DK1913 CH04
DK1913 CH04
DK1913 CH04
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In a power system short circuits occur once in a while due to lightning, flash over
due to polluted insulation, falling of tree branches on the overhead system,
animal intrusion and erroneous operations. When the fault current magnitudes are
significant, it can cause damage to equipment and explosion if the fault is not
cleared for prolonged time. Also, electrical fires and shock hazards to people are
possible in a faulted power system. Therefore, it is important to design the power
system such that the fault is isolated quickly to minimize the equipment damage
and improve personnel safety.
Short circuit studies are performed to determine the magnitude of the current
flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault. The
magnitude of the current through the power system after a fault varies with time
until it reaches a steady state condition. During the fault, the power system is
called on to detect, interrupt and isolate these faults, The duty impressed on the
equipment is dependent on the magnitude of the current, which is a function of
the time of fault initiation. Such calculations are performed for various types of
fault such as three-phase, single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault
and at different location of the system. The calculated short circuit results are
used to select fuses, circuit breakers and protective relays. The symmetrical
component model is used in the analysis of the unsymmetrical faults with mutual
coupling.
The short circuit current contributions are from the utility sources, generators,
synchronous condensers and induction motors. Typical current waveforms during a
short circuit are shown in Figure 4.1 for various types of contributing sources.
1 1 .--1-
Iac = e Td" + (4.1)
X
.X d X d xd d
r( 1 1 JL
Idc = (V2) — e'Td (4.2)
c + Idc (4.3)
The reactance values are expressed in per unit in the above equations and the
calculated currents will be in per unit. An example is presented at the end of this
Chapter to show the generator short circuit currents.
Induction motor load - The fault current contribution from an induction motor is
due to the generator action produced by the load after the fault. The field flux of the
induction motor is produced due to the stator voltage and hence the current
contribution decays very rapidly upon fault clearing as the terminal voltage is
removed.
GENERATOR
CONTRIBUTION
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION
INDUCTION
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION
TOTAL
SHORT-CIRCUIT
CURRENT
WAVEFORM
Source data - The utility source is represented by a per unit impedance which is
equivalent to the maximum short circuit MVA level available from the utility at the
point of common coupling. The minimum source impedance is used in the short
circuit current calculations for relay settings. The source impedance data is usually
provided by the system/utility.
Example 4.1 - The three-phase and one line to ground fault short circuit duties of a
230 kV, 3-phase power system is 671 MVA and 738 MVA respectively. Find the
symmetrical component impedance values on a 100 MVA base.
kV
_~ = 78.8 Ohm
MVA,3ph 671
X = - =57.5 Ohm
0 MVA, slg MVA,3ph
Transmission lines - The transmission lines are represented by positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The approach to calculate the transmission line
constants and typical values are presented in Chapter 2. In transmission lines it is
assumed that the positive and negative sequence impedance values are equal.
Cable data - The cable impedance values are presented by the positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The calculation procedures are discussed in Chapter 2.
3-Phase % Impedance
kVA X/R Ratio Range
112.5 3.0 1.6-6.2
150.0 3.5 1.5-6.4
225.0 4.0 2.0-6.6
300.0 4.5 2.0-6.0
500.0 5.0 2.1 -6.1
750.0 6.0 3.2-6.6
1000.0 7.0 3.2-6.6
1500.0 7.0 3.5-6.8
2000.0 8.0 3.5-6.8
2500.0 9.0 3.5-6.8
The impedance values for the transformers above 2.4 kV are listed in Table 4.2.
For the calculation of the line to ground fault short circuit currents, the zero
sequence connection diagram for certain transformers are required.
Note: Use average value as typical data and on machine MVA base.
The motor resistance can be calculated using the X/R ratio curve given in ANSI
Standard 242. Sometimes, the motors in each substation are lumped by type and
size and a single per unit impedance is determined based on the lumped kVA.
If = — (4.4)
L
\
Phase to ground fault - Where one phase conductor is shorted to ground. The fault
current magnitude is given by:
If =
(Z + zE z )
\ 2 + 0}
(L +L
(4 5)
'
Where Zi, Zi and Zo are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances
respectively.
Double line to ground fault - Where two phase conductors are shorted to ground.
The positive sequence current magnitude is given by:
(4 6)
zZ 0/rz
(
2
+z '
The three-phase fault currents are the highest and least for phase to ground fault.
However, the phase to ground fault current can be the highest under certain
circumstances such as:
The momentary or first cycle, the interrupting and the symmetrical short circuit
currents are calculated to meet the circuit breaker selection and relay applications.
The impedance of the equivalent network is established and is converted into per
unit at each fault point. The first cycle fault current is calculated using the pre fault
voltage and the impedance at the faulted node. The approximate calculated first
cycle fault current for comparison with the circuit breaker capability is obtained by
using a 1.6 multiplier specified in ANSI C37.010-1989. The total three phase
symmetrical fault current (Isc tot) is:
Epu L6
Isc tot Ibase (4.7)
Xpu
This current magnitude is compared with the latching current rating of a circuit
breaker and the instantaneous rating of the relay settings.
The multiplying factors are plotted in ANSI C37.5-1979 for two specific
conditions.
• Fault fed predominantly from generators for three-phase faults (8, 5, 3 and 2
cycles).
• Fault fed predominantly from networks with two or more transformations for
three phase and line to ground faults (8, 5, 3 and 2 cycles).
Short circuit calculations for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point
developed. The rotating machine impedance values used without multiplying
factors are shown in Table 4.4. The resistance values are also calculated using the
Short circuit current calculation for relay applications - For the instantaneous
relay setting, the fault current magnitude from the momentary duty is used. For
other applications with a time delay, the steady state symmetrical fault currents are
calculated and used. The impedance for the transformer, overhead line and the
cables are obtained for the steady state conditions. The motor contributions are
neglected. For synchronous machines the steady state reactance can be used. In this
case it can be seen that the dc component has almost decayed to zero and it is not
considered. The required symmetrical fault current is obtained by using the E/Z
method. In many power system and industrial set ups, the source impedance is
different for peak and off-peak conditions. Therefore, the maximum and minimum
fault currents are to be calculated and the relay settings should be verified for both
conditions.
Impedance diagram - The impedance diagram is derived from the one line
diagram by modeling the circuit elements by the respective impedance. The
impedance magnitude used for the fault calculation depends on many factors which
are discussed in the circuit breaker current rating calculations. This is important for
the reactance of the rotating machines (see Table 4.4). Once the fault location and
type of short circuit is identified, then the corresponding impedance diagram is
developed. This concept is demonstrated with the help of an example.
Per unit quantities - For a balanced three-phase system, the relation of three-phase
kVA, line to line voltage, base current and base impedance are defined as:
Base kVA
Base current = —T= (411)
V3(BasekV)
(BasekVA) 2
Base impedance = (4 12)
BaseMVA
For changing the P.U. impedance from the given base kV to new base kV:
'kV.
given
Xnew (Xgiven) (4.13)
~kV
new
When both the kVA and kV are new, then the new P.U. impedance can be
calculated using the following equation:
There are several programs available to perform the short circuit studies. These
programs can be used to perform the following data-related operations.
The input data to these programs can be entered interactively or presented in ASCII
data files or through graphic interface. The output of the short circuit study includes
the following.
The user selects the necessary short circuit results at appropriate buses and
Example 4.3 - An industrial power plant is shown in Figure 4.3. The 230 kV
source has a three-phase circuit current rating of 28,000 A. The step down
transformer (Tl) is 100 MVA, 230/24 kV, 0.10 P.U. reactance, delta/wye-
grounded with an X/R ratio of 20. There is a 500 MVA standby generator
connected to the 24 kV bus. The reactance of the generator is 0.2 P.U with X/R
ratio of 20. Transformer T2 is 75 MVA, 24/4.16 kV, delta/wye, 0.11 P.U.
reactance with X/R ratio of 30. There are two 2,000 hp, 0.9 power factor, Xd" =
0.2 P.U, Xd1 = 0.26 P.U. with X/R ratio of 20. The low voltage system contains a
transformer T3, 4.16 kV/600 V, 0.08 P.U reactance and X/R - 30. There is a low
voltage motor at the 600 V bus with a rating of 400 hp, Xd" = 0.3 and X/R = 30.
Perform a short circuit study using computer-aided software and determine the
short circuit currents at Fl and F2. Also, show the step-by-step calculations.
Compare the results.
Solution - The reactance of all the passive elements are listed below. A 100 MVA
base is used in the calculations.
Momentary fault current calculations - For the momentary or first cycle short
circuit calculation, induction motors less than 50 hp are omitted. For the 400 hp
motor, X = 1.2 Xd" = (1.2) (75 P.U.) = 90 P.U. The reactance of the source,
generator and the induction motors are identified in the impedance diagram for the
first cycle or momentary short circuit calculations, in Figure 4.4.
Gl
24 kV
4.16 kV
M2 Ml
M3
0.00896 P.U
The symmetrical first cycle or momentary short circuit current at the faulted point
Fl is calculated as:
Ibase at the 4.16 kV bus = 100 MVA/( >/3 )(4.16 kV) - 13.879 kA
1
Isym = (13.879kA) =78.3 kA
0.1772
The peak value of the momentary short circuit current is (1.6 x 78.3 kA) 125.3 kA.
0.00896 P.U
1795 P.U
The resistance circuit for the interrupting duty calculation is presented in Figure 4.6.
Using the reduced R, the X/R ratio is calculated at the faulted point Fl.
The corresponding NCAD ratio is determined from C37.010. The NCAD ratio for
X/R ratio of 33.24 is 0.96.
Short circuit calculation for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point F2
is shown in Figure 4.7. The impedance at F2 = (1.4698 + j 9.4817) P.U. =
9.5949 P.U. The base current at 600 V is 96.2278 kA. The short circuit current at
F2is 10.41 kA.
2.5 P.U
Figure 4.7 Impedance Diagram for the Low Voltage Short Circuit Current Study
Source data as per List 4.1. - From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Base MVA, Xd", X/R,
X on 100 MVA Base.
List 4.1 Source Data
Xd" Zon 100 MVA Base
From Bus To Bus kV Base MVA P.U X/R P.U
Source Bus 1 230 11154 28 20 (0.00045 +J0.00895)
Generator 1 Bus 5 24 500 0.25 20 (0.0025 +j 0.05)
Motor M 1 Bus 9 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M2 Bus 10 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M3 Bus 11 0.6 0.4 0.3 30 (2.5+J75)
Feeder data as per List 4.2. The assumed impedance values are low and are not
used in the step-by-step calculations. From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Length in Feet, Zl
or Z2 in P.U, ZO in P.U.
Line Length
From Bus To Bus kV Feet Z l o r Z 2 , P.U. ZO, P.U.
Bus 1 Bus 2 230 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 3 Bus 4 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 4 Bus 5 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.00022) (0.0 + j 0.00065)
Bus 4 Bus 6 24 250 (0.0 + j 0.00043) (0.0 + j 0.001 30)
Bus? Bus 8 4.16 250 (0.0 + j 0.01445) (0.0 + j 0.04334)
Bus 8 Bus 9 4.16 130 (0.0 + j 0.00751) (0.0 + j 0.02254)
Bus 9 Bus 10 4.16 150 (0.0 + j 0.00867) (0.0 + j 0.026)
Transformer data as per List 4.3 - Primary Bus, Connection, Voltage, Secondary
Bus, Connection, Voltage, MVA Base, Z1/Z2 on 100 MVA Base, ZO on 100 MVA
Base.
The program calculates the short circuit components at each bus location for the
various fault duties along with the summary for each type of calculations. The
summary of the typical output listing is presented below.
Fault current for the low voltage circuit breaker applications as per List 4.4.
The list includes the Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for Three-
Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.
List 4.4 Fault Current for the Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Applications
Fault current for momentary or first cycle as per List 4.5. The list includes the
Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for 3-Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault
Current for SLG, X/R Ratio. The fault current magnitude is 1.6 times the short
circuit at the fault location.
Fault current for interrupting as per List 4.6. The output contains the Bus
Number, Bus Name, Voltage, decrement ratio, Fault Current for three-Phase, X/R
Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.
The results from the step-by-step calculations and the computer-aided analysis are
compared at the faulted points Fl (node 8) and F2 (node 11).
In the step-by-step calculations, the cable lengths are ignored. Therefore, the
calculated short circuit currents are higher than the values from the computer-aided
analysis.
Using series reactors, high impedance transformers and high resistance grounding
can control the short circuit current in the power system. The series reactor can be
used in the generator circuits, bus bars, feeders and in the shunt capacitance circuits.
There are advantages and limitations to these approaches. With the application of
shunt capacitor banks for power factor correction, there is always the inrush current
issue during energization. Also, the outrush current from the capacitor banks is a
concern when a line circuit breaker closes in to a nearby fault. In order to limit both
the inrush and outrush currents series reactors are used. Three schemes of series
reactors for shunt capacitor application are discussed.
Scheme 1: Series reactor with each capacitor bank - Such a scheme is shown in
Figure 4.8. In order to satisfy the criteria (Iph . f) to less than 2.0E+7, there will be
two reactors with two capacitor banks.
Scheme 2: Series capacitors for inrush and outrush requirements - The required
scheme is shown in Figure 4.8. The reactor size for each capacitor bank will be
small to limit the inrush current. A third reactor will be used to limit the outrush
current.
Scheme 3: Reactor to limit outrush current and breaker to limit the inrush current -
The inrush current can be controlled by using circuit breaker with controlled
switching or by using closing resistor/inductor. The outrush current can be
controlled by using a series reactor. Such a scheme is shown in Figure 4.8.
Example 4.4 - In order to demonstrate the circuit breaker selection and the
application of series reactor for the current limiting a shunt capacitor bank, a case
is presented. The circuit breaker is chosen to meet this application and the short
circuit current magnitudes are calculated if the required current specifications are
met. Then a reactor is chosen in series with the circuit breaker and the procedure
is repeated. The system is a 230 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase with a short circuit rating
of 40 kA. The circuit breaker has to be selected for capacitor switching
application. The capacitor is available in two banks each of which is 60 MVAR.
L3
Scheme 2
L2 L1, L2 , L3- Series Reactors
L1
C1, C2 - Capacitance
-C1
L3
Scheme 3
L2, L3 - Series Reactors
L2
C1, C2 - Capacitance
C2
Solution - The circuit breaker is intended to switch 120 MVAR shunt capacitor
banks and should meet the performance criteria described in ANSI C37.06 [7].
The desired performance specifications of the circuit breaker to meet the
capacitor switching application (definite purpose) of the 230 kV systems are:
'pk
Capacitor
Bank
Figure 4.9 Fault Outside the Circuit Breaker Without Series Reactor
The expected outrush current magnitude and frequency, for a single 60 MVAR,
230 kV capacitor bank is given by:
/-< _ MVAR 60
= 3 MFD
2 >r(60) x k V 2 2 ;r(60) x 2302
V 230 k V x • / r
Pk
TI pk --_--^=__--54.1kA
_ V/V3, 5111.A
.T _
= 15.3kHz
2 ^L f x C 2 > /36.1//Hx3//F
An inductance of 10^ H for the bank and 0.261 JU H/ft with a 100 feet cable
length is used (IEEE C37.012-1998).
Vpk
'min 7
2n x2 xlO
With current limiting reactor - The equivalent circuit with a series reactor in
the shunt capacitor circuit is shown in Figure 4.10. For the proposed 230 kV, 60
MVAR bank the minimum reactor needed is:
230 kVx
T
min ~
_
= 1.5 mH
2 ;r(2x!0 7 )
For the high outrush current to occur, a breaker must close into a fault very close
to the 230 kV substation. A series inductor of 3 mH is selected for the 230 kV
circuit and the corresponding Ipk and the frequency of oscillation are given by:
= 6kA
f = = 1.68 kHz
2 Af x C 2 ^3000 y u H x 3
This peak current and the frequency of oscillation are below the ANSI C37.06
values. Therefore, the circuit breaker is acceptable for the energization of the
230 kV, 60 MVAR shunt capacitor bank.
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR
From this example, it is clear that series reactors can be useful in shunt capacitor
circuits to limit the fault current magnitudes and in the protection of circuit
breakers.
Example 4.5 - Consider a 800 MVA, 13.8 kV generator with the following
parameters:
Solution -
(IT)
Xd" = (0.210)1 -^- | = 0.02625 P.U.
v j
X'd = (0.330) = 0.04125 P.U.
800
f 100^1
Xd = ( 1 . 8 2 0 ) =0.2275 P.U.
\800j
The ac components of the generator short circuit currents are:
Id = = 4.3956 P.U.
V y
" ^
— (TdO") = 0.02215 s = 1.3287 cycles
100MVA
Ibase = 4.18kA
V3(13.8kV)
lac = (28.3667 P.U.) (4.18 kA) = 118.6814 kA
Idc = (A/2) (38.10) e ~Td Where Td in cycles is (0.33 x 60) 19.8 cycles.
Therefore, in the generator circuit there are both ac and dc current components
present as shown.
PROBLEMS
1. The three-phase short circuit rating of a 230 kV, 60 Hz system is 670 MVA.
The single line to ground fault rating is 600 MVA. Calculate the source
impedance values on a 100 MVA base. State the assumptions made, if any.
2. The three phase short circuit rating of a 345 kV source is 20,000 MVA and
the single line to ground short circuit MVA is 15,200 MVA. Calculate the
sequence impedance of the source in P.U. on a 100 MAV base.
4. Calculate the total fault currents due to a 3-phase fault at the open terminals of
a generator at 1.6 cycles. The name plate specifications of the generator are
500 MVA, 13.8 kV with the following parameters:
5. What are the different types of faults in a power system? What is the role of a
neutral conductor in the power system?
6. Why is it necessary to select a circuit breaker based on the short circuit current
ratings?
Overhead line impedance between Bus 1 and Bus 2 on 100 MVA base:
Z = (0.0120 +j 0.0820) P.U.
Draw the one-line diagram of the system and state the assumptions. Calculate
the short circuit currents at each node and select the circuit breaker ratings at
appropriate locations. Also calculate the voltage drop at various locations. If
the voltage profile is not acceptable, suggest suitable remedial actions.
Compare the calculated results with a computer program output.
Reactor
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR C2 = 60 MVAR
REFERENCES