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Advances in Exploration Geochemistry, 2007 to 2017 and Beyond

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 Geochemistry

Paper 34

Advances in Exploration Geochemistry, 2007 to 2017 and Beyond

Winterburn, P.A. [1], Noble, R.R.P. [2], Lawie, D. [3]
_________________________
1. Mineral Deposit Research Unit, Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2020-2207 Main Mall,
Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
2. CSIRO Mineral Resources, 26 Dick Perry Ave, Kensington, WA 6151, Australia.
3. REFLEX, 216 Balcatta Road, Balcatta, WA 6021, PO Box 1262, Osborne Park WA 6916, Australia.

ABSTRACT

Mineral exploration under relatively young, exotic cover still presents a major challenge to discovery. Advances and future developments
can be categorized in four key areas, 1) understanding metal mobility and mechanisms, 2) rapid geochemical analyses, 3) data access,
integration and interoperability, and 4) innovation in laboratory-based methods.

Application of “regolith-style” surface mapping in covered terrains outside of the conventional lateritic terrains is achieving success in
terms of reducing background noise and improving geochemical contrasts. However, process models for anomaly generation are still
uncertain and require further research. The interaction between the surface environment, microbes, hydrocarbons and chemistry is
receiving greater attention. While significant progress has been achieved in understanding the role of vegetation, interaction with the
water table and cycling of metals in the near surface environment in Australia, other regions of the world, for example the till-covered
terrains in the northern hemisphere and arid colluvium-covered areas of South America, have seen lesser progress. In addition to
vegetation, the influence of bacteria, fungi and invertebrates are less well studied with respect to metal mobilization in cover. Field
portable-XRF has become a standard field instrument, though more often used in a camp setting. Apart from tweaking of analytical quality,
the instruments have probably reached their peak with instrument add-ons, such as cameras, beam-limiters. wireless transmission and GPS
as differentiating tools. Their future rests in automated application in unconventional configurations and better integration of these data
with other information such as spectral analyses. Pattern-drilling persists in industry, but has benefitted from innovative application of
field portable tools and lithogeochemical and mineral chemistry to provide near real-time results and assist in a shift toward more flexible
and targeted drilling in Greenfields settings.

Innovation in the laboratory is also developing. More selective geochemical analysis and imaging of fine particle size fractions, resistate
mineral phases and isotope analysis is faster and more accessible than ever before, and branching into the application of genomic analysis
(and data analysis) as a mineral exploration tool is on the horizon. As a common problem in geoscience, the supply of suitable trained
geochemists to industry persists, although some needs, particularly at junior level, will be met by recent initiatives at various universities at
graduate level. Unfortunately, the current economic climate has had a significant impact on R&D and retention of geochemistry skills by
industry. Whilst the future is positive, significant investment is required to develop the next generation of geochemical exploration tools
and concepts.

INTRODUCTION EXPLORATION UNDERCOVER

Geochemistry continues to be a major component of mineral The reliable and robust detection of mineral deposits under
exploration and evaluation programs on a global basis. Because younger, often exotic overburden (cover), remains a challenge.
of a series of economic crises over the past decade, which saw Except for the AMIRA projects P778 and P778A (Anand et al.,
major exploration and mining companies reducing assets and 2016), large scale coordinated research efforts have been absent
staff, breakthrough research in exploration geochemistry has over the past decade. In part this reflected both a frustration by
also declined as industry funds to finance collaborative research industry at the lack of cohesive results and models which could
dried up. In addition, geochemical exploration has required less be applied, coupled with a declining ability to raise significant
innovation as traditional techniques have continued to be used research funding during various economic crises and downturns
with success in shallowly covered or outcropping terrains. The in the period 2007-2017, resulting in the fragmentation of
industry reliance on past protocols and workflows has possibly research efforts. Towards the end of the decade, research was
slowed uptake of new technologies in geochemistry, although as being revitalized despite the poor economic climate with
exploration must extend into deeper cover or more challenging initiatives such as the UNCOVER program (Noble and Christie
environments in many continents, a reliance on new 2015) in Australia and the Exploration Geochemistry Initiative
developments in technology and knowledge is both required and at the University of British Columbia, Canada (Winterburn,
inevitable. 2016). The Deep Exploration Technologies Cooperative
Research Centre (DET CRC) in Australia also led the
development of technology applications through cover, although

In “Proceedings of Exploration 17: Sixth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration” edited by V. Tschirhart and M.D. Thomas, 2017,
p. 495–505
 496 Geochemistry

the focus was on drilling with components related to

geochemistry with in-line or near-real-time geochemistry
applied to the drilling workflow (Fabris et al., 2015).

Arid Regions
Major arid regions with ongoing exploration programs include
Australia, Chile, southern Peru, south-western USA and China.
Cover materials range from thick alluvial and windblown
deposits through to deep colluvium-filled basins that hide
previously outcropping mineral deposits. Exploration through
this often poorly cemented and poorly compacted material
remains a challenge with exploration practices having changed
little over the decade despite promising research results in the Figure 1: Potential mechanisms for the generation of
previous decade. Australia is the principle exception, where the geochemical responses in weathered transported regolith in
work of Anand and others from the collaborative multi-industry Australia. Access of vegetation to palaeo-accumulations or the
AMIRA program has developed a series of process-driven current water table in contact with mineralization are considered
models (Anand et al., 2016) constraining the formation of key factors in the formation of geochemical responses at the
geochemical anomalies in the surface environment in the surface (Anand et al., 2016).
extensively weathered and buried terrains of Australia. In the
model of Anand et al. (2014) and Anand et al. (2016), much of Interface sampling techniques in arid terrains have been
the surface geochemistry is presumed to be derived through evaluated in research and exploration programs in arid areas
recycling of the elements by the interaction of vegetation with (Anand and Robertson, 2012; Winterburn et al., 2015), taking
ground water in contact with mineralization or paleo-water samples at palaeosurface unconformities. Whilst clastic
tables with anomalous metal accumulations (Figure 1). The dispersion is the dominant process, hydromorphic dispersion and
models place constraints on the production of responses in that post-depositional weathering can overprint iron-rich material,
there must have been interaction between vegetation and the such as pisoliths, with ore-related signatures (Selama et al.,
ground water or weathered saprolite, either currently or in the 2016).
past, to generate a signal, and that the accumulation of the signal
must exceed the rate of erosion or burial. Basin depth is Whilst Chile is typically the focus of research through
considered a significant factor with the implication that basin transported gravels in arid desert settings, in principle the same
depth, the depth of the current water table and knowledge of the concepts and practices are applicable in arid tectonically active
presence of a paleo-water table become key decision points in areas such as Peru, Mexico and the south-western United States.
assessing the viability of either soil chemistry or
biogeochemistry within an area. Regional scale hydrogeochemistry has also progressed
significantly in Chile (Jorquera et al., 2014) and Australia with a
Research and application of exploration geochemical techniques number of smaller project efforts (de Caritat et al., 2005; Gray et
to see through the transported gravels in northern Chile al., 2016; Noble et al., 2011) combined to produce continental
following on from the research of Cameron et al. (2004) and scale hydrogeochemical maps.
others appear relatively limited with only a small number of
companies having taken the research results into practical
applications. Results from the Chilean phase of the AMIRA
P778 project indicate limited success at identifying the presence
of the Inca de Oro porphyry through transported cover (Soto,
2010; Luca, 2012; Lopez, 2014). Research, however,
demonstrated yet again, the movement of metals into ground
water (Leybourne and Cameron, 2008; Soto 2010), movement of
ground water to the surface through fractures (Leybourne et al.,
2013) and furthermore the significant positive fractionation of
the copper isotope signature from the mineralization (Figure 2)
in the ground water compared to the original ore. Where ground
water is in contact with chalcocite in leachcaps, the fractionation
is even more pronounced as the chalcocite, having been
precipitated following lixiviation is already positively enriched.
(Mathur et al., 2014).

Figure 2: Copper isotope ratios of ores (black) and associated

groundwaters (light grey) for selected deposits (Mathur et al.,
2014).
 Winterburn, P.A., et al. Advances in Exploration Geochemistry, 2007 to 2017 and Beyond 497

Recent Glacial China

Indicator minerals abundance and chemistry continues to be a Geochemical exploration research through transported
dominant technique for mineral exploration in regions of recent overburden continues to develop in China where a variety of
glacial retreat. Detailed mineral indicator studies around a series covered terrains are tested in loess, arid sand dunes and valley
of porphyry deposits in central British Columbia (Plouffe et al., and graben infill. Whilst Geogas was the focus of much of the
2016) further demonstrate both the value of detailed indicator early part of the 21st century (Wang et al., 2007), this has been
mineral studies, as well as the link between indicator minerals superseded by the discovery of nanoparticles (Figure 4) in
and clay trace element chemistry. Applying the results of pressure-induced extraction of gas from soil horizons (Xiaojun
various mineral chemistry studies (e.g., Bouzari et al., 2016; et al., 2013; JianJin et al., 2009, 2010). This method uses a
Cooke et al., 2014) has allowed the expansion of indicator technique whereby nanoparticles of metals, metal
mineral studies from simple grain counts to mineral chemistry oxides/sulphides/ silicates and alloys are collected onto metal
studies more akin to kimberlite exploration. Whilst geochemical grids for transmission electron microscopy (TEM) evaluation.
proximity indicators become invalid, given the transportation of As an exploration technique, the method directly dissolves the
the material, fertility indicators still add substantial value. particles in acid during air extraction from the soil. The presence
of these particles is perhaps not surprising given the reporting of
nano-sized metal particles in nature and particularly the
association with bacteria, which have been shown to produce
nano-particulate metals as waste products from metabolic
processes (Hough et al., 2008; 2011; Reith et al., 2010).
However, potential mechanisms to transfer the particles from the
ore to surface are uncertain. Transfer is currently postulated to
be occurring by gaseous transportation or the “Geogas” of Wang
et al. (2007); however, research needs to be placed in the context
of surface development to understand if the particles are being
locally generated or are the result of lateral transport. Ongoing
Figure 3: Cathodoluminescence images of apatites from altered research (Anand et al., 2017) has shown the association between
host rocks. (a) Mount Polley apatite occurring with K feldspar + nano-scale gold particles and organic material in pisoliths in the
magnetite alteration, showing that green-luminescent apatite has Yilgarn (Figure 5) indicating an integrated biological
overgrown and locally replaced brown-luminescent apatite, (b) association.
Apatite grain occurring with K silicate alteration overprinted by
phyllic alteration, showing an early bright green-luminescent
apatite cut by dull grey-luminescent apatite (Bouzari et al.,
2016).

Whilst several recent studies aimed at direct “vertical” detection

through till (e.g., Heberlein, 2010; Bissig et al., 2013; Heberlein
et al., 2013) have evaluated various soil horizons in conjunction
with multiple digests, these studies generally make empirical
observations on responses over mineralization, rather than
modelling the processes by which anomalous responses may
form. Recent (Rich, 2016) and ongoing research at Highland
Valley copper porphyry deposit, Central BC, (Chouinard et al.,
2017), Lara VMS, Vancouver Island, BC (Bodnar et al., 2017)
and the DO-18 Kimberlite in the Northwest Territories (Cayer et
al., 2016) has indicated that many of the geochemical signals
being observed at the surface may be the result of the
incorporation of clastic materials from the deposit itself in the
local till, rather than a vertical ion transfer process of metal from
depth. There remains still an opportunity for detailed process-
related research to model how anomalous responses form in till
above concealed mineralization. This research needs to take into
consideration depth, water table, surface geology, ion mobility
and vegetation influences, amongst other factors. The necessity Figure 4: Nano particles recovered from the Changkeng
to understand the surface environment is paramount. concealed gold deposit, Guangdong Province, South China.
Unravelling the pre-glacial, glacial and post-glacial development Modified after JianJin et al. (2009).
of the surface and sub-surface till environment is key to
successful planning of geochemical surveys and interpretation of
the geochemical results.
 498 Geochemistry

Figure 5: Nano-particles of Au recovered from broken pisoliths,

Moolart Well Au deposit, Yilgarn Craton. Gold spheres and
laths forming a chain (1), a ring (2), structures and plates
forming a clump (3) in organic C matrix (4) (Anand et al.,
2017).

ANALYTICAL TOOLS IN UNDERCOVER

EXPLORATION

Hydrocarbons
The application of hydrocarbons in non-petroleum mineral
exploration remains contentious. Available commercial
laboratories offering hydrocarbon analysis for mineral
exploration have been reduced to two: Activation Laboratories
(SGH); and Advanced Geochemical Imaging (AGI), with the
closure of the Soil Desorption Pyrolysis group in Australia. The
commercial OreHound© system (Luca, 2012), initially set up to
Figure 6: AGI Soil gas methylbutane results from 3 traverses at
collect hydrocarbons for subsequent analysis at Activation
the North Mittal ultramafic-hosted Ni-Sulphide deposit. Orange
Laboratories, has subsequently been modified to remove the
dots indicate samples over mineralization, the black bar
hydrocarbon collector (Townley, pers. comm., 2016). The two
indicates the location of the buried mineralization (Noble et al.,
remaining methods differ widely in methodology and results.
in press).
The AGI technique is a time integrated hydrophobic Gore-Tex©
coated collector buried in the ground for ~30 days and
subsequently analyzed by thermal decomposition GC-MS. Genomics – Molecular Biology
Results are reported as individual organic compounds at ng/L It is estimated that within a gram of fertile soil there may be as
concentration levels (Figure 6) (Noble et al., in press). many as 10 million living organisms (Blume et al., 2015)
Conversely the Actlabs methodology involves the solvent comprising 10s or even 100s of thousands of microbial species
extraction, using hexane, of hydrocarbons directly from a soil (Van Der Heijden et al., 2008) each sensing and interacting with
sample with LC-MS. Classes of compounds rather than the surrounding soil environment. Together, they are largely
individual compounds are reported (Heberlein, 2010). Other responsible for catalyzing biogeochemical cycling in soil,
adsorbent phases, including activated charcoal or kaolin have regulating the decomposition of minerals and organic waste
also been evaluated by various researchers, though none taken to materials, and the regeneration of soil nutrients and fertility.
successful commercial application. The former technique,
dominantly used by the petroleum industry, has seen little
application in non-petroleum mineral exploration outside of
academic research (Rich, 2016; Noble et al., in press), however,
it has shown promising results. Ongoing research has clearly
shown the association of changing hydrocarbon signatures with
low level changes in trace metal contents (Figure 7) (Cayer et
al., 2016; Luca et al., 2008).
 Winterburn, P.A., et al. Advances in Exploration Geochemistry, 2007 to 2017 and Beyond 499

hundreds to thousands of genes, the statistical power of this

approach to identifying anomalies is unprecedented.

DEPOSIT GEOCHEMICAL MODELS

Deposit geochemical models continue to advance in the
collection of multi-element geochemical datasets for numerous
deposits, coupled with high quality geological mapping and
alteration studies (Figure 8) (Halley et al., 2015). This
information provides detailed input into the evaluation of multi-
element geochemical datasets at both the lithogeochemical and
surface sampling media levels.

Figure 7: Positive correlation between low-level inorganic

elements (Ni, Nb) related to the presence of a kimberlite buried
under till with Light-Benzene Class Compounds (COO3),
(SGH). Data from B-horizon soil in till above the DO-18
Kimberlite. (Cayer et al., 2016).

Microorganisms are highly sensitive and responsive to chemical

and physical changes in their environment. Subtle changes in Figure 8: Multi-element geochemical model of trace element
metal bioavailability, for example, can have a dramatic impact distribution in porphyry deposits (after Halley et al., 2015).
on the composition and structure of microbial communities and
their activity levels (Bier et al., 2015; Dell’Amico et al., 2008; On a broader scale, projects such as the CMIC Footprints
Azarbad et al., 2015). In residual terrains, where chemical Project (CMIC, 2017) are modelling the geochemistry of 3
gradients related to mineral deposits are high, microbial mineral deposits (porphyry copper, unconformity uranium and
community variability has been clearly linked to soil chemistry Archean disseminated Au styles) in conjunction with the
(Coker, 2010; Reith et al., 2015). Classical microbial geology, geophysics, mineralogy and structure to develop
fingerprinting techniques (PCR-DGGE, T-RFLP) (Wakelin et integrated next generation exploration models.
al., 2012) have demonstrated changes in bacterial communities
in soils over a buried VMS deposit in the semi-arid desert of TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
Australia. Likewise, soil microbial communities have shown
responses in both taxonomic composition and metabolic
potential (functional genes) to anthropogenic enrichments in Fp-XRF and Other Portable Instruments
elements such as Cu and As, specifically relevant to the Field Portable XRF has received large scale acceptance by the
exploration for Cu-Au porphyry deposits. High-throughput minerals exploration industry with numerous companies using
sequencing technologies, however, have transformed the the instruments routinely for the analysis of soils, stream
analysis of soil microbial communities from such qualitative sediments, rocks and drill core. In many instances the
assessments of community membership and the relativity of instruments are utilized as screening tools to differentiate
abundance of individual genes to nearly quantitative mapping of between samples with elevated elements of interest contents
entire microbial community genomes with capacity to assess versus samples with background contents for submission of the
community metabolic potential (Jansson, 2015). Application of former for standard commercial aqua-regia or 4-acid digest
modern sequencing technologies will allow the profiling of coupled with ICP-OES and/or ICP-MS. Landmark publications
taxonomic diversity and metabolic potential of soil microbial (Hall et al., 2012; Hall et al., 2013) from the CAMIRO Project
communities across subtle and possible unresolvable 10E01 and others (Fisher et al., 2014; Hall et al., 2014; Brand
geochemical gradients that have developed in soils in response and Brand, 2014; Piercey and Devine, 2014; Ross et al., 2014)
to concealed mineralization. Given that each soil sample assessing the quality of fp-XRF results had an impact on both
comprises thousands of microbial taxa, each of which contains users and suppliers in identifying limitations of the instruments
 500 Geochemistry

in routine exploration, in addition to guidelines on the use of the evaluation, but little has migrated into useable technology in the
instruments. Since these reports, the instruments have commercial sense. One of the few technologies receiving
effectively reached their zenith, with minor improvements in attention at the end of this decade is that of Hypercube®. A
detection and data processing. Currently, fp-XRF has poor package which identifies and prioritizes those key factors
capabilities for the analysis of Au at the ppb levels typically associated with specific features, and at the same time provides
encountered in exploration, although future improvements in delimiting characteristics in multidimensional space. A highlight
field portable pre-concentration may result in an order of of this type of processing is that the individual entities are not
magnitude decrease in the detection of Au (low ppb; M. Lintern, lost or reduced to dimensionless numbers that are often difficult
pers. comm.). Novel work has been undertaken focusing on the to comprehend.
use of pathfinders and lithogeochemistry from fp-XRF to assist
with Au exploration (Arne et al., 2014; Benn et al., 2011). Analytical Technology
Despite the broad knowledge of fp-XRF detection, there is still a
Analytical technological changes, with perhaps an exception to
degree of misapplication with, for example, companies
the broad uptake of fp-XRF and hand-held portable devices
misleadingly reporting Au results which are little more than
previously discussed, have dominantly been incremental.
interference of Zn, As or W on Au.
Continual improvements and innovation in mass-spectrometry
have resulted in the reduction of detection limits to levels many
Other field portable technologies are also becoming used in
orders of magnitude below natural abundances in rocks, soil and
mineral exploration. Portable XRD (X-ray diffraction), LIBS
water. The main impact of these changes is to add increasing
(Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy) and spectral SWIR
confidence to low-level geochemical responses relative to
(Short-wave infra-red) measurements are commonly used,
background. Developments in sample preparation and sample
although applications in mineral exploration are not widely
digestion has advanced little, with no genuinely new concepts in
published. The use of LIBS is particularly valuable as it has the
extractive chemistry other than tweaks to current techniques or
ability to detect light elements that are not possible with fp-
the broadening of existing methodologies across the complete
XRF. A recent global demand for Li has promoted that
range of commercial facilities. In practice the routine use of
application of this method further, and it may become nearly as
selective extractions and partial digestions is dominantly
common as fp-XRF in the future.
through junior companies, many of which lack specialist internal
geochemical services.
Development of handheld FIR (far infra-red) spectral devices is
just coming to market and these devices have significant benefit
In exploration geochemistry research element and speciation
in the ability to analyze silicate phases that was not achievable
with the shorter wavelength analyses. These field portable mapping of samples at the micron scale has progressed with the
use of the synchrotron, although coarser resolution is available
devices perhaps are the greatest change in geochemistry of the
with XRF mappers and significantly improved in the new Maia
past 10 years; however, associated with this is the need to
Mapper at CSIRO (Noble and Christie, 2015) in Australia that
process the data rapidly and in conjunction with other results.
aims to be much more accessible to industry than synchrotron
studies, while providing geochemical maps of similar data
Data Evaluation and Integration richness (speciation is not possible on the Maia mapper). Other
Scientific literature continues to extend the plethora of data methods of minerals analysis such as QEMSEM/MLA and Laser
evaluation techniques, many heavily dependent on advanced ablation ICP-MS round out these techniques for elemental and
mathematics (e.g., Zou and Carranza, 2016, and articles mineral geochemistry, and are being used more and more in
therein), which whilst interesting case studies in their own right, mineral exploration, although their use is far from routine.
using techniques such as fractal analysis, spatially weighted
principal component analysis or bi-dimensional empirical mode With improvement in technology, additional applications of
decomposition analysis, generally fail to gain traction beyond MLA (Mineral Liberation Analysis) have included the
the developers. This is in part a reflection of the intractable automated analysis of heavy mineral concentrates from till and
mathematics utilized in many of the techniques, but also the lack other transported materials (Wilton et al., 2016). Perhaps one of
of access to the algorithms, hence reducing the potential for the most advanced applications of MLA in industry applied to
“real world” application and evaluation. In practice, exploration is that utilized by Rio Tinto. It utilizes an MLA
considerable commercially generated data are still treated instrument connected to LA-ICP-MS to allow for identification
element by element focusing on the key commodity and of grains of interest using the MLA, with major element
pathfinder elements to delineate targets for further evaluation. analysis, followed by LA-ICP-MS analyses using the major
Whilst several advanced statistical techniques have become element analysis from the MLA to normalize the analytical data
available in commercial software, for example Iogas®, over the (Agnew, 2014).
last decade, in practice many users lack the confidence through
lack of training and comprehension to utilize these techniques in Mineral Chemistry and Resistate Minerals
a more routine manner.
With the greater availability of micro-analytical tools producing
inexpensive data and ppm concentrations for trace elements,
True computer-based data integration with datasets beyond
considerable emphasis has been placed on the utilization of
geochemistry, including geology, geophysics, structures, etc.,
mineral chemistry as vectoring tools in mineral exploration. This
remains a challenge. Research is ongoing (Cracknell et al., 2015;
applies to both minerals in-situ recovered in hand specimen or
Granek, 2016) into complex machine-based data integration and
drill core, through to minerals recovered in the coarse fraction of
 Winterburn, P.A., et al. Advances in Exploration Geochemistry, 2007 to 2017 and Beyond 501

stream sediments, along unconformities in transported sediments geochemical scale survey (1 per 22 km2) of stream sediments in
or from glacial till. In practice the work is an extension of the northern Chile (Sernageomin, 2015); the continental scale
research undertaken from the late1990s and early 2000s on geochemical atlas of Australia (de Caritat and Cooper, 2016),
kimberlite indicator minerals including morphology, and the ongoing regional scale geochemical mapping of China
survivability and chemistry. (Li et al., 2014). This latter project is undertaking sampling at a
phenomenal density of 1 sample/km2, increasing to 2
Detailed trace element geochemistry of epidote and chlorite samples/km2 in urban areas across the whole of China. Up to
(Figure 9) has been demonstrated to have vectoring capability in 376,679 samples had been collected and analyzed by late 2012
the exploration for porphyry Cu-Mo-Au deposits (Cooke et al., (Li et al., 2014). While the main aim of this project appears to be
2014; Wilkinson et al., 2015). Similarly, a range of minerals, in primarily directed at environmental studies (Zhang et al., 2015),
particular apatite, (Bouzari et al., 2016; Mao, 2016) have shown the sample type, density of sampling and analytical
value as indicators of differing styles of hydrothermal activity in methodologies will allow application of the sampling to mineral
porphyry systems and hence add value in detrital mineral exploration. Many other countries, e.g., Colombia, continue to
studies. compile available government geochemical datasets with the
intention of making the data publically available, in addition to
producing geochemical atlases of the country (Figure 10).

APPLIED GEOCHEMISTS
Membership data from the Association of Applied Geochemists,
(A. Arsenault, pers. comm., 2017) indicate that membership
decreased by around 20% in 2013/2014. Of concern being the
decrease in student numbers by 50% over the same period.
Other associations have had similar number reductions
following the global financial crisis and flow-on effects. This
continues the trend previously reported (Cohen et al., 2007) of
decreasing availability of students and future trained exploration
geochemists, due to the lack of appropriate courses at university
level. The initiation of new research groups, such as the
Exploration Geochemistry Initiative at the University of British
Columbia, whilst having a mission statement to generate the
next generation of geochemists, is unlikely to exceed the number
of geochemists being lost to industry, dominantly through
retirement of an aging population.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Geochemistry remains at the forefront of mineral exploration as
a primary tool along with geology and geophysics to identify
potential mineral resources. Despite the limited financial
resources for research and development as a function of repeated
economic downturns over the past decade, there has been some
developments, notably in the application of micro-analytical
techniques and the application of mineral chemistry to mineral
exploration, both in-situ minerals as well as detrital minerals.
Figure 9: Plots of element concentration ratios in chlorite as a
function of radial distance from the Batu Hijau centre. A, Ti/Sr The development of potential biosensors and the reducing cost
ratio; C, Mg/Sr ratio (Wilkinson et al., 2015). of microbial fingerprinting will enable much more research over
the next decade of microbial geochemistry related to mineral
exploration.
REGIONAL SCALE SURVEYS
Regional scale geochemical data continue to become more “Big Data” concepts are only now starting to impact on mineral
readily, publically available and dominantly funded through pre- exploration; the availability of detailed photographic,
competitive government sources rather than by mineral hyperspectral, geophysical and geochemical data on drill core
exploration companies. These data are typically generated either will require new tools to maximize and optimize the value of the
with the purpose of promoting mineral exploration and have a data.
relatively high density, or as environmental baseline datasets
with relatively low sampling density. Recent examples include The supply of applied geochemists to industry appears to be on a
the low density geochemical survey of Europe (GEMAS project continual downward trend. As the available consultants continue
– Reimanns et al., 2014a, b) with sampling of agricultural soils to retire, it will inevitably put pressure on available resources.
at a density of 1 site/2500 km2; the ongoing exploration Greater proactivity needs to be established by both industry and
 502 Geochemistry

educational institutions to ensure that this deficiency does not Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment and Analysis, 12, 45-
eventually become a limiting factor in the minerals industry. 66.

Anand, R. R., M. Lintern, R.R.P. Noble, M.F. Aspandiar, C.

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Figure 10: Regional scale geochemical map of Colombia
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS mineralization under basalt cover, Woodjam Property, South-
Sean Crowe is acknowledged for contributions to the section on Central British Columbia (NTS 093A/03, 06): Geoscience BC,
Microbial Fingerprinting. Ravi Anand is thanked for a Report 2013-17, 53.
constructive review. This is MDRU Publication 375.
Blume, H.-P., G.W. Brümmer, H. Fleige, R. Horn, E. Kandeler,
I. Kögel-Knabner, R. Kretzschmar, K. Stahr, and B.M. Wilke,
2016, Soil Science: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
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