Soil Stiffness

Soil Stiffness
Gauge for
Gauge for Soil
Soil
Compaction
Compaction
Control
Control by Scott Fiedler, Charles Nelson,
E. Frank Berkman, and Al DiMillio

As with most construction today, often lost in earthwork construction statistical quality control can be
the emphasis on cost control and control.”1 implemented on civil works
quality control of soil is prompting When soil is compacted for pave- projects. The benefit of better qual-
the implementation of mechanistic ments, pipe bedding and backfill, ity control is illustrated in figure 1.
designs, performance specifications, and foundations, the desired engi- The normal distribution curve, la-
and contractor warranties. The Fed- neering properties are the
eral Highway Administration’s soil modulus or soil stiff-
cooperative development of a soil ness.
stiffness gauge will enable the val- State departments of
idation of design models, the devel- transportation and contrac-
opment of performance specifica- tors suggest that the
tions, and contractor process control present methods for mea-
for compacted soil structures. suring density are slow,
labor-intensive, dangerous,
Background and/or of uncertain accu-
Compacted soil is an essential ele- racy. Hence, construction
ment in the construction of high- sites are often under-
ways, airports, buildings, sewers, sampled, causing inad-
and bridges. Even though soil den- equate compaction to go
sity is not the most desired engi- undetected or feedback to
neering property, it is used almost be provided too late for
exclusively by the transportation the cost-effective correc-
industry to specify, estimate, mea- tion of problems. Some-
sure, and control soil compaction. times, the opposite is true.
This practice was adopted many Designers are encouraged
years ago because soil density can to overspecify to allow for
be easily determined via weight and the significant variability
volume measurements. of the finished product,
Textbook authors Holtz and and contractors are en-
Kovacs state, “Since the objective of couraged to overcompact
compaction is to stabilize soils and to ensure acceptance and
improve their engineering proper- avoid rework. All of which
ties, it is important to keep in mind means added cost to the Figure 1 — Benefits of statistical process
the desired engineering properties owner. control.
of the fill, not just its dry density To eliminate overspecifi-
and water content. This point is cation and overcompaction,

PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998 Page 5

 Soil Stiffness Gauge
Using the Soil In response to this need for a faster,
cheaper, safer, and more accurate
Stiffness Gauge compaction testing device, the Fed-
eral Highway Administration
(FHWA) joined with the U.S. De-
The typical sequence of operations to make a good measurement with SSG partment of Defense’s Advanced
are as follows: Research Programs Administration
(ARPA) to co-sponsor a study to
• Clean ring foot of soil. investigate the possible use of mili-
• Turn on SSG. (Press “On” button.) tary technology to solve this prob-
• Prepare the surface to be tested. lem. As part of the defense reinvest-
ment initiatives and using funds
— Smooth the surface with the side of your boot. from the Technology Reinvestment
— Coarse aggregate or stiff clay may require sand to be sprinkled. Project, ARPA authorized FHWA
— Ensure the gauge has clearance on the side. researchers to supervise the rede-
sign of a military device that used
• Seat the foot. (Place the ring foot on the soil, and twist the gauge
acoustic and seismic detectors to
90 degrees back and forth two to five times using minimal to about locate buried land mines.
15 pounds of force, depending upon the granularity and softness of
FHWA’s partners in this coopera-
the soil.
tive research and development
• Enter Data. (Enter target stiffness, Poisson’s ratio, and/or site identifiers project were Humboldt Manufactur-
from scrolled list via SSG display.) ing Co. of Chicago, Ill.; Bolt,
• Take the measurement. (Press “Meas” button. SSG will measure site Beranek & Newman (BBN) of Cam-
noise and stiffness as a function of frequency. The gauge will display bridge, Mass.; and CNA Consulting
average stiffness, lb/in (MN/m) or modulus, psi (MPa) or percentage of Engineers of Minneapolis, Minn.
target. If construction noise is present, try to take the test at a distance The result of this cooperative
greater than 25 meters from the operating equipment.) development is the Soil Stiffness
• Store Data. (Press “Save” button. More than 200 measurements are Gauge (SSG), shown in figure 2.
displayed in the operational mode, and 10 measurements of complex, SSG measures the in-place stiffness
frequency-dependent components are displayed in the research mode.) of compacted soil at the rate of
about one test per minute. SSG
• Remove SSG from the soil. (Ensure that 50 to 60 percent of the ring foot weighs about 11.4 kilograms (kg), is
is in contact with the soil.) 28 centimeters (cm) in diameter, is
• Transfer data. (Standard infrared link, same as used in many nuclear 25.4 cm tall, and rests on the soil
density gauges.) surface via a ring–shaped foot.
The prototype model was modi-
fied to make a soil stiffness gauge
that is portable, lightweight, and
beled “Typical Soil Data,” is for 140 In addition to the time and cost safe to use. Resting on the soil sur-
measurements taken in sandy soil advantages, a portable soil stiffness face, SSG produces a vibrating force
on an interceptor sewer project. The gauge that is quick and easy to use that is measured by sensors that
mean modulus is 67.7 megapascals will save lives and reduce exposure record the force and displacement-
(MPa) (9,830 pounds per square to injuries by enabling the techni- time history of the foot.
inch), and the standard deviation is cian to conduct each test rapidly. The device has been “beta-
12.9 MPa (1,872 psi); therefore, the Many technicians, preoccupied with tested” by FHWA and several state
coefficient of variation is about 19 performing a nuclear density test or highway agencies. Thousands of
percent. About 95 percent of the other quality assurance method, soil stiffness measurements have
measurements are greater than the failed to hear or see approaching been successfully made at highway
hypothetical “Design Modulus” of heavy construction vehicles and embankment sites and pipe backfill
46.5 MPa (6,750 psi) for the pipe were run over. sites on sand, clay, and sandy loam
bedding. In one incident in which the soils. When converted to density
Assume that, by instituting a technician was killed, the U.S. values using correlation charts,
measurement and quality control Nuclear Regulatory Commission sent these measurements are within
program, the standard deviation inspectors to investigate because the 5 percent of measurements made
could be reduced to 8.8 MPa (1,275 gauge was crushed, exposing the with a nuclear density gauge.
psi). Then, it would be possible for gauge’s radioactive elements — Production devices are being
the contractor to use less compactive cesium and americium. The poten- made for further evaluation at sites
effort (number of compactor passes), tial for accidents involving radioac- representing a cross section of U.S.
reducing the average soil modulus tivity add significantly to the already applications and soils. Future mod-
to 61.0 MPa (8,850 psi) while main- tedious safety precautions and els will include on-board moisture
taining the passing tests at the 95- record-keeping. A non-nuclear measurement instruments and a
percent level and saving cost. method is in great demand. global positioning system.

Page 6 PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998

 Figure 3 — Plate load test vs. the soil stiffness gauge.

Figure 2 — The soil stiffness gauge.

Method
The stiffness is the ratio of the force Figure 4 — The basic analytical relationship of modulus
to displacement: K=P/d. SSG pro- and density.
duces soil stress and strain levels
common for pavement, bedding,
and foundation applications. It is a technology borrowed from the de-
practical, dynamic equivalent to a fense industry to measure very small
plate load test. Figure 3 compares deflections, allowing much smaller
SSG to a plate load test. In both loads. SSG does not measure the
cases, a force P is applied to the soil deflection resulting from the SSG
via a plate or ring. The soil deflects weight. Rather, SSG vibrates, pro-
an amount d, which is proportional ducing small changes in P that pro-
to the foot geometry, Young’s duce small deflections. To filter out
modulus, and Poisson’s ratio of the the deflections resulting from equip-
soil. The soil stiffness, as measured ment operating nearby, SSG mea-
by SSG, also relates to shear modu- sures over a frequency range. Fig-
lus, void ratio, and density. Figure 4 ure 5 is a schematic of SSG showing
presents the basic relationship.2 the major internal components. Not
shown are the D–cell batteries that
Technology power it. The foot bears directly on
Plate load tests are commonly con- the soil and supports the weight of
ducted by jacking against a large, the device via several rubber isola-
loaded truck (to provide a reaction tors. Also attached to the foot are
to P), while taking great care to the shaker that drives the foot and
measure the deflection. Large forces sensors that measure the force and Figure 5 — Illustration of the
are necessary to produce enough displacement-time history of the principle of SSG operation.
deflection to measure. SSG uses foot.

PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998 Page 7

 of this contract was to infuse new
technology into the transportation
industry. Specifically, technology
proven in the detection of nonme-
tallic land mines for the U.S. Army
was to be transitioned to the appli-
cation of soil compaction evaluation
in the field. Successful proof-of-
principle demonstrations were per-
formed by BBN on a significant
range of soil types and conditions.
This success prompted the consor-
tium led by BBN to recruit
Humboldt Manufacturing Co. to
commercialize SSG.
Prototype gauges have been
manufactured, and they have been
or are being evaluated by FHWA;
the departments of transportation of
Minnesota, New York, and Texas;
and the University of Massachusetts.
Figure 6 — SSG measuring the stiffness of pipe bedding for MnDOT trunk These field evaluations are quantify-
highway (TH) 610 project. ing how well SSG performs in prac-
tice on a broad range of soils, appli-
cations, and conditions.
Calibration The plan for the next construc-
tively unrestrained in the measure-
tion season calls for sending 12 to
SSG is calibrated via the force-to- ment frequency band.
displacement produced by moving a The calibration is performed by 24 gauges to sites representing a
cross section of U.S. applications
known mass. The value of the mass pressing the “Cal” button on the
and soils for the following purposes:
is precisely known and is less sus- SSG display. SSG compares the
ceptible to change than a reference measured effective stiffness of the
• To begin characterizing local soil
elastomeric pad or soil sample. Cali- mass against what is expected. A
stiffness to facilitate the current
bration in the lab or office requires simple frequency-dependent correc-
a mass of sufficient size to represent tion is recorded. Note: During fac- move towards more cost-effective
design and specification of
a typical range of soil stiffness — tory calibration, a software correc-
highways and buried structures.
e.g., 10 kg represents approxi- tion is made to account for the
mately 4 meganewtons per meter effect that the mass of the foot has • To demonstrate the cost and
quality benefits of controlling soil
(MN/m) at 100 hertz (Hz) and 16 on stiffness measurements.
stiffness/modulus in the field.
MN/m at 200 Hz. The mass is ap-
proximately the same shape as Development Approach
Numerous organizations in vari-
SSG’s foot and is rigidly bolted to SSG was developed from a compre-
ous states have expressed an inter-
the foot during calibration. SSG, hensive application, market, and
with the mass attached, is sup- technology knowledge base. The est in evaluating or using SSG for
these purposes. Discussions with
ported in the upright position off development began with an FHWA
many of them have been initiated to
of a rigid floor by a very compliant contract to BBN in cooperation with
fixture. The fixture is sufficiently CNA. Similar to the Strategic High- coordinate SSG use during the up-
coming construction season. Table 1
compliant so that the mass is effec- way Research Program, the purpose
illustrates the diversity of these or-
ganizations.
Table 1 — Organizations Interested in SSG Use or Evaluation The consortium has initiated the
process for standardizing the
Interested Organizations States Represented method embodied in SSG with both
the American Association of State
Engineers Ala., Ark., Calif., Ill., Ind., Ky., La., Md., Highway and Transportation
Mich., Minn., Neb., Ohio, Texas Officials (AASHTO) and the Ameri-
can Society for Testing and Materials
Construction suppliers Minn., Ohio, Texas (ASTM).
In the coming year, work will be
Universities Alaska, Ga., Iowa, Minn., Mo., Utah initiated to bring the following ca-
Departments of Transportation Ala., Calif., Del., Ga., Ill., La., Mich., N.C., pabilities to SSG:
N.J., Pa., Va. • Measurement of on-board
Contractors Ala., Calif., Colo., Minn., Pa., Wis. moisture.
• Measurement of asphalt stiffness.

Page 8 PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998

• Integration with compaction Table 2 — SSG Accuracy (Projection Based on Field Use to Date)
equipment.
• Graphical data-processing Example
software to facilitate statistical Component Definition re 4.1 MPa*
process control.
• On-board global positioning Traceability of a Single Meas. — Actual 0.08
system. Measurement (T)
• Measurement depths greater than
30 cm. Measurement Repeatability (R) (2s) 3 Avg. 0.10
1
Progress Total Error (TE) (T 21R2)–
2
0.13
A good example of SSG performance
to date is the Minnesota Department Accuracy (TE/Actual) 3 100 3.2%
of Transportation’s (MnDOT) trunk *the lowest level that SSG can reliably measure
highway 610 project in Brooklyn
Park, Minn. This work measures the
soil properties (modulus, stiffness, At one MnDOT site (figure 6), This site illustrated well the need
water content, density, etc.) of rein- more than 1,300 soil stiffness mea- for specified performance as op-
forced concrete pipe (RCP) bedding surements have been made success- posed to specified methods of com-
and backfill and of the response of fully using SSG. Testing was con- paction. It also illustrated how SSG
RCP to soil overfill. About 1006 ducted on sand, clay, sandy loam, could enable the statistical quality
meters of arch and round RCP have and mixtures of these soils in an in control of specified performance.
been placed to carry water from a situ and compacted state. Soil stiff- The relationship between stiffness
wetlands mitigation site east to the ness and moduli at this site range and density (figure 8) also proved
interchange of trunk highway 610 from 0.5 to 22.1 MN/m (3,000 to to be well-behaved.
and state Route 252. 126,000 lb/in) and from 4.1 to 192.9 Figure 9 illustrates how soil stiff-
MPa (600 to ness measurements can be used in
28,000 psi). The controlling road construction. In this
variability in example, an actual compacted road-
soil stiffness bed has been excavated; a drainage
(figure 7) along pipe installed; and soil reinstated,
the bedding but not fully compacted. A
was surprising medium-size vibrating roller was
even to used to complete the compaction as
MnDOT. stiffness measurements were made

Figure 7 — Stiffness variation along 4-foot RCP & 59-in

arch (actual variability in pipe bedding stiffness).

Figure 9 — Benefit of stiffness measurement, illustrating

Figure 8 — Stiffness vs. dry density at MnDOT TH 610, how stiffness measurements can reveal stress
illustrating the relationship under local conditions. concentrations and predict future fatigue in roadways.

PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998 Page 9

 with SSG. The figure shows that the
reinstated soil required additional
SSG Performance compaction and that the undis-
Specifications turbed soil, adjacent to the trench,
was overcompacted. Hence, the
pavement added later would experi-
ence stress concentration and, pos-
The version of SSG that is currently under development will be available for sibly, premature failure because of
use early this coming construction season and is designed to perform as the two stiff trench sides with softer
specified below: soil between. Companion density
measurements were not so
revealing.
Soil Stiffness The SSG evaluations to date sug-
Stiffness 3 MN/m (17k lbf) to 22.1 MN (126k lbf) gest the measurement accuracy
Modulus 26.2 MPa (3.8k lbf/in2) to 193 MPa (28k lbf/in2) illustrated in table 2.
Measurement Accuracy ,6 5%
(typ., % of absolute)
Conclusion
Soil stiffness is the desired engineer-
ing property when soil is com-
Depth of Measurement 10.2 to 15.2 cm (4 to 6 in)
pacted for construction projects.
(a function of foot outside diameter and However, until now, engineers have
SSG mass) used soil density as a measure of
soil compaction because there was
Laboratory Calibration no easy method for measuring soil
stiffness. Measuring soil density is
Accuracy ,6 2% slow, labor-intensive, and poten-
(% of actual mass) tially dangerous. The new light-
Range 4 to 16 MN/m (22.8 to 91.4 lb/in) weight, portable soil stiffness gauge
(effective) not only provides a means to mea-
sure the desired engineering prop-
Electrical erty, but it is faster, cheaper, safer,
and more accurate than the current
Power Source 6 D-size disposable cells standard methods.
Battery Life Sufficient for 6,700 measurements

Mechanical
References
External Materials Aluminum case & foot
1. Robert D. Holtz and William D.
Rubber isolators Kovacs. An Introduction to
Vibration 0.1 in @ 125 Hz Geotechnical Engineering, 1981,
Level re Vertical 6 5° p. 141.
Operating Temp. 0°C to 38°C (ambient) 2. Roman D. Hryciw and Thomas G.
Storage Temperature –20°C to 50°C Thomann. “Stress-History-Based
Model for Cohesionless Soils,” Jour-
Humidity 98%, without condensation nal of Geotechnical Engineering,
Gauge Size (without handle) 28 cm (11 in) OD Vol. 119, No. 7, July 1993.
Gauge Height (without handle) 25.4 cm (10 in) H
Weight 11.4 kg (~ 25 lb) Scott Fiedler is a product manager
Shipping Weight (with case) 16 kg (~ 35 lb) for Humboldt Manufacturing Co. in
Norridge, Ill.
Standard Accessories
Charles Nelson is president of
Transit Case CNA Consulting Engineers in Minne-
Infrared Data Link (PC side & rudimentary software) apolis, Minn.

Optional Accessories E. Frank Berkman is vice presi-

dent of BBN Systems and Technolo-
Laboratory Calibration 10 kg (~ 22 lb) mass gies in Cambridge, Mass.
Mass & Fixture
Al DiMillio is the federal program
The performance specified above is preliminary and subject to change. manager for geotechnical engineer-
ing research for the Federal High-
way Administration at the
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research
Center in McLean, Va.

Page 10 PUBLIC ROADS • MARCH/APRIL • 1998