LOW-COST MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT Zulfiqar Ahmad Bhatti, Qaisar

Mahmood*, Iftikhar Ahmad Raja, Amir

OPTIONS FOR USE IN PAKISTAN – A REVIEW Haider Malik, Naim Rashid, Zahid
Mahmood Khan and Farhana Maqbool

ABSTRACT According to Chandio and Abdullah (ibid), the public

water-requirement has risen manifolds as a result of
Pakistan has now essentially exhausted its available population increase, industrial growth and bringing
water-resources and is on the verge of becoming a more area under cultivation, to meet the increasing
water-deficit country. The per-capita water availability demand for agriculture-products. All the above factors
3 3
has dropped from 5,600 m to 1,000 m . The public forced the water-managers to explore the quality of
water-requirement has risen manifolds, as population existing freshwater- resources. It has been estimated
is increasing, industry is growing and we are bringing that about 27% of world population does not have
more area under cultivation to meet the increasing access to clean drinking water.
demand for agriculture-products. The quality of
groundwater and surface-water is low and is further The conditions become more adverse in developing
deteriorating because of unchecked disposal of countries, where there is lack of resources and the
untreated municipal and industrial wastewater and water-protection schemes are given least priorities. A
excessive use of fertilizers and insecticides. This study by Zahid and Baig (1997) concluded that about
paper presents an overview of various low-cost 80% people living in the main cities of Pakistan lack
treatment options for the treatment of municipal access to really clean, potable water. The
wastewater-treatment. environmental profile of Pakistan indicates that about
40% of deaths are related to waterborne diseases that
Keywords: Biological Treatment, Low-cost spread by water-pollution that is caused mainly due to
Treatment, Municipal Wastewater, Water Availability the sewage and industrial wastewater contamination
of drinking-water distribution systems.
1. INTRODUCTION

Pakistan’s current population of 170 million is Continuing urbanization, growing populations and
expected to grow up to about 221 million by the year increasing industrialization have increased water-
2025. This increase in population will have a direct consumption, correspondingly generating higher
impact on the water-sector for meeting the domestic, volumes of wastewater. Untreated wastewater and
industrial and agricultural needs. Pakistan has now poor solid-waste management are threats to human
essentially exhausted its available water-resources health and natural environment. Regrettably, the
and is on the verge of becoming a water-deficit public-and the private-sectors, in developing
country. The per-capita water availability has dropped countries, including Pakistan, are not focusing on the
wastewater-treatment practices at domestic and
from 5,600 m3 to 1,000 m3. The quality of groundwater
industrial level. Lack of interest even extends to
and surface-water is low and is further deteriorating
controlling water-borne diseases, which causes
because of unchecked disposal of untreated municipal
severe environmental and health problems. Most of
and industrial wastewater and excessive use of
the wastewater is not treated and, with the expansion
fertilizers and insecticides. Water quality monitoring
of urban settlements without wastewater-treatment
and information management is lacking, even though
facilities, it will continue to adversely impact the natural
it’s crucial to any water-quality improvement
environment and public health. The worst impact is
programme.
evident in areas that are close to industrial sites.
Results from various investigations and surveys
indicate that water-pollution has significantly Saeed and Bahzad (2006), had reported that more
increased in Pakistan. The pollution-levels are higher than 28 m3/sec wastewater was being disposed off into
particularly in and around the big cities of the country the River Ravi without any treatment from Lahore, the
where clusters of industries have been established. second largest city of Pakistan. The river pollution is
The water-quality deterioration problems are caused frequently associated with the disposal of untreated
by the discharge of hazardous industrial wastes, effluents from municipal, industrial and agricultural
including persistent toxic synthetic organic chemicals, wastes into the natural streams, which is always
heavy metals, pesticides and municipal wastes and considered as an easy way to dispose off many kinds
untreated sewage water into natural water-bodies. of effluents. The people’s psychology is that the
These substances mixed with water then cause wastes are washed away and are not visible after
widespread water-borne and water-washed diseases dumping.
(Chandio and Abdullah, 1998).
* Department of Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan.
Email: mahmoodzju@gmail.com
A scientific journal of COMSATS – SCIENCE VISION Vol.15 No.1 (January to June 2009) 71
Low-Cost Municipal Wastewater Treatment Options for Use in Pakistan – A Review

A study (by Balfours, 1987) revealed that about 18 from wastewater and household sewage, both runoff
3
m /sec of wastewater from Lahore city was being (effluents) and domestic. It includes physical,
disposed off into the River Ravi and it is estimated that chemical, and biological processes, to remove
3
wastewater flow would increase to 35m /sec by the physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its
year 2017. This wastewater is accompanied by a objective is to produce a waste-stream (or treated
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of upto 240 mg/L. effluent) and a solid waste or sludge suitable for
discharge or reuse back into the environment. This
It is difficult to propose conventional systems of material is often inadvertently contaminated with many
wastewater-treatment to apply for the treatment of toxic organic and inorganic compounds (Nidal, 2008).
municipal wastewater in Pakistan, because there is no
separate drainage system for domestic and industrial 2.2 Process Overview
wastewater. All types of wastewater are moving
towards to single drain. Therefore, there is a Sewage can be treated close to where it is generated
tremendous need to select a most economical (in septic tanks, bio-filters or aerobic treatment
treatment-system that should be able to treat systems), or collected and transported via a network of
municipal wastewater containing industrial pipes and pumping stations to a municipal treatment
wastewater as well. There are many options to use; plant. Sewage collection and treatment is typically
natural biological, CEPT and AOP need so as to be subject to local, state and federal regulations and
tested to select one most appropriate and economical standards.
system. The problem with such kind of wastewater is
variations in COD and BOD from 200 to 2000 mg/L. Conventional sewage-treatment may involve three
Sometimes, simple CEPT, direct treatment with stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary
hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen peroxide/UV and treatment. Primary treatment consists of temporarily
anaerobic treatment process may be required holding the sewage in a quiescent basin, where heavy
individually, or with combination, to overcome the high solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and
variation in COD in municipal wastewater stream. lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and
Separate installation of treatment-facility at each floating materials are removed and the remaining
source may not be feasible to overcome this problem, liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary
at present status. treatment.

Over a billion people around the world lack access to Secondary treatment removes dissolved and
safe drinking-water, when around 80% of all diseases suspended biological matter. This treatment is
are due to poor drinking-water quality in developing typically performed by indigenous, water-borne micro-
countries; this lead to 1.7 million deaths annually organisms in a managed habitat. The treatment may
(UNDP, 1996). In Pakistan, water availability has require a separation-process, to remove the micro-
already fallen from 5,000 m3 per capita to 1,100 m3 in organisms from the treated water, prior to discharge or
2005. According to government statistics, 88% of the tertiary treatment.
districts (urban population) and 62% of rural residents
have access to water supply. But, in fact, only 33% Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything
people has water supply at their homes and 67% rely more than primary and secondary treatment. Treated
on outdoor sources. The water-quality analysis report water is sometimes disinfected chemically or
2005-06 says: 55% samples were found with coliform physically (for example, by lagoons and micro-
contamination (IUCN, 2009). Accordingly, we present filtration) prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay,
a Review of some low-cost options for water- lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of
treatments. Some of that more sophisticated ones are a golf course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently
suitable only for use in the larger metropolitan cities. clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or
agricultural purposes (Roland, 1997).
2. LOW-COST TREATMENT OPTIONS FOR
PAKISTAN 2.3 Pre-treatment

2.1 Sewage-treatment Pre-treatment removes materials that can easily be

collected from the raw wastewater, before they
Sewage-treatment, or domestic wastewater damage or clog the pumps and skimmers of primary
treatment, is the process of removing contaminants treatment clarifiers. Pre-treatment includes the

72 A scientific journal of COMSATS – SCIENCE VISION Vol.15 No.1 (January to June 2009)
 Zulfiqar A. Bhatti, Qaisar Mahmood, Iftikhar A. Raja, Amir H. Malik, Naim Rashid, Zahid M. Khan and Farhana Maqbool

following steps: processes. For this to be effective, the biota

requires both oxygen and a substrate on which to
2.3.1 Screening: The influent sewage-water is live. There are a number of ways in which this is
strained to remove all large objects carried in the done. In all these methods, the bacteria and
sewage stream, such as rags, sticks, tampons, protozoa consume bio-degradable soluble
cans, fruit, etc. This is most commonly done with organic contaminants (e.g. sugars, fats, organic
an automated mechanically raked bar screen, in short-chain carbon molecules, etc.) and bind
modern plants serving large populations, whilst in much of the less soluble fractions into flock. On the
smaller or less modern plants a manually cleaned basis of biomass present, secondary treatment
screen may be used. The raking action of a systems are classified as:
mechanical bar screen is typically paced
according to the accumulation on the bar screens ! Fixed-film or;
and/or flow-rate. The solids are collected and later ! Suspended-growth.
disposed off in a land-fill or incinerated (Hammer,
2004; Roland, 1997). Fixed-film or attached-growth system treatment
process, including trickling filter and rotating
2.3.2 Grit removal: Pre-treatment may include a biological contactors where the biomass grows on
sand or grit channel or chamber (sometimes media and the sewage passes over its surface.
called a de-gritter) where the velocity of the
incoming wastewater is carefully controlled to In suspended-growth systems, such as activated
allow sand, grit and stones to settle, while keeping sludge, the biomass is well-mixed with the sewage
the majority of the suspended organic material in and can be operated in a smaller space than fixed-
the water-column. Sometimes there is a sand film systems that treat the same amount of water.
washer (grit classifier), followed by a conveyor However, fixed-film systems are more able to
that transports the sand to a container for disposal. cope with drastic changes in the amount of
The contents from the sand-catcher may be fed biological material and can provide higher
into the incinerator in a sludge-processing plant, removal-rates for organic material and suspended
but in many cases, the sand and grit is sent to a solids than suspended-growth systems.
land-fill.
Roughing filters are intended to treat particularly
2.3.3 Primary treatment: In the primary strong or variable organic loads, typically
sedimentation stage, sewage flows through large industrial, to allow them to then be treated by
tanks, commonly called "primary clarifiers" or conventional secondary treatment-processes. Its
"primary sedimentation tanks". The tanks are characteristics include typically tall, circular filters,
large enough so that the sludge can settle and filled with open synthetic filter media to which
floating material, such as grease and oils, can rise wastewater is applied at a relatively high-rate.
to the surface and be skimmed off. The main They are designed to allow high hydraulic loading
purpose of the primary sedimentation stage is to and a high flow-through of air. On larger
produce both a generally homogeneous liquid installations, air is forced through the media using
capable of being treated biologically and a sludge blowers. The resultant wastewater is usually
that can be separately treated or processed. within the normal range for conventional treatment
Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with processes. The final step in the secondary
mechanically driven scrapers that continually treatment-stage is to settle out the biological floc
drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the or filter material and produce sewage water
base of the tank, from where it can be pumped to containing very low levels of organic material and
further sludge-treatment stages (Hammer, 2004; suspended matter.
Roland, 1997).
2.3.5 Up-flow anaerobic treatment reactor: Up-
2.3.4 Secondary treatment: Secondary flow anaerobic treatment reactor has been
treatment is designed to substantially degrade the successfully used to treat a variety of industrial as
biological content of the sewage, such as the ones well as domestic wastewaters. It can briefly be
derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and described as a process in which substrate in water
detergent. The majority of municipal plants treat passes through sludge-bed containing biomass.
the settled sewage-liquor, using aerobic biological This sludge is present in the form of granular or

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Low-Cost Municipal Wastewater Treatment Options for Use in Pakistan – A Review

flocculent form. Influent enters into the system and capable of withstanding surges in organic
from bottom of the reactor and leaves from upper load. RBCs were first installed in Germany in 1960
side of the reactor. Uplift velocity of the influent is and have since been developed and refined into a
very critical to allow sufficient time to uptake the reliable operating unit. The rotating disks support
substrate through the biomass without uplifting the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms
the sludge-granules. This is the most attractive present in the sewage, which breakdown and
treatment-system due to its no-sludge excess stabilize organic pollutants. To be successful,
sludge-production because substrate convert into micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and
biogas (Ghangrekar, 2005). food to grow. Oxygen is obtained from the
atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-
2.4 Bioreactors organisms grow, they build up on the media until
they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided
2.4.1 Membrane bioreactors: Membrane by the rotating discs in the sewage. Effluent from
bioreactors (MBR) combine activated sludge- the RBC is then passed through the final clarifiers,
treatment with a membrane liquid-solid where the micro-organisms in suspension settle
separation process. The membrane component as sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the
uses low-pressure micro-filtration or ultra-filtration clarifier for further treatment.
membranes and eliminates the need for
clarification and tertiary filtration. The membranes A functionally similar biological filtering system
are typically immersed in the aeration tank has become popular as part of home aquarium
(however, some applications utilize a separate filtration and purification. The aquarium-water is
membrane tank). One of the key benefits of a drawn up out of the tank and then cascaded over a
MBR system is that it effectively overcomes the freely spinning corrugated fiber-mesh wheel,
limitations associated with poor settling of sludge before passing through a media-filter and back
in conventional activated system (CAS) into the aquarium. The spinning mesh wheel
processes. The technology permits bioreactor develops a biofilm coating of micro-organisms
operation with considerably higher mixed-liquor that feed on the suspended wastes in the
suspended solids (MLSS) concentration than aquarium water and are also exposed to the
CAS systems, which are limited by sludge- atmosphere as the wheel rotates. This is
settling. The process is typically operated at especially good for removing waste urea and
MLSS in the range of 8,000–12,000 mg/L, while ammonia urinated into the aquarium water by the
CAS is operated in the range of 2,000–3,000 fish and other animals (Leslie et al. 1998).
mg/L. The elevated biomass concentration in the
MBR process allows for very effective removal of 2.4.3 Lagooning: Lagooning provides settlement
both soluble and particulate biodegradable and further biological improvement through
materials at higher loading rates. Thus increased storage in large man-made ponds or lagoons.
Sludge Retention Times (SRTs)—usually These lagoons are highly aerobic and
exceeding 15 days—ensure complete colonization by native macrophytes, especially
nitrification, even in extremely cold weather. reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter-feeding
invertebrates, such as Daphnia and species of
The cost of building and operating a MBR is Rotifer, greatly assist the treatment by removing
usually higher than conventional wastewater- fine particulates (Hammer, 2004).
treatment, however, as the technology has
become increasingly popular and has gained 2.4.4 Constructed wetlands: Constructed
wider acceptance throughout the industry, the life- wetlands include engineered reed-beds and a
cycle costs have been steadily decreasing. The range of similar methodologies, all of which
small footprint of MBR systems and the high- provide a high degree of aerobic biological
quality effluent produced, makes them particularly improvement and can often be used instead of
useful for water-reuse applications (Judd, 2006; secondary treatment for small communities.
Verstraete, 2005). Constructed wetland is fed in at the inlet and
moved in laminar regime through porous medium,
2.4.2 Rotating biological contactors: Rotating until it reaches the outlet zone where it is collected
biological contactors (RBCs) are mechanical before the outlet. During this flow-regime
secondary-treatment systems, which are robust wastewater is in contact with aerobic, anoxic and

74 A scientific journal of COMSATS – SCIENCE VISION Vol.15 No.1 (January to June 2009)
 Zulfiqar A. Bhatti, Qaisar Mahmood, Iftikhar A. Raja, Amir H. Malik, Naim Rashid, Zahid M. Khan and Farhana Maqbool

anaerobic zones. Rhizomes and plant roots encourage the appropriate biological
release the oxygen and develop aerobic communities to form. It is facilitated by a wide
conditions. Constructed wetlands have long been diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning
used for domestic and municipal wastewater and reed-beds can all be used to reduce
(Vymazal, 2009; Cooper et al., 1996; Brix et al., nitrogen, but the activated-sludge process,
1987). membrane-aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) (if
designed well) can do the job most easily.
2.4.5 Nutrient removal: Wastewater may contain Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate
high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and to di-nitrogen gas, an electron-donor is
phosphorus. Excessive release of waste-water to needed. This can be, depending on the
the environment can lead to a build-up of wastewater, organic matter (from faeces),
nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn sulfide, or an added donor, like methanol.
encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia
cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). This may to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary
cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the treatment (Terada et al., 2003).
population of algae. The algae numbers are
unsustainable and eventually most of them die. 2.4.5.2 Phosphorus removal: Phosphorus
The decomposition of the algae, by bacteria, uses removal is important, as it is a limiting nutrient
up so much of oxygen in the water that most or all for algae growth in many fresh-water systems
of the animals die, which creates more organic (for negative effects of algae, see Nutrient
matter for the bacteria to decompose. In addition removal). It is also particularly important for
to deoxygenatoin, some algal species produce water-reuse systems where high phosphorus
toxins that contaminate drinking-water supplies. concentrations may lead to fouling of
Different treatment-processes are required to downstream equipment, such as reverse
remove nitrogen and phosphorus. Removal of osmosis (Landner, 1976).
nutrients has been studied for different reactors.
Sequential-batch reactor, for biological nutrient Phosphorus can be removed biologically in a
removal from municipal wastewater, was found process called ‘enhanced biological
very effective in reducing BOD5, TSS and phosphorus-removal’. In this process, specific
ammonium nitrogen upto 98, 90 and 89 % at 12 bacteria, called polyphosphate-accumulating
hours cycle time. It consists of a sequencing organisms (PAOs), are selectively enriched
operation, including the steps of “fill, react, settle, and accumulated large quantities of
decant and idle” (Kargi and Uygur, 2003). phosphorus within their cells (up to 20% of
their mass). When the biomass enriched in
2.4.5.1 Nitrogen removal: The removal of these bacteria is separated from the treated
nitrogen is effected through the biological water, these biosolids have a high fertilizer
oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia value (Verstraete, 2004).
(nitrification) to nitrate, followed by
denitrification the reduction of nitrate to Phosphorus removal can also be achieved by
nitrogen gas. Nitrogen gas is released to the chemical precipitation, usually with salts of
atmosphere and thus removed from the water. iron (e.g. ferric chloride), aluminum (e.g.
alum), or lime. This may lead to excessive
Nitrification itself is a two-step aerobic sludge-productions, as hydroxides
process, each step facilitated by a different precipitates, and the added chemicals can be
type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia expensive. Chemical phosphorus-removal
(NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) is most often facilitated requires significantly smaller equipment-
by Nitrosomonas sp. Nitrite oxidation to nitrate footprint than biological removal, is easier to
(NO3-), though traditionally believed to be operate and is often more reliable than
facilitated by Nitrobacter sp., is now known to biological phosphorus-removal. Once
be facilitated in the environment almost removed, phosphorus, in the form of a
exclusively by Nitrospira sp. (Verstraete, phosphate-rich sludge, may be stored in a
2004). land-fill or resold for use in fertilizer
(Tchobanoglous et al., 2003).
Denitrification requires anoxic conditions to

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Low-Cost Municipal Wastewater Treatment Options for Use in Pakistan – A Review

2.5 Tertiary treatment of bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, making

them incapable of reproduction. The key-
The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final disadvantages of UV disinfection are the need for
treatment stage, to raise the effluent-quality before it is frequent lamp-maintenance and replacement,
discharged to the receiving environment (sea, river, and the need for a highly treated effluent to ensure
lake, ground, etc.). More than one tertiary treatment- that the target micro-organisms are not shielded
process may be used at any treatment plant. If from the UV radiation (i.e., any solids present in
disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process. the treated effluent may protect micro-organisms
It is also called "effluent polishing". It includes micron from the UV light). In the United Kingdom, light is
filtration, ozonation, reverse osmosis and UV becoming the most common means of
treatment (IBWA, 1995). disinfection, because of the concerns about the
impacts of chlorine in chlorinating residual
2.5.1 Filtration: Sand filtration removes much of organics in the wastewater and in chlorinating
the residual suspended matter. Filtration over organics in the receiving water (IBWA, 1995).
activated carbon removes residual toxins.
Ozone (O3) is generated by passing oxygen (O2)
2.5.2 Disinfection: The purpose of disinfection in through a high-voltage potential, resulting in a
the treatment of wastewater is to substantially third oxygen atom becoming attached and
reduce the number of micro-organisms in the forming O3. Ozone is very unstable and reactive
water to be discharged back into the environment. and oxidizes most organic material it comes in
The effectiveness of disinfection depends on the contact with, thereby destroying many pathogenic
quality of water being treated (e.g., cloudiness, micro-organisms. Ozone is considered to be safer
pH, etc.), the type of disinfection being used, the than chlorine because, unlike chlorine, which has
disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and to be stored on-site (highly poisonous in the event
other environmental variables. Cloudy water will of an accidental release), ozone is generated
be treated less successfully, since solid matter onsite as needed. Ozonation also produces fewer
can shield organisms, especially from ultra-violet disinfection by-products than chlorination. A
light or if contact-times are low. Generally, short disadvantage of ozone disinfection is the high cost
contact-times, low doses and high flows all of the ozone-generation equipment and the
militate against effective disinfection. Common requirements for special operators (Pillai, et al.,
methods of disinfection include ozone, chlorine, 2009).
or ultra-violet light. Chloramine, which is used for
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