On the Durability and Strength of Compacted

Coal Fly Ash-Carbide Lime Blends

N.C. Consoli, R.B. Saldanha, J.F. Novaes, H.C. Scheuermann Filho

Abstract. Present investigation intends to examine the mechanical behaviour of compacted coal fly ash - carbide lime
mixes to assess their potential use as a sub-base/base material for low volume roads. This study plans to compute the
impact of carbide lime content and dry density on the properties (durability and strength) of compacted coal fly ash -
carbide lime blends. Its main significant addition to knowledge is quantifying the accumulated loss of mass (ALM) after
wetting/drying cycles, tensile (qt) and compressive strength (qu) as a function of the porosity/lime index. A specific qt /qu
matching 0.13 was established, being autonomous of the porosity/lime index. In addition, it is empirically revealed the
existence of an exclusive relation connecting accumulated loss of mass divided by the number of wetting/drying cycles and
porosity/lime index. This broadens the applicability of such index by demonstrating it controls endurance performance of
compacted coal fly ash - lime blends.
Keywords: durability, coal fly ash, carbide lime, strength, porosity/lime index.

1. Introduction sible to decrease the use of natural resources in civil

construction and prevents the allocation of them to land-
In the last years the development of new geomaterials fills.
with the use of industrial by-products has been of concern
to researchers. This can be seen as a positive process in The mixture, in a wet process, of coal fly ash and car-
which the premises for progress are closely related to the is- bide lime provides minerals, such as calcium silicate hy-
sue of environmental sustainability, a concept that intends drate (CSH) and calcium aluminate hydrate (CAH), that
to assure the conservation of natural resources that enables crystallize and constitute the cementing by forming
meeting current needs without compromising future gener- interparticle bonds (Massazza, 1998). Nevertheless, there
ations (World Commission on Environment and Develop- are many factors that are able to interfere in the pozzolanic
ment 1987). In this context, the construction industry is an reactions originated in the mixture and compaction of these
important cause of environmental impacts, since it con- residues and, consequently, influence their mechanical
sumes large amounts of natural resources and generates properties. Thereby, it is necessary to assess variables for
considerable quantities of waste. Hence, it is crucial an in- the main parameters which govern the development of
crease in the development and use of new materials and these reactions, such as: amount of lime, porosity, curing
techniques capable of reducing those impacts, like the utili- period and temperature, and correlate these with the me-
zation of recycled waste. chanical response of the FA-lime blends (Haque et al.,
2014; Rocha et al., 2014; Dash & Hussain, 2015; Islam et
An important industrial residue, which is responsible
al., 2015; Saldanha & Consoli, 2016).
for pozzolanic reactions and, therefore, capable of generat-
ing cementing materials when properly stabilized with an Strength tests are usually employed as a way to exam-
alkaline activator, is the coal fly ash (FA) derived from the ine the influence of diverse variables on cemented materi-
coal combustion in thermal power plants. Annually, about als behaviour. A logical dose procedure for coal fly ash -
750 Mt of this waste are generated in the whole world, how- lime blends was created by Consoli et al. (2014) taking into
ever the average reutilization in this global perspective is consideration the porosity/lime index as a proper parameter
only around 25% (Blissett & Rowson, 2012). Moreover, to assess strength (qu) of fly ash-carbide lime mixes. Yet, so
the FA can be stabilized with carbide lime, a by-product in far, no research has examined the applicability of the poros-
the production process of acetylene gas (e.g. Consoli et al., ity/lime index (h/Lv) for compacted coal fly ash-lime mixes
2014; Arulrajah et al., 2016, Saldanha & Consoli, 2016). in terms of loss of mass after dry/wet cycles to check dura-
Therefore, the use of these industrial residues makes it pos- bility and tensile strength (qt), as well as qt /qu. The target of

Nilo Cesar Consoli, Ph.D., Full Professor, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. e-mail: consoli@ufrgs.br.
Rodrigo Beck Saldanha, Ph.D. Student, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. e-mail: becksaldanha@ya-
hoo.com.br.
Jéssica Flesch Novaes, M.Sc., Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. e-mail: jessicafleschn@gmail.com.
Hugo Carlos Scheuermann Filho, M.Sc. Student, Departamento de Engenharia Civil, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil. e-mail:
hugocsf@gmail.com.
Submitted on January 13, 2017; Final Acceptance on July 5, 2017; Discussion open until December 29, 2017.

Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 40(2): 155-161, May-August, 2017. 155
 Consoli et al.

this study is to determine straight relations between h/Lv Table 1 - Physical properties of the coal fly ash sample.
and accumulated loss of mass after wetting/drying cycles
Liquid limit (%) -
(durability), qt and qt /qu for compacted coal fly ash-carbide
lime mixes. Plastic limit (%) -
Plasticity index (%) Non-plastic
2. Background
Specific gravity 2.17
Durability can be stated as the capability of a material Medium sand (0.2 mm < diameter < 0.6 mm) 1.5
to maintain stability and integrity over large periods of ex- (%)
posure to detrimental weathering (Dempsey & Thompson,
Fine sand (0.06 mm < diameter < 0.2 mm) (%) 12.9
1968). Such property, as well as strength, is one of the im-
portant engineering properties of cemented mixes. Silt (0.002 mm < diameter < 0.06 mm) (%) 82.4
Previous studies have been carried out to evaluate the Clay (diameter < 0.002 mm) (%) 3.2
durability of soil-cement mixtures, most of them (e.g., Mean particle diameter, D50 (mm) 0.02
Starcher et al., 2016, Jamshidi et al., 2016) centered on two USCS class ML (low
ASTM standards: wetting and drying (ASTM, 2015a) and plasticity silt)
freezing and thawing (ASTM, 2013).
Shihata & Baghdadi (2001) immersed sets of silty
utilized in the testing were taken from a thermal power
sand-cement specimens in saline water for different dura-
plant disposal site situated in southern Brazil, being classi-
tions prior to running 12 wetting-drying cycles followed by
fied (ASTM, 2006) as low plasticity silt (ML). Surface area
brushing strokes. The authors found that soils with larger
using nitrogen adsorption - BET method (ASTM, 2012) is
amounts of fines presented higher weight loss values in 2
3.20 m /g. As a result of X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry
such tests. They also observed a close relationship between
(XRF) it was possible to identify the main components of
percent mass loss and reduction of unconfined compressive
the fly ash, among which stand out SiO2 (64.8%), Al2O3
strength after the cycles.
(20.4%), Fe2O3 (4.8%), and CaO (3.1%).
Zhang & Tao (2008) performed durability tests in low
plastic silty clay stabilized with cement. The authors ob- Carbide lime, a by-product of the production of acety-
served that the mass loss decreased with the increase in lene gas, is a hydrated lime and was used throughout this re-
cement contents, but increased with the increase of wa- search as the activator agent. Moreover, the determination
ter-cement ratio. of calcium and magnesium oxides (on a non-volatile basis)
Kelley (1988) and Cuisinier et al. (2012) showed using the wet chemical analysis (ASTM, 2011) established
qualitatively that the efficiency of lime treatment could be 96% of calcium oxide, being then a calcitic lime. To ensure
damaged by the alternation of wet/dry cycles in the long the occurrence of the pozzolanic reactions, the minimum
term. Such behaviour was also observed by Cuisinier et al. lime content in the mixture was determined through the Ini-
(2014). The latter authors also observed significant irre- tial Consumption of Lime Method (ICL) (Rogers et al.,
versible shrinkage strains at the end of the first cycle for 1997). For this study, a minimum quantity of 4% of carbide
lime treated clays. A dramatic decrease in yield stress lime (based on the mass of dry coal fly ash) was found to
brought by a loss of the lime cementation bonding was also stabilize the blends. So, based on such result, carbide lime
evidenced after the first cycle. contents of 5%, 8% and 11% were chosen for the present
Theivakularatnam & Gnanendran (2015) observed research. Carbide lime grains specific gravity is 2.12.
that the accelerated reaction of binders due to increasing Distilled water was employed for characterization
temperature masked the detrimental effect of the wet-dry tests and moulding specimens for the mechanical tests.
cycles.
However, there were no studies looking for the under- 3.2. Methods
standing of the key parameters that control durability of 3.2.1. Moulding and curing of specimens
coal fly ash - lime blends and the analysis of the effect of
such factors (e.g. porosity/lime index). For strength tests, cylindrical specimens with 50 mm
diameter and 100 mm from top to bottom were employed.
3. Experimental Program For durability (wetting and drying) tests, cylindrical speci-
The materials and methods used in present research mens with 100 mm diameter and 120 mm from top to bot-
are discussed below. tom were utilized. A designed dry unit weight for a particu-
lar specimen was then established as a result of the dry mass
3.1. Materials
of coal fly ash-carbide lime inserted in the cylindrical
The coal fly ash characterization tests are displayed in mould divided by the total volume of the specimen. As ex-
Table 1. The fly ashes [type F according to ASTM (2015b)] hibited in Eq. 1 (Saldanha & Consoli, 2016), porosity (h) is

156 Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 40(2): 155-161, May-August, 2017.
 On the Durability and Strength of Compacted Coal Fly Ash-Carbide Lime Blends

a function of dry density (gd) of the mix and carbide lime C 496 (ASTM, 2011). Before testing, specimens were put
content (L). Each substance (fly ash and carbide lime) has a underwater for 24 h to reduce suction (Consoli et al., 2011).
unit weight of solids (gsFA and gsL), which also requires to be Compaction tests of coal fly ash - carbide lime blend (8%
pondered for computing porosity. was the lime content used - based on the mass of dry coal fly
ash) mix under standard, intermediate and modified ener-
ìé ùé L ùü gies (see Fig. 1) presented maximum dry unit weights and
ïï ê g d ú ê 1 ú ïï
h = 100 -100í ê úê + 100 ú ý (1) optimum moisture contents of 11.61 kN/m3 and 31.5%,
ï ê1 + L ú ê gs FA gs L ú ï 11.96 kN/m3 and 29.2% and 12.36 kN/m3 and 27.6%, re-
ïî êë 100 úû êë úû ïþ spectively. Specimens were moulded on top of the line
formed by maximum dry unit weights and optimum mois-
Once the coal fly ash and carbide lime were weighed,
ture contents (at three distinct points) (see Fig. 1):
they were blended till the mix attained uniformity. Mois-
10.6 kN/m3 and 36.6% (point 1), 11.6 kN/m3 and 31.3%
ture contents for the coal fly ash and carbide lime blends
(point 2) and 12.6 kN/m3 and 26.0% (point 3); carbide lime
were then supplemented, remaining the mix procedure till a
contents used were 5%, 8% and 11% and specimens were
homogeneous paste was generated. Each specimen was
cured for 28 days. As for Portland cement, the amounts of
then constructed in three layers, each layer being statically
water needed for lime-pozzolan reaction are minimum, and
compacted inside a cylindrical split mold, so that each layer
the Proctor optimum moisture content is more than enough
reached the prescribed dry unit weight. In the process, the
to guarantee the necessary water amount.
top of each layer was slightly scarified. After the molding,
the specimen was immediately extracted from the split 3.2.3. Durability tests
mold and its weight, diameter and height measured with ac-
curacies of about 0.01 g and 0.1 mm, respectively. The Durability (wetting-drying cycles) tests of coal fly
specimens were cured for 7 days in a moist chamber at ash - carbide lime mixtures were completed according to
23 °C ± 2 °C and relative moisture of about 98%. standard ASTM D 559 (ASTM, 2015a). Specimens were
moulded with the same variables as for strength tests. Test
3.2.2. Unconfined compression and split tensile tests
procedures determine mass losses produced by recurrent
Compression tests followed standard ASTM C 39 (12) wet-dry series. Every cycle begins by oven drying
(ASTM, 2010) while tension tests obeyed standard ASTM through 42 h at 71 °C ± 2 °C. Then, specimens are brushed a

Figure 1 - Compaction test results, optimum compaction line and moulding points.

Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 40(2): 155-161, May-August, 2017. 157
 Consoli et al.

number of times using a force of approximately 15 N. shown by Consoli et al. (2014, 2016). They have shown
Lastly, specimens are put underwater for 5 h at 23 °C ± that rates of change of strength with porosity (h) and the in-
2 °C. It is important to point out that pozzolanic reactions verse of the volumetric lime content (1/Lv) are as a rule not
are accelerated with temperature and so the 42 h at 71 °C the same. Thus, the application of an exponent (as a direc-
during wetting and drying cycles can improve the material tive around 0.11 - Consoli et al., 2014, 2016; Saldanha &
strength. Consoli, 2016) to Lv is required for the rates of h and 1/Lv to
be compatible.
4. Results
By examining Fig. 2, as well as Eqs. 2 and 3, it can be
4.1. Influence of the porosity/lime index on qt and qu seen that the tension and compression tests present rather
similar trends. Plotting qt vs. qu of all tests carried out (see
Figure 2 portrays qt and qu as a function of h/(Lv)
0.11

Fig. 3) it can be observed that qt /qu is a scalar (= 0.13) for

[stated as porosity (h) divided by the volumetric lime con- the fly ash - carbide lime studied blend, being independent
tent (Lv), the latter expressed as a percentage of carbide lime of porosity, carbide lime content, or porosity/lime index.
volume to the total volume of the coal fly ash - carbide lime
mixtures (Consoli et al., 2014)] for the curing period stud- 4.2. Influence of the carbide lime, porosity and poros-
ied (28 days). Fig. 2 indicates that the adjusted poros- ity/lime index on durability (wetting and drying cycles)
ity/lime index is helpful in normalizing tensile and com- of compacted coal fly ash-carbide lime blends
pressive strength results for coal fly ash - carbide lime Figure 4 shows compacted coal fly ash-carbide lime
mixtures. Fair correlations (R2 = 0.95 and 0.91) can be per- blends accumulated loss of mass (ALM) vs. adjusted poros-
ceived concerning qt (Eq. 2) and qu (Eq. 3) and h/(Lv) for
0.11
ity/lime index [h/(Lv)0.11] after 3 [Eq. 4 - R2 = 0.91], 6 [Eq. 5 -
the coal fly ash - carbide lime mixtures studied. R2 = 0.92], 9 [Eq. 6 - R2 = 0.92] and 12 [Eq. 7 - R2 = 0.93]
-3. 00 wetting-drying cycles (during durability tests).
é h ù
q t ( MPa) = 0.30 ´ 10 5 ê 0.11 ú (2) 8. 30
ë Lv û é h ù
ALM (%) = 1.26 ´ 10 -14 ê 0.11 ú (4)
-3. 00 ë Lv û
é h ù
q u ( MPa) = 2.32 ´ 10 5 ê 0.11 ú (3) 8. 30
ë Lv û -14
é h ù
ALM (%) = 2.48 ´ 10 ê 0.11 ú (5)
The capability of the adjusted porosity/lime index to ë Lv û
normalize strength of lime treated coal fly ash has been 8. 30
-14
é h ù
ALM (%) = 3.20 ´ 10 ê 0.11 ú (6)
ë Lv û

Figure 2 - Variation of split tensile strength (qt) and unconfined

compressive strength (qu) with adjusted porosity/lime index for Figure 3 - Split tensile strength (qt) vs. unconfined compressive
coal fly ash-carbide lime blends for 28 days of curing. strength (qu) for 28 days of curing.

158 Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 40(2): 155-161, May-August, 2017.
 On the Durability and Strength of Compacted Coal Fly Ash-Carbide Lime Blends

2
(R = 0.90) linking accumulated loss of mass divided by
number of cycles (ALM/NC) and adjusted porosity/lime
index [h/(Lv)0.11] after distinct wetting-drying cycles is
found [see Eq. 8]. So, it can be seen, for the first time ever,
that the porosity/lime index also controls the durability of
compacted coal fly ash-carbide lime blends.
8. 30
ALM é h ù
(%) = 3.79 ´ 10 -15 ê 0.11 ú (8)
NC ë Lv û

Therefore, the porosity/lime index controls strength

and endurance performance of the compacted coal fly ash-
carbide lime blends.

5. Concluding Remarks
• From the studies developed in this document the follow-
ing conclusions can be sketched:
• The accumulated loss of mass (ALM) (durability quanti-
fication) of individual wetting/drying cycles of com-
Figure 4 - Coal fly ash - carbide lime blends accumulated loss of pacted coal fly ash-carbide lime mixes were originally
mass vs. adjusted porosity/lime index after 3, 6, 9 and 12 wet- perceived in the present research to be directly associ-
ting-drying cycles (during durability tests). ated with the adjusted porosity/lime index;
• An unique relationship linking accumulated loss of mass
8. 30
-14
é h ù divided by number of cycles (ALM/NC) and adjusted po-
ALM (%) = 3.88 ´ 10 ê 0.11 ú (7)
rosity/lime index [h/(Lv)0.11] after distinct wetting-drying
ë Lv û
cycles is presented for the first time;
In order to further normalize the presented durability • The qt /qu ratio is distinctive (= 0.13) for the compacted
results, compacted coal fly ash - carbide lime blends accu- coal fly ash-carbide lime assessed in the current study,
mulated loss of mass values for 3, 6, 9 and 12 cycles are di- being independent of the porosity/lime index;
vided by the number of cycles and plotted vs. adjusted • The porosity/lime index controls tensile and compres-
porosity/lime index (see Fig. 5). A unique relationship sive strength, as well as endurance performance of the
compacted coal fly ash-carbide lime blends. So, accord-
ing to the strength and durability requirements, the earth-
work designer can establish the adjusted porosity/lime
index that fulfills the design needs. Lastly, distinct dry
unit weights and carbide lime amounts can fulfill the pro-
ject requirements.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their gratitude to Edital
FAPERGS/CNPq 12/2014 - PRONEX (Project # 16/2551-
0000469-2) for the financial support to the research group.

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 On the Durability and Strength of Compacted Coal Fly Ash-Carbide Lime Blends

NC: number of wetting/drying cycles h/Lv: porosity/lime index

qu: unconfined compressive strength gd: dry unit weight
2
R : coefficient of determination gs: unit weight of solids
h: porosity w: moisture content

Soils and Rocks, São Paulo, 40(2): 155-161, May-August, 2017. 161