collect only Once you complete your project, ask yourself these
specimens that you have difficulty identifying on site. questions. Did you…
2. When you return to the classroom, share your findings ✓ T/I plan your investigation carefully, including
with the other groups. appropriate safety precautions?
✓ T/I use proper sampling techniques during your
3. Compile the data from all groups for each ecosystem. field study?
For each ecosystem, count the total number of species
✓ T/I record appropriate data in a suitable format?
and the total number of individual organisms of all
species recorded in the surveys. ✓ K/U identify each organism you observed?
✓ T/I compare and contrast the biodiversity of the
Analyze and Interpret two ecosystems?
1. Which ecosystem had the greater number of species? ✓ C prepare a dichotomous key that could be
used to classify your organisms?
2. Which ecosystem had the greater number of
individuals overall? ✓ A state a conclusion about the impact of human
activity on biodiversity?
3. Use the following simple formula to calculate the
✓ C communicate your findings in a format that is
biodiversity index for each ecosystem. The lower the appropriate for both purpose and audience?
result computed, the lower the biodiversity of the
✓ C use scientific vocabulary accurately?
ecosystem.
total number of species
Biodiversity index = __
total number of individuals
4. Which ecosystem had the greater biodiversity? Do
these results support your prediction? Why or why not?
How do you think the biodiversity

of a flower garden compares to
the biodiversity of the forest floor?
Unit 1 Project • MHR 143

UNIT
1 SUMMARY
Overall Expectations
In this unit you learned how to…
• All living things can be classified according to their • analyze the effects of human activities on the diversity of
anatomical and physiological characteristics. living things
• Human activities affect the diversity of living things in • investigate, through laboratory work, field activities,
ecosystems. or simulations, the principles of scientific classification,
using appropriate sampling and classification techniques
• demonstrate an understanding of the diversity of living
organisms in terms of the principles of taxonomy and
phylogeny
Chapter 1 Classifying Life’s Diversity
KEY IDEAS • Taxonomists use dichotomous

• Biologists use multiple concepts to define species, and keys, making choices to narrow
species are classified in eight nested ranks. down identifications.
• Modern classification organizes diversity according to • Additional levels of biodiversity
evolutionary relationships. include genetic diversity (all the
• The variety of internal and external forms exhibited by genes in a gene pool of a population)
species represents structural diversity. and ecosystem diversity.
• Species in domains Bacteria and Archaea are unicellular • Ecosystem diversity provides many
and prokaryotic. All other species are placed in four services that benefit humans and
kingdoms in Domain Eukarya. other species.
Chapter 2 Diversity: From Simple to Complex
KEY IDEAS • Sexual life cycles are unique to

• Prokaryotic cells are smaller, less internally complicated, eukaryotes and they alternate
and more ancient in origin than eukaryotic cells. between meiosis, which produces
• Like cells, viruses contain genetic material, but viruses rely haploid cells, and fertilization,
on the machinery of cells in order to copy themselves. which produces diploid cells.
• Bacteria and archaea differ in their methods of obtaining • Eukaryotes that are not plants,
nutrition and in the habitats in which they live. fungi, or animals are considered
protists, which are roughly divided
• Endosymbiosis is a theory of eukaryotic evolution in which
into three groups—plant-like,
two or more prokaryotic cells permanently merged.
animal-like, and fungus-like protists.
Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity
KEY IDEAS • Animals are heterotrophic,

• Algae, especially green algae, are the evolutionary link food-ingesting organisms whose
between the plant-like protists and the plant kingdom. cells do not have cell walls.
• The major adaptations in land plants over time include the • Animals are classified in about 35
development of vascular tissue, seeds, and flowers. animal phyla, only one of which
• Plants can be divided into two main groups: non-vascular contains the vertebrate species
plants and vascular plants. (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds,
and mammals).
• Fungi are heterotrophs made of a vegetative mycelium and
a variety of spore- and gamete-producing structures. • The many modern threats to
biodiversity constitute the biodiversity crisis, and it is
• Lichens are composite organisms made of a fungus and a
predicted that climate change will have particularly
photosynthetic partner.
significant effects on species and their ecosystems.

UNI T
1 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 5. You are given an organism and you are told it has cell
Select the letter of the best answer below. walls with peptidoglycan. Which type of organism do
you conclude it is?
1. For which of the following would the biological
a. virus
species concept work best in determining whether
an organism or population of organisms is a distinct b. prokaryote
species? c. eukaryote
a. A complete set of bones of a dinosaur is recovered. d. prokaryote or eukaryote
b. A migratory herd of caribou mixes with a second e. virus of a prokaryote
migratory herd of caribou. 6. Which statement about evidence for the endosymbiotic
c. A population of frogs is separated by a high theory of eukaryotic evolution is false?
mountain range from a population of similar- a. The two organelles that present the strongest
looking frogs. evidence are the nucleus and the cell membrane.
d. The organisms in a bacterial population reproduce b. Mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce by binary
by cell division. fission.
e. A population of plants mostly reproduces asexually c. The gene sequences in mitochondria and chloroplasts
by sending new shoots up from underground closely match those of living prokaryotes.
structures. d. Ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are
2. Analyzing DNA sequences or the proteins that genes structurally similar to those of prokaryotes.
make allows taxonomists to draw conclusions about e. The membranes of chloroplasts and mitochondria
the degree of relatedness between different organisms. are similar to those of living prokaryotes.
Which of the following statements is true? 7. Which type of protist shows characteristics that make
a. DNA analysis suggests that the turkey vulture is it difficult to classify as either plant-like or animal-like?
more closely related to crows and ravens than to a. diatom
vultures of Asia and Africa. b. dinoflagellate
b. DNA analysis suggests that what was considered c. euglenoid
one species of African elephant is in fact two d. cercozoan
species. e. ciliate
c. Protein analysis suggests that the guinea pig is more
8. Which is an archaeon that requires habitats that have
closely related to pigs than to rodents.
high concentrations of salt?
d. Protein analysis suggests that the horseshoe crab is
a. mesophile
indeed a crab, as was originally thought.
b. halophile
e. DNA analysis suggests that the oviraptor and
c. acidophile
cassowary bird share a common ancestor.
d. hyperthermophile
3. Which term describes the variety of internal and
e. thermophile
external forms in living organisms?
a. ecosystem diversity 9. Which statement about species diversity is false?
b. structural diversity a. Species diversity is the variety and abundance of
species in a given area.
c. genetic diversity
b. Ecosystems with high species diversity have less
d. species diversity
resilience to disease or harsh environmental
e. biological diversity
conditions than ecosystems with low species
4. Which type of fungi traps live prey? diversity.
a. saprobial fungi c. Pollution and climate change are possible threats to
b. parasitic fungi species diversity.
c. predatory fungi d. The introduction of a non-native species to an
d. mutualistic fungi ecosystem can lead to a decrease in species diversity.
e. fungi imperfecti e. Carolinian Canada is an ecosystem that has high
species diversity.
Unit 1 Review • MHR 145

UNIT
1 REVIEW
10. Which characteristic typical of monocots is shown 22. Distinguish among asymmetry, bilateral symmetry,
below? and radial symmetry. For each, give an example of
an organism with this characteristic.
23. Explain the relationships among temperature, global
climate change, and the possible extinction of the
tuatara.
Thinking and Investigation

24. Choose an animal that is of particular interest to
you and research its classification. List its taxa for all
eight ranks.
a. double cotyledon
25. Predict what would happen to an ecosystem if all the
b. flower parts in multiples of three bacteria in it were destroyed by a virus.
c. fruit parts in multiples of three
26. There are currently three domains. If you were a
d. vascular bundles arranged in a ring
taxonomist and you thought it was more appropriate
e. leaf veins are parallel to have two domains, how would you re-organize the
11. Which is not a characteristic of mammals? current scheme of three domains and six kingdoms so
a. they have mammary glands that there were only two domains?
b. they have hair 27. How would the discovery of sexual reproduction and
c. they have a four-chambered heart the structures associated with it affect the classification
d. they are ectothermic of a species of imperfect fungi?
e. they have a highly developed brain 28. Some of the characteristics of living organisms include
Answer the questions below. that they are made of one or more cells, they exhibit
structural organization, and they grow, develop, and
12. What does binomial nomenclature mean and what are
reproduce. Living organisms also require energy,
its component parts? Give an example.
respond to stimuli, and maintain homeostasis (keep
13. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology. Which internal conditions stable). As well, living organisms
is used in helping to classify organisms? exhibit adaptations that have evolved over time.
14. The number of kingdoms recognized by taxonomists a. Using this list, design an experiment in which you
increased through the 20th century. What is the most could test which characteristics a virus displays.
recent kingdom to be recognized, and what domain is b. How might the results help you answer the question
it in? of whether a virus is a living organism?
15. What is resilience? 29. Suppose you discovered a new species of protist.
16. Distinguish a virus from a cell by referring to their Which characteristics would you examine to help
covering, organelles, and relative size. classify it as plant-like, animal-like, or fungus-like?
17. Summarize the process of methanogenesis. 30. Each of the influenza illnesses shown in the table below
18. Which is thought to have appeared first, sexual life were caused by a virus.
cycles or multicellularity? Which organisms in the Flu Epidemics of the Twentieth Century
fossil record appear to be the oldest examples of Spanish Flu Asian Flu Hong Kong Flu
having both? Years 1918–1919 1957–1958 1968–1969
19. Plants have stems, roots, and leaves. Identify similar Global
20–40 million 1 million 1–4 million
structures in brown algae. Deaths
20. Compare the non-vascular bryophytes and the seedless a. Which epidemic was the most deadly? Propose
vascular plants with respect to the gametophyte stage some reasons why this flu was the deadliest.
and the sporophyte stage. b. Hypothesize why a flu epidemic eventually ends
21. Identify a single-celled fungus that reproduces instead of eliminating all human life.
asexually by budding.

31. Design an experiment to test the following hypothesis: 36. Genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem
As water temperature increases, the growth rate of the diversity are not really separate. Create an image that
brown alga rockweed decreases. shows how these three types of diversity are connected,
32. Scientists collected data on water depth and the showing them in a nested relationship if possible.
percentage of amphibian embryos that survive. The 37. Write a public service announcement (PSA) explaining
graph below presents the results of the investigation. why people should not eat shellfish during a red tide.
Survival Rate of Amphibian Embryos 38. Research to learn more about Clostridium botulinum.
Write a short newspaper article about how this
100 bacterium affects humans.
90
Embryos that Survive
a. How might humans come in contact with the

Hatching (percent)
80
70 bacterium?
60 b. What are the symptoms of botulism?
50
c. What is the treatment for botulism?
40
30 d. What are the best ways to avoid this illness?
20 39. Suppose you host a blog that answers science questions
10
0
for non-scientists. Write an answer to someone who
20 40 60 80 100 has asked, “What is the difference between a bacterium
Water Depth during Embryonic
Development (cm)
and a virus?”
40. Draw three flowcharts that indicate the impact of
a. Describe the relationship between the two variables climate change on caribou. Begin one flowchart with
on the graph. “warmer summers,” another with “warmer winters,”
b. Explain the link between climate change, the results and the third with “early spring.”
of this investigation, and declines in amphibian 41. Create a graphic organizer of your choice to compare
populations. and contrast the distinctive features of the different
33. Design an experiment to test how soil temperature groups of fish: lampreys (Class Cephalaspidomorphi),
affects the ability of fern gametophytes to grow. sharks and rays (Class Chondrichthyes), and bony fish
Identify the independent and dependent variables (Class Osteichthyes).
in the experiment. What variable would you keep 42. In recent years, scientists have worked to change the
constant? common name starfish, which is used when referring
34. Scientists distinguish four types of biological diversity: to an echinoderm with arms, to sea star. The common
structural diversity, species diversity, genetic diversity, name sea star helps reduce the misconception that
and ecosystem diversity. Evaluate the relationship of these organisms are fish.
each type of diversity to the biodiversity crisis. a. Do you support this course of action? Explain your
position.
Communication
b. Consider the silverfish shown below, which is an
35. All living things can be classified according
insect. If you were to change the common name of
to their anatomical and physiological
this organism to something that provides a more
characteristics. Choose an organism of interest to you,
accurate description, what would it be?
such as a blue whale or a monarch butterfly. Copy the
table below, and then research and present three
distinctive anatomical features and three distinctive
physiological features of that species. Give your table
an appropriate title.
Anatomical Features Physiological Features

UNIT
1 REVIEW
43. Create a table that compares the three main groups of 53. Lichens do not exist except as composite organisms
algae, considering habitat, complexity, unique features, made of a fungus and a photosynthetic partner.
and possible connection to land plants. a. Explain how lichens pose a challenge to the
44. Biological nomenclature is nested or hierarchical. biological species concept.
Using the eight ranks, create an image that conveys the b. Do lichens pose a challenge to the phylogenetic
idea of nested classification. species concept? Why or why not?
45. Make a poster of the four types of fungi based on their 54. You are given two preserved specimens: a golden-
type of nutrition. Include an illustration of the mycelia winged warbler and a blue-winged warbler. You are
of each type of fungus contacting the food source that told that prior to modern development, these two
it relies on. species occupied different parts of North America.
You are told that they sing different songs. You are also
Application told that following land clearing their ranges changed,
46. Some laws prevent landowners from doing things that and they now occupy some of the same landscapes. In
may cause problems for endangered wildlife. Why are addition, some breeding pairs contain one of each type
the species concept and a formal system of naming of warbler.
organisms important for the legal process? a. Using the morphological species concept and the
47. Table 1.5 provides the main characteristics of the images below, would you consider these birds to be
six kingdoms. Use that information to create a the same species?
dichotomous key for the six kingdoms. b. If you were using the biological species concept,
48. Research more information about molluscs. Choose what additional information would you need to
one class of molluscs and make a dichotomous key to determine whether they are the same species?
identify organisms in different orders within that class. c. If you were using the phylogenetic species concept,
what additional information would you need to
49. Methane is a useful fuel as well as a greenhouse
determine whether they are the same species?
gas. Propose a way that you might use methane-
producing archaea to generate fuel. Remember that golden-winged warbler
methanogenesis is an anaerobic process. How would
you minimize the atmospheric impact, given that
burning methane produces carbon dioxide, which is
also a greenhouse gas?
50. Explain how fungi affect humans both positively and
negatively.
51. Suppose you are a taxonomist who disagrees with the
groups into which protists are currently classified.
Suggest another way to classify different types of
protists.
blue-winged warbler
52. Human activities affect the diversity of
living things in ecosystems. Many scientists
believe that current extinction rates are high enough to
match the mass extinctions of the past. However, mass
extinctions in the past were the result of natural events.
The biodiversity crisis we are faced with today may be
due, in part, to human actions. Given that mass
extinctions can occur naturally, should we take steps to
prevent a mass extinction that our activities might
cause? Support your answer.

55. The Greek philosopher Aristotle made one of the 57. Research to find out more about how bacteria are
earliest attempts to classify life more than 2000 years beneficial to human health.
ago. At that time, people had identified approximately 58. Based on the partial key below, predict the order of the
1000 organisms, which Aristotle put into two groups— mammal shown below and identify the steps you used
plants and animals. He further categorized animals in this key to arrive at your decision.
based on their size and the way they moved on land, Partial Key to the Orders of Mammals
in water, and in the air. Aristotle may have grouped
the three animals below into a category called “flying 1a. Forelimbs developed into leathery wings
.................... Order Chiroptera
animals.” Use the three animals below to explain
1b. Forelimbs not developed into wings; go to 2
why this category would not be particularly useful to
taxonomists today. 2a. Front limbs developed into paddle-like flippers, hind
limbs absent, body ending in expanded horizontal
fluke, hairless or nearly hairless body ...............
Order Cetacea
2b. Front and hind limbs present, body not ending in
horizontal, expanded fluke, body covered with hair;
go to 3
3a. Front and hind limbs developed into flippers for
bird swimming .................. Order Pinnipedia
3b. Front and hind limbs not developed into flippers for
swimming; go to 4
4a. Toes ending in hooves, four toes on each foot
................ Order Artiodactyla
4b. Toes ending in hooves, odd number of toes on each foot
................ Order Perissodactyla
bat
dragonfly
56. The statements below represent contradictory points

of view held by members of the scientific community
today. Which point of view do you support? Explain
your reasoning. 59. For many years scientists hypothesized that killer
whales Orcinus orca may actually consist of more
View 1: The rich variety of life on Earth has always
had to adapt to a changing climate. The need to than a single species. They based their hypothesis
adapt to new patterns of temperature and rainfall has on observations of differences in feeding patterns,
been a major influence on evolutionary changes that behavioural patterns, shapes, and markings. Recently,
produced the plant and animal species we see today. scientists have been able to analyze DNA of 139
Variation in the climate is compatible with the survival whales. The results show that there are between three
of ecosystems and their functions. and five distinct groups of whales that split from
View 2: According to the Millennium Ecosystem common ancestors between 150 000 and 700 000 years
Assessment (MA) that was published in 2006, climate ago. Each of these groups may represent a new species.
change now poses one of the principal threats to the a. Which species concept did scientists use to form the
biological diversity of the planet, and is projected to hypothesis?
become an increasingly important driver of change in
b. Which species concept did scientists use to test the
the coming decades.
hypothesis?

UNIT
1 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 6. K/U Which would least likely be used to determine
1. K/U Some scientists study how the fang mechanism how closely two organisms are related?
of cobras differs from the fang mechanism of a. anatomical evidence using fossils
rattlesnakes. Other scientists study how the wings of b. developing scientific models using biodiversity data
bats evolved from the forelimbs of their ancestors. In c. anatomical evidence from living species
both cases, what are these scientists studying? d. physiological evidence, such as protein structure
a. the biodiversity of these animals e. DNA evidence from living or dead organisms
b. the species diversity of these animals 7. K/U Which statement about prokaryotes is false?
c. the nomenclature of these animals a. Most have a cell wall.
d. the taxonomy of these animals b. They are unicellular.
e. the morphology of these animals c. They reproduce through asexual reproduction.
2. K/U Identify the kingdom of the organisms d. They have membrane-bound organelles.
described by the following statement: “All e. Many are anaerobic.
representatives are heterotrophic. Their cells are
8. K/U Which step in the lytic cycle follows attachment
surrounded by cell walls made of chitin, and they store
of the virus and release of DNA into the host cell?
excess carbohydrates as glycogen.”
a. production of new capsids
a. Bacteria d. Fungi
b. synthesis of other viral components
b. Archaea e. Animalia
c. assembly of new virus particles
c. Protista
d. integration of viral DNA into host DNA
3. K/U Which row in the table below is incorrect when
e. host DNA replication
comparing birds and reptiles?
9. K/U Which statement about vascular plants is false?
Characteristics of Reptiles and Birds
a. Most vascular plants have true roots, stems, and
Row Reptiles Birds leaves.
A Shelled egg Partial internal development b. The sporophyte is the dominant generation for
of young vascular plants.
B Scales Scales and feathers c. All vascular plants produce seeds for reproduction.
C Most are tetrapods Tetrapods (legs and wings) d. Vascular plants display more variability than
D Ectothermic Endothermic non-vascular plants.
E No air sacs Air sacs e. Vascular tissue in these plants consists of xylem
a. A d. D and phloem.
b. B e. E 10. K/U Which row in the table below contains the two
c. C organisms that are most closely related?
4. K/U The name of this taxonomic tool used to narrow Scientific Names of Various Organisms
down the identity of an organism comes from two Row Organism 1 Organism 2
Greek words that together mean “divided in two parts.” A Felis domesticus Mephitis mephitis
a. dichotomous key B Canis familiaris Canis latrans
b. binomial nomenclature C Canis familiaris Acrocephalus familiaris
c. biological species concept D Myotis lucifungus Stagmomantis carolina
d. phylogenetic species E Ursus americanus Ailuropoda melanoleuca
e. bilateral symmetry
a. A d. D
5. K/U Which is an echinoderm?
b. B e. E
a. sea anemone d. sea horse
c. C
b. pumpkinseed fish e. manta ray
c. sea cucumber

Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the 18. C Make a T-chart that shows some of the ways in
questions below. which virus particles are harmful to humans and some
11. K/U Describe how the lysogenic cycle of a virus leads of the ways in which they are beneficial to humans.
to the development of a provirus. 19. C Make an argument that supports the belief that
12. A The heterotrophic protist Hatena behaves like a the closest evolutionary relative of land plants are the
predator until it ingests a green alga. Once ingested the green algae.
alga loses its flagella and cytoskeleton. The Hatena, 20. T/I What are saprobial fungi? If this group were
now a host, switches to photosynthetic nutrition, gains removed from an ecosystem, what would be the impact
the ability to move toward light, and loses its feeding on that ecosystem?
apparatus. Explain how this behaviour could be linked 21. T/I Pollination is an essential part of a healthy
to endosymbiosis and the evolution of eukaryotic cells ecosystem. A phenomenon called “colony collapse
from prokaryotic cells. disorder” has led to the disappearance of millions of
13. T/I The Trans-Canada Highway runs through Banff adult bees and beehives around the world. Predict
National Park in Alberta. The highway splits the park the impact of the disappearance of bees or other
into two separate areas, fragmenting the habitat of the pollinators on the organisms that depend on this
bears that live in the park: grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) ecosystem service.
and black bears (Ursus americanus). As well, fences 22. A Various forms of reef-building corals dominate
have been constructed on either side of the highway to healthy coral reefs. Corals fill a role analogous to that
protect wildlife from motor vehicles. However, a of trees in a forest—they generate the physical
variety of wildlife crossing structures (overpasses and framework of the reef, which benefits thousands of
underpasses) have been constructed to try to reduce associated plants and animals. As home to thousands
the impact of fragmenting the bears’ habitat. Identify of marine species, reefs are highly biologically diverse.
the level of biodiversity that is most affected by the Why would an increase in ocean temperatures
combination of a major highway and fences, and infer endanger many species that depend on coral as a home
how the wildlife crossing structures help reduce the and a food supply?
impact of fragmentation on these animals.
23. A Most mine waste water is contaminated with
14. C Draw a phylogenetic tree that shows the heavy metals and, due to the presence of sulfur in
following scenario. Bacteria and Archaea diverged the mined rock, extremely acidic. Based on this
from a common ancestor relatively soon after life information, predict the type of organisms that could
began on Earth. Later, Eukarya split off from the survive in this environment, and predict the kingdom
archaeal line, implying that Eukarya are more closely that they are likely classified in.
related to Archaea than to Bacteria.
24. A Fossils of an extraordinary fish were found in
15. A Annelids and arthropods are two phyla of Québec in 1879 by geologists and paleontologists from
invertebrates that are closely related. Identify the the Geological Survey of Canada. This very ancient but
characteristics that these groups have in common that highly advanced fish species possessed lungs as well as
would lead to this conclusion. gills, and was able to use its fins as simple feet. The
16. C Use a spider map to show the characteristics species was named Eusthenopteron foordi. Based on this
that animals have in common. information, explain the key structural and functional
17. C Create a Venn diagram to compare and contrast changes that resulted in the evolution of amphibians.
the basic reproductive structures and strategies of 25. K/U What is the main difference between Class
gymnosperms and angiosperms. Chondrichthyes and the Class Osteichthyes?
Self-Check
If you missed
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
question...
Review 1.3, 1.1;
1.1 3.3 3.4 1.3 3.4 1.2 2.1 3.2 1.1 2.1 2.3 1.4 3.4 3.4 3.2 2.1 3.1 3.3 3.2 2.4 2.2 3.4 3.4
section(s)... 2.1 2.2
Unit 1 Self-Assessment • MHR 151

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What organisms are discussed in the passage?

What organisms are discussed in the passage?

What threats does the eastern massasauga rattlesnake face?

What threats does the eastern massasauga rattlesnake face?

CHAPTER Multicellular Diversity

• B2.1 use appropriate terminology

• B2.2 classify and draw representative

• B2.4 create and apply a dichotomous

• B3.3 describe unifying and

• B3.4 explain key structural and

E arth’s ecosystem diversity offers countless opportunities for

88 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 89

alga (plural algae) Kingdom Protista ? Kingdom Plantae

The Multicellular Algae

Dinoﬂagellates Red algae Brown algae Diatoms Green algae Euglenoids

90 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Red Algae (Phylum Rhodophyta)

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 91

Chlamydomonas Volvox Spirogyra Ulva

Activity 3.1 How Might Climate Change Aﬀect Giant Kelp?

Giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) is commonly found along Procedure

150 SST 1.5 Questions

3. How might reduced amounts of kelp aﬀect the harvesting

Year industry and organisms that live in kelp forests?

92 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

The Shift to Land

heterotrophic photosynthetic fungi are thought to be

Adaptations to Life on Land

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 93

seedless plants seed plants

mosses, liverworts, ferns gymnosperms angiosperms

ancestral ﬁrst vascular ﬁrst seed

700 mya 500–400 mya 350 mya 140 mya

94 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

9. K/U Describe the function of roots and leaves

6. K/U Using Figure 3.7 as a guide, list the significant

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 95

96 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

gametophyte (n) spore

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 97

Table 3.2 Features of Seedless Vascular Plants

98 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

A A sporangium produces gametophyte B The prothallus

F Sori develop on the

sori C Sperm from the

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 99

Seed-producing Vascular Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

100 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 101

102 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Figure 3.15 Seeds are dispersed through different types of fruits.

one cotyledon usually parallel scattered multiples of three

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 103

104 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Chapter 3 Multicellular Diversity • MHR 105

Predatory Predatory fungi are soil fungi whose mycelia

106 MHR • Unit 1 Diversity of Living Things

Fungi Imperfecti (Phylum Deuteromycota)