Quadratic Equation

A quadratic equation is a second-order polynomial equation in a single variable 

(1)

with  . Because it is a second-order polynomial equation, the fundamental theorem of algebra guarantees that it has

two solutions. These solutions may be both real, or both complex.

Among his many other talents, Major General Stanley in Gilbert and Sullivan's operetta the Pirates of
Penzance impresses the pirates with his knowledge of quadratic equations in "The Major General's Song" as follows: "I
am the very model of a modern Major-General, I've information vegetable, animal, and mineral, I know the kings of
England, and I quote the fights historical, From Marathon to Waterloo, in order categorical; I'm very well acquainted too
with matters mathematical, I understand equations, both the simple and quadratical, About binomial theorem I'm teeming
with a lot o' news-- With many cheerful facts about the square of the hypotenuse."

The roots   can be found by completing the square,

(2)

(3)

(4)

Solving for   then gives

(5)

This equation is known as the quadratic formula.

The first known solution of a quadratic equation is the one given in the Berlin papyrus from the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2160-
1700 BC) in Egypt. This problem reduces to solving

(6)
(7)

(Smith 1953, p. 443). The Greeks were able to solve the quadratic equation by geometric methods, and Euclid's (ca. 325-
270 BC) Data contains three problems involving quadratics. In his work Arithmetica, the Greek mathematician Diophantus
(ca. 210-290) solved the quadratic equation, but giving only one root, even when both roots were positive (Smith 1951,
p. 134).

A number of Indian mathematicians gave rules equivalent to the quadratic formula. It is possible that certain altar
constructions dating from ca. 500 BC represent solutions of the equation, but even should this be the case, there is no
record of the method of solution (Smith 1953, p. 444). The Hindu mathematician Āryabhata (475 or 476-550) gave a rule
for the sum of a geometric series that shows knowledge of the quadratic equations with both solutions (Smith 1951,
p. 159; Smith 1953, p. 444), while Brahmagupta (ca. 628) appears to have considered only one of them (Smith 1951,
p. 159; Smith 1953, pp. 444-445). Similarly, Mahāvīra (ca. 850) had substantially the modern rule for the positive root of a
quadratic. Srīdhara (ca. 1025) gave the positive root of the quadratic formula, as stated by Bhāskara (ca. 1150; Smith
1953, pp. 445-446). The Persian mathematicians al-Khwārizmī (ca. 825) and Omar Khayyám (ca. 1100) also gave rules
for finding the positive root.

Viète was among the first to replace geometric methods of solution with analytic ones, although he apparently did not
grasp the idea of a general quadratic equation (Smith 1953, pp. 449-450).
An alternate form of the quadratic equation is given by dividing (◇) through by  :

(8)

(9)

(10)

Therefore,

(11)

(12)

(13)

This form is helpful if  , where   denotes much greater, in which case the usual form of the quadratic
formula can give inaccurate numerical results for one of the roots. This can be avoided by defining

(14)

so that   and the term under the square root sign always have the same sign. Now, if  , then

(15)

(16)

(17)

so

(18)

(19)

Similarly, if  , then

(20)

(21)
 (22)

so

(23)

(24)

Therefore, the roots are always given by   and  .

Now consider the equation expressed in the form

(25)

with solutions   and  . These solutions satisfy Vieta's formulas

(26)

(27)

The properties of the symmetric polynomials appearing in Vieta's formulas then give

(28)

(29)

(30)

Given a quadratic integer polynomial  , consider the number of such polynomials that are factorable over the
integers for   and   taken from some set of integers  . For example, for  , there are four such
polynomials,

(31)
(32)
 (33)
(34)

The following table summarizes the counts of such factorable polynomials for simple   and small  . Plots of the
fractions of factorable polynomials for   (red),   (blue), and   (green) are
also illustrated above. Amazingly, the sequence for   has the recurrence equation

(35)

where   is the number of divisors of   and   is the characteristic function of the square numbers.

Sloane factorable over   for  , 1, ...

A06727
1, 4, 10, 16, 25, 31, 41, 47, 57, ...
4
A09162
1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 11, 14, 16, 19, 22, ...
6
A09162
0, 0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, ...
7
EXAMPLE OF QUADRATIC EQUATION

1. Graph the equation y = x2 + 2.

Here are some points:

Here is a graph:

Connecting the dots in a "U'' shape gives us

 2. Graph the quadratic equation y = -x2 + 2x + 3.
We know what we have to find, so let's find it.
1. What are the intercepts?
First, the x-intercepts. We need to find the roots of the quadratic polynomial. If we find them, we can celebrate by drinking
a root beer.
We need to find the solutions to the equation
0 = -x2 + 2x + 3
= -(x2 – 2x – 3).
This equation factors as
0 = -(x – 3)(x + 1),
so the solutions (and the x-intercepts) are
x = 3, x = -1.
We can graph these points:

The y-intercept is the constant term, 3, so we can graph that also:

2. What is the vertex?
The vertex occurs halfway between the x-intercepts -1 and 3, so at x = 1. When we plug x = 1 in to the quadratic
equation, we find
-(1)2 + 2(1) + 3 = 4,
so the vertex occurs at (1, 4).
3. Does the parabola open upwards or downwards?
Since the coefficient on the x2 term is negative, the parabola opens downwards.
Putting together all the pieces, we find our graph:

3. Graph the quadratic equation y = 3x2 + x – 3.

Let's find the useful things. Other than duct tape, a Swiss army knife, and a compass. We meant more within the realm of
algebra. We should have been clearer.
1. What are the intercepts?
To find the x-intercepts, we need to use the quadratic equation because this polynomial doesn't factor nicely.
For the purposes of graphing, we can round these numbers to 0.8 and -1.2:

The y-intercept is the constant term of the quadratic equation, or -3:

2. What is the vertex?

The vertex is at  , which in this case is  .

When we plug   back into the equation, we find

The vertex is  .
For the sake of graphing, as well as for the sake of our own sanity, we can round to (-0.2, -3.1).

3. Does the parabola open upwards or downwards?

Since the coefficient on the x2 term is positive, the parabola opens upwards. Like a blossoming flower. That's so nice.
Putting everything together, we get our graph:

THE USE OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS TO BUSINESS

Quadratic functions help forecast business profit and loss, plot the course of moving objects, and assist in determining
minimum and maximum values. ... We commonly use quadratic equations in situations where two things are multiplied
together and they both depend of the same variable