CHE 314 - Heat Transfer

Midterm Exam (Fall 2018), October 22,

Lecture time and place

Formula Sheet (10 Pages)

Energy Balance
• Fourier’s law for the one-dimensional plane wall:
00 dT
qx = −k
dx
• Newton’s law of cooling:
00
q = h (Ts − T∞ )
00 00
q [W/m2 ] is the heat flux, q = As · q
• The net heat flux of radiation heat transfer from the surface:
00
qrad = ε σ Ts4 − Tsur
4

σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 · 10−8 (W/m2 · K4 ).

ε is emissivity, a radiative property of the surface.
• Energy Conservation Principle for a Control Volume:
Ėst = Ėin − Ėout + Ėg
where
dT 00 00
Ėst = ρ · V ol · c · ; Ėin = A · qin ; Ėout = A · qout ; Ėg = q 000 · Vol
dt
where A is the surface area perpendicular to the direction of the heat flux
q 00 , q 000 is the specific heat generation rate [W/m3 ].
• Surface Energy Balance for a Control Surface:
Ėin − Ėout = 0

• Example of the heat fluxes balance for the surface, where the heat is
transferred to the surface by the conduction and removed from the surface
by the convection and radiation:
00 00 00
qcond − qconv − qrad = 0

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Steady State Conductive Heat Transfer
• General Fourier’s law for 3D Cartesian coordinate system
00 00 00 00
~q = −k∇T = i qx + j qy + k qz

where i = ~i, j = ~j, k = ~k

00 ∂T 00 ∂T 00 ∂T
qx = −k ; qy = −k ; qz = −k ;
∂x ∂y ∂z

• The heat diffusion equation written in the general form in Cartezian

coordinates:
     
∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂ ∂T ∂T
k + k + k + q̇ = ρ cp
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t

• One-Dimensional (1D) conduction in a planar medium with constant prop-

erties and no heat generation:

1 ∂T ∂ 2T
=
α ∂t ∂x2
k
where α = ρ cp is the thermal diffusivity [m2 /s].

1D Steady State Conduction-Plane Walls

T ,1
8

Ts,1
qx
q conv q conv
q cond
T s,2
T ,2
8

Cold Fluid
Hot Fluid x=L
h1 x h2

Figure 1: Heat Transfer through a plane wall.

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 • Heat Rate
T∞,1 − T∞,2
qx =
Rtot
where
 
1 L 1
Rtot = + + = Rt,conv,1 + Rt,cond + Rt,conv,2
A h1 Ak A h2

A is the surface.

• Thermal Resistances

– The thermal resistance for conduction in a plane wall:

L
Rt,cond =
Ak
– The thermal resistance for convection:
1
Rt,conv =
Ah
– The thermal resistance for radiation:
1 1
Rt,rad = = 2 2 ) (T + T
A hr A σ ε (Ts + Tsur s sur )

– The thermal resistance for convection and radiation (parallel):

 −1  
1 1 1 1
Rt,par = + =
Rt,conv Rt,rad A h + hr

• Circuit representations of heat the conduction problem shown in Fig. (1)

Figure 2: The equivalent thermal circuit for the plane wall with convection
surface conditions shown in Fig. 1.

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 • Thermal Resistance for Unit Surface Area is called as the area-specific
contact resistance:
00 ∆T
Rtot = 00 = A Rtot (K m2 /W )
qx

• Overall heat transfer coefficient, U , which is defined by an expression anal-

ogous to Newton’s law of cooling:
1
qx = U · A · ∆T ; =⇒ U =
Rtot · A

• Complex Composite Wall, see Fig. 3. The total heat transfer through this
composite system can be expressed as follows:
Tl − T∞
qx =
Rtotal
 −1
cond cond 1 1
Rtotal = Rparal + R3 + Rconv ; Rparal = +
R1 R2
and
L1 L2 L3 1
R1 = ; R2 = ; R3 = ; Rconv =
K1 A1 K2 A 2 K3 A3 h A3

1D Steady State Conduction-Radial Sysytems

• The heat rate and heat flux at which energy is conducted across any cylin-
drical surface in the solid may be expressed using Fourier’s law
dT 2π L k(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr = −k (2π r L) =
| {z } dr ln(r2 /r1 )
A

00 qr k(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr = =
A r ln(r2 /r1 )
• Conduction Resistance:
ln(r2 /r1 )
Rr,cond =
2π L k

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 X
insulation
A1
K1 A3
Tl K3
K2 T

8
A2 h
convection
insulation

L 1= L 2 L3
q
1

R3 R convec
Tl q R1 T

8
R2 q
q2

Figure 3: Complex Composite Wall

• Considering the composite system (see Fig. (4)) the heat transfer rate may
be expressed as
T∞,1 − T∞,4
qr =
1 ln(r2 /r1 ) ln(r3 /r2 ) ln(r4 /r3 ) 1
+ + + +
|2π r{z
1 L h1} |2π {z
L kA} |2π {z L kB} |2π {z
L kC} |2π r{z
4 L h4}
Rt,conv1 Rt,condA Rt,condB Rt,condC Rt,conv4

Here the interfacial contact resistances was neglected.

• The Resistance for convection and radiation (parallel):
 −1
1 1
Rt,par = +
Rt,conv Rt,rad

• The Resistance for radiation:

1 1
Rt,rad = =
As hr As σ ε (Ts2 + Tsur
2 ) (T + T
s sur )

• Critical insulation radius:

k
rcr =
h

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 T ,1
8
T s,1 A B C
symmetry line

Ts,2
Ts,3

r1 Ts,4
T ,4

8
r2
r3
r4
h4
h1 Cold
Hot fluid
fluid
Figure 4: Cylindrical composite system

• Heat Transfer Rate for a Spherical Wall:

dT 4π k(Ts,1 − Ts,2 )
qr = −k(4πr2 ) = 1 1
r1 − r2
dr

• Conduction Resistance for a Spherical Wall:

 
1 1 1
Rt,cond = −
4π k r1 r2

• Convection Resistance for a Spherical Wall:

1
Rt,conv =
h As

• The Resistance for convection and radiation (parallel) for a Spherical Wall::
 −1
1 1
Rt,par = +
Rt,conv Rt,rad

• The Resistance for radiation for a Spherical Wall::

1 1
Rt,rad = =
As hr As σ ε (Ts2 + Tsur
2 ) (T + T
s sur )

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 • The composite system for a Spherical Wall:
Ts − T∞
qr = , Rt,total = Rt,cond1 + Rt,cond2 + ... + Rt,conv
Rt,total

Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation

• The heat diffusion equation for a solid cylinder
 
1 d dT q̇
r + =0
r dr dr k

• If q̇ = const., the general solution is

q̇ 2
T (r) = − r + C1 ln(r) + C2
4k
• The heat diffusion equation for a solid sphere
 
1 d dT q̇
2
r2 + =0
r dr dr k

• If q̇ = const., the general solution is

q̇ 2 C1
T (r) = − r − + C2
6k r
• Boundary conditions are
dT  dT 
= 0 ; T (r = r1 ) = Ts or −k  = h(T − T∞ )
dr dr r=r1

| {z } r=0
due to the symmetry

Transient Heat Transfer

• The Lumped Capacitance Method - LCM
 
T − T∞ t
= exp −
Ti − T∞ τt
where τt is the thermal time constant
ρ · V ol · c
τt =
h As

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 • The Biot number
h Lc
Bi =
k
V ol
where Lc is the characteristic length, Lc = As .

• LCM model is valid if Bi < 0.1.

• The total energy transfer Q occurring up to some time t:

  
t
Q = Qmax 1 − exp −
τt

Qmax = Ct · Θi = ρ · V ol · c · Θi
Θi = Ti − T∞

Convective Heat Transfer: External Flow

Boundary Layer & Dimensional Analysis
• The total heat transfer rate:

q = h · As · (Ts − T∞ )

• An average convection heat transfer coefficient

Z
1
h= h dAs
As
As

The special case of flow over a flat plate

ZL
1
h= h dx
L
0

• Local convection heat transfer coefficient

−kf ∂T 
h=
(Ts − T∞ ) ∂y y=0


hL
• Biot number: Bi = ks

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 hL
• Nusselt number: N u = kf
cp µ
• Prandtl number: P r = k
ρ V∞ L
• Reynolds number: Re = µ
αt
• Fourier number: F o = L2

Flat Plate
• Mean boundary layer temperature Tf , termed the film temperature:
Ts + T∞
Tf ≡
2
• The laminar boundary layer thickness δ:
5x u∞ · x
δ=√ ; Rex =
Rex ν

• For P r ≥ 0.6 the ratio of the velocity to thermal boundary layer thickness
is
δ
≈ P r1/3
δt
The velocity tubrbulent boundary layer thickness may be expressed as
δ = 0.37 · x · Re−1/5
x

Isothermal plate
• For laminar flow (Rex < 5·105 ) over an isothermal plate the local Nusselt
number has the form:
hx x
N ux ≡ = 0.332 · Re1/2 · P r1/3 f or P r ≥ 0.6 (gase & water)
k
N ux = 0.564 · Re1/2 · P r1/2 f or P r ≤ 0.5(liquid metals), P ex ≥ 100
P ex ≡ Rex · P r is the Peclet number.
• For laminar flow over an isothermal plate the average Nusselt number
has the form:

hx · x
N ux ≡ = 0.664 · Re1/2
x · Pr
1/3
f or P r ≥ 0.6
k

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 • The local Nusselt number for turbulent flow is

N ux = 0.0296 · Re4/5
x · Pr
1/2
f or 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60

Uniform surface heat flux

• For a uniform surface heat flux imposed at the plate and for laminar
flow the local Nusselt number can be estimated as follows:

N ux = 0.453 · Re1/2
x · Pr
1/3
f or P r ≥ 0.6

• For turbulent flow:

N ux = 0.0308 · Re4/5
x · Pr
1/3
f or 0.6 ≤ P r ≤ 60

• The average Nusselt number for laminar flow:

1/2
N uL = 0.68 · ReL P r1/3

• An average surface temperature from

00
q ·L hL L
= s


Ts − T∞ ; N uL =
k · N uL k

Cylinder & Sphere

ρ V∞ D V∞ D
Re = =
µ ν
where D is the diameter.

• Cylinder: Overall average Nusselt number according to Whitaker (Re >

0):
 
1/2 2/3
N u ≈ 0.4Re + 0.06Re P r0.4

• Sphere: Average Nusselt number according to the Ranz and Marshall

correlation:
N u = 2 + 0.6 · Re1/2 · P r1/3

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