AVR450: Battery Charger for SLA, NiCd,

NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries

8-bit
Features
• Complete Battery Charger Design
Microcontroller
• Modular “C” Source Code and Extremely Compact Assembly Code
• Low Cost
•
•
Supports Most Common Battery Types
Fast Charging Algorithm
Application
• High Accuracy Measurement with 10-bit A/D Converter
• Optional Serial Interface Note
• Easy Change of Charge Parameters
• EEPROM for Storage of Battery Characteristics

Description
The battery charger reference design is a battery charger that fully implements the lat-
est technology in battery charger designs. The charger can fast-charge all popular
battery types without any hardware modifications. It allows a full product range of
chargers to be built around a single hardware design; a new charger model is
designed simply by reprogramming the desired charge algorithm into the microcon-
troller using In-System Programmable Flash memory. This allows minimum time to
market for new products and eliminates the need to stock more than one version of
the hardware. The charger design contains complete libraries for SLA, NiCd, NiMH,
and Li-Ion batteries.

Figure 1. Battery Charger Reference Design Board

Rev. 1659B–AVR–11/02

1
 The battery charger reference design includes two battery chargers built with the high-
end AT90S4433 microcontroller and the highly integrated low-cost 8-pin ATtiny15
microcontroller. However, it can be implemented using any AVR microcontroller with
A/D converter, PWM output and enough program memory to store the desired charging
algorithm.

Introduction As more and more electronic equipment becomes portable, the rush for better batteries
with higher capacity, smaller size and lower weight will increase. The continuing
improvements in battery technology calls for more sophisticated charging algorithms to
ensure fast and secure charging. Higher accuracy monitoring of the charge process is
required to minimize charge time and utilize maximum capacity of the battery while
avoiding battery damage. The AVR microcontrollers are one step ahead of the competi-
tion, proving perfect for the next generation of chargers.
The Atmel AVR microcontroller is the most efficient 8-bit RISC microcontroller in the
market today that offers Flash, EEPROM, and 10 bits A/D converter in one chip. Flash
program memory eliminates the need to stock microcontrollers with multiple software
versions. Flash can be efficiently programmed in production just before shipping the fin-
ished product. Programming after mounting is made possible through fast In-System
Programming (ISP), allowing up-to-date software and last minute modifications.
The EEPROM data memory can be used for storing calibration data and battery charac-
teristics, it also allows charging history to be permanently recorded, allowing the charger
to optimize for improved battery capacity. The integrated 10-bit A/D converter gives
superior resolution for the battery measurements compared to other microcontroller-
based solutions. Improved resolution allows charging to continue closer to the maximum
capacity of the battery. Improved resolution also eliminates the need for external op-
amps to “window” the voltage. The result is reduced board space and lower system
cost.
AVR is the only 8-bit microcontroller designed for high-level languages like “C”. The ref-
erence design for AT90S4433 is written entirely in “C”, demonstrating the superior
simplicity of software design in high-level languages. C-code makes this reference
design easy to adopt and modify for today’s and tomorrows batteries. The reference
design for ATtiny15 is written in assembly to achieve maximum code density.

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Theory of Operation The charging of a battery is made possible by a reversible chemical reaction that
restores energy in a chemical system. Depending on the chemicals used, the battery will
have certain characteristics. When designing a charger, a detailed knowledge of these
characteristics is required to avoid damage inflicted by overcharging.

The AVR 8-bit RISC MCU The reference designs includes two separate battery chargers. One using AT90S4433
AVR microcontroller and one using the ATtiny15 AVR microcontroller. The AT90S4433
design demonstrates how efficient a battery charger can be implemented with C-code.
The ATtiny15 design shows the highest integrated and lowest cost battery charger avail-
able in today’s market. The AT90S4433 can be used for voltage and temperature
monitoring with UART interface to PC for data logging. Table 1 shows the differences in
the design.

Table 1. Design Differences

AT90S4433 Design ATtiny15 Design
Programming Language C Assembly
Code Size (approximately) 1.5K Bytes <350 Bytes
Current Measurement External Op-Amp Gain Stage Built-in Differential Gain Stage
PWM Frequency 14 kHz, 8-bit Resolution 100 kHz, 8-bit Resolution
Clock Source External Crystal, 7.3 MHz Internal Calibrated RC
Oscillator, 1.6 MHz
Serial Comm. Interface Yes No
In-System Programming Yes Yes

Battery Technologies Modern consumer electronics use mainly four different types of rechargeable batteries:
• Sealed Lead Acid (SLA)
• Nickel Cadmium (NiCd)
• Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH)
• Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion)
It is important to have some background information on these batteries to be able to
select the right battery and charging algorithm for the application.

Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Sealed Lead Acid batteries are used in many applications where cost is more important
than space and weight, typically preferred as backup batteries for UPS and alarm-sys-
tems. The SLA batteries are charged using constant voltage, with a current limiter to
avoid overheating in the initial stage of the charging process. SLA batteries can be
charged infinitely, as long at the cell voltage never exceeds the manufacturer specifica-
tions (typically 2.2V).

Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Nickel Cadmium batteries are widely used today. They are relatively cheap and conve-
nient to use. A typical NiCd cell can be fully charged up to 1,000 times. They have a high
self-discharge rate. NiCd batteries are damaged from being reversed, and the first cell
to discharge completely in a battery pack will be reversed. To avoid damaging discharge
of a battery pack, the voltage should be constantly monitored and the application should
be shutdown when the cell voltage drops below 1.0V. NiCd batteries are charged with
constant current.

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Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) Nickel Metal Hydride batteries are the most widely used battery type in new lightweight
portable applications (i.e., cell phones, camcorders, etc.). They have a higher energy
density than NiCd. NiMH batteries are damaged from overcharging. It is therefore
important to do accurate measurements to terminate the charging at exactly the right
time (i.e., fully charge the battery without overcharging). Like NiCd, NiMH batteries are
damaged from being reversed.
NiMH has a self-discharge rate of approximately 20%/ month. Like NiCd batteries, NiMH
batteries are charged with constant current.

Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) Lithium-Ion batteries have the highest energy/weight and energy/space ratio compared
to the other batteries in this application note. Li-Ion batteries are charged using
constant voltage, with current limiter to avoid overheating in the initial stage of the
charging process. The charging is terminated when the charging current drops below
the lower current limit set by the manufacturer. The battery takes damage from over-
charging and may explode when overcharged.

Safe Charging of Modern fast chargers (i.e., battery fully charged in less than three hours, normally one
Batteries hour) requires accurate measurements of the cell voltage, charging current and battery
temperature in order to fully charge the battery completely without overcharging or oth-
erwise damage it.

Charge Methods SLA and Li-Ion batteries are charged with constant voltage (current limited). NiCd and
NiMH batteries are charged with constant current and have a set of different termination
methods.

Maximum Charge Current The maximum charge current is dependent on the battery capacity (C). The maximum
charge current is normally given in amounts of the battery capacity. For example, a bat-
tery with a cell capacity of 750 mAh charged with a charging current of 750 mA is
referred to as being charged at 1C (1 times the battery capacity). If the charging current
for trickle-charge is set to be C/40 the charging current is the cell capacity divided by 40.

Overheating By transferring electric energy into a battery, the battery is charged. This energy is
stored in a chemical process. But not all the electrical energy applied to the battery is
transformed into the battery as chemical energy. Some of the electrical energy ends up
as thermal energy, heating up the battery. When the battery is fully charged, all the elec-
trical energy applied to the battery ends up as thermal energy. On a fast charger, this
will rapidly heat up the battery, inflicting damage to the battery if the charging is not ter-
minated. Monitoring the temperature to terminate the charging is an important factor in
designing a good battery charger.

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Termination Methods The application and environment where the battery is used sets limitations on the choice
of termination method. Sometimes it might be impractical to measure the temperature of
the battery and easier to measure the voltage, or the other way around. This reference
design implements the use of voltage drop (-dV/dt) as primary termination method, with
temperature and absolute voltage as backup. But the hardware supports all of the below
mentioned methods.

t – Time This is one of the simplest ways to measure when to terminate the charging. Normally
used as backup termination when fast-charging. Also used as primary termination
method in normal charging (14 - 16h). Applies to all batteries.

V – Voltage Charging is terminated when the voltage rises above a preset upper limit. Used in com-
bination with constant current charging. Maximum current is determined by the battery,
usually 1C as described above. Current limiting is crucial to avoid thermal damage to
the battery if charge current is too high. SLA batteries are normally charged infinitely by
setting the maximum voltage above the actual charge voltage. Used for Li-Ion as pri-
mary charging algorithm/termination method. Li-Ion chargers usually continue with a
second phase after the maximum voltage has been reached to safely charge the battery
to 100%. Also used on NiCd and NiMH as backup termination.

-dV/dt – Voltage Drop This termination method utilizes the negative derivative of voltage over time, monitoring
the voltage drop occurring in some battery types if charging is continued after the bat-
tery is fully charged. Commonly used with constant current charging. Applies to fast-
charging of NiCd and NiMH batteries.

I – Current Charging is terminated when the charge current drops below a preset value. Commonly
used with constant voltage charging. Applies to SLA and Li-Ion to terminate the top-off
charge phase usually following the fast-charge phase.

T – Temperature Absolute temperature can be used as termination (for NiCd and NiMH batteries), but is
preferred as backup termination method only. Charging of all batteries should be termi-
nated if the temperature rises above the operating temperature limit set by the
manufacturer. Also used as a backup method to abort charging if voltage drops below a
safe temperature – Applies to all batteries.

dT/dt – Temperature Rise The derivative of temperature over time can be used as termination method when fast-
charging. Refer to the manufacturer’s specifications on information on the exact termi-
nation point (Typically 1C/min for NiCd batteries) – Applies to NiCd and NiMH.

DT – Temperature over Terminates charging when the difference between ambient (room) temperature and bat-
Ambient Temperature tery temperature rises over a preset threshold level. Applies to NiCd and SLA as primary
or backup termination method. Preferred over absolute temperature to avoid battery
damage when charged in a cold environment. As most systems have only one tempera-
ture probe available, the ambient temperature is usually measured before charging is
initiated.

dV/dt = 0 – Zero Delta Voltage This termination method is very similar to the -dV/dt method, but pinpoints more accu-
rately when the time voltage no longer rises. Applies to NiCd and NiMH batteries.

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Hardware The reference design includes two complete battery charger designs. The reference
Implementation design is divided in 5 main blocks (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. The Main Blocks of the Battery Charger Reference Design

LEDs and
PC Interface Switches

tiny15
Battery
2333 Charger
Battery
Charger

Power
Supply

Power Supply Includes analog reference, push-button and LEDs. The input voltage is rectified through
D9 - D12 and then filtered by C13. The rectified input voltage can be measured at the
testpoint marked “VIN”. VIN is supplied to both the buck converter and to the LM7805
voltage regulator. The LM7805 delivers 5V for the microcontrollers. This voltage can be
measured at the testpoint marked “VCC” The LED marked “5V OK” indicates power on.

PC Interface Connected to the UART interface on the AT90S4433. Can be used to interface PC for
logging battery data during charging. The data can be imported in a spreadsheet to dis-
play the charging characteristic for a battery. The AT90S4433 can also be used as data
logger when using the ATtiny15 battery charger.

LEDs and Switches The board has several LEDs and switches for debug/monitoring purpose. Only few are
used in the current applications, but the rest can be added easily when need.
• LED0: Connected to Port B, pin 0 on AT90S4433. Used in the current application for
visualizing the charge mode fast or trickle.
• LED1: Connected to Port B, pin 2 on AT90S4433.
• LED2: Connected to Port B, pin 3 on AT90S4433.
• LED3: Connected to Port B, pin 0 on the AT90S4433. Used to display “Error” in the
AT90S4433 application.
• LED4: Not connected, can be connected to test points on the board for extended
debug/monitoring.
• LED5: Not connected, can be connected to test points on the board for extended
debug/monitoring.

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• LED6: Connected to Port B, pin 1 on ATtiny15. Used In the current application for
visualizing the PWM frequency.
• VCCPower: Indicates power status.
• SW0: Connected to Port D, pin 4 on AT90S4433. Used to start the charger in the
current AT90S4433 application.
• SW1: Connected to Port D, pin 5 on AT90S4433.
• SW2: Connected to Port D, pin 6 on AT90S4433.
• SW3: Connected to Port D, pin 7 on AT90S4433.
• RESET: Restarts the program and is used to recover from charge errors.

In-System Programming (ISP) Both designs have a 10-pin ISP header on the test board. The Flash program memory
Interface and EEPROM data memory can be downloaded from AVRISP PC programming
software.

ATtiny15 with 100 kHz Buck ATtiny15 includes special features to make it specially suited for battery charger appli-
Converter cations. The internal 100 kHz PWM is connected to a buck converter. The high
switching frequency and high accuracy reduce the size of the external coil and capaci-
tors. Testpoints are added to easily monitor the PWM output, voltage input, and current
input. The ATtiny15 includes an internal gain stage that can amplify the differential volt-
age between two A/D channels. This eliminates the need for external op-amps. The
charge current is measured as the differential between two A/D channels over a 0.25W
resistor. Power supply for the battery charger is shown in Appendix 2.

AT90S4433 with 14 kHz Buck The 90S4433 battery charger design uses an external op-amps to amplify the voltage
Converter for the current measurement. This ensures the highest accuracy for the battery mea-
surement. The charger is capable of communicating with a PC, which can be used to
monitor charging parameters and to debug the charging algorithm.
The battery charger circuit was designed to charge any of the four battery types SLA,
NiCd, NiMH and Li-Ion with the appropriate charge algorithm. These charge algorithms
include fast-charge mode and a top-off trickle-charge to gain minimum charge time with
maximum battery capacity. Power supply for the battery charger is shown in
Appendix 2.

Buck Converter The buck-converter is similar for both the AT90S4433 and the ATtiny15. They consist of
one P-channel MOSFET switching transistor driven by the AVR via one bipolar NPN
transistor. The switching transistor is connected to an inductor, a diode and a capacitor
(see Figure 3). An additional diode prevents the battery from supplying voltage into the
microcontroller when the power is disconnected. When the switching transistor is on
(illustrated by a switch on the figures below) the current will flow like Figure 3A illus-
trates. The capacitor is charged from the input via the inductor (the inductor is also
charged up). When the switch is opened (Figure 3B), the inductor will try to maintain its
current-flow by inducing a voltage. The current flows through the diode and the inductor
will charge the capacitor. Then the cycle repeats itself. If the duty cycle is decreased, by
shorter on time, longer off time, the voltage will decrease. If the duty cycle is increased
(longer on timer, shorter off time), the voltage will increase. The buck-converter is most
efficient running on a duty cycle of 50%.

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 Figure 3. Buck Converter Switching Principle
(A) (B)
SWITCH ON INDUCTOR SWITCH OFF INDUCTOR
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT

SHOTTKY CAPACITOR SHOTTKY CAPACITOR

DIODE DIODE

GND GND GND GND

Voltage Reference The voltage reference is supplied by a TL431 CPK voltage reference. AREF is set by the
resistors R34 and R10 and can be calculated by:

æ R ö æ 4K 7 ö
AREF = VREFçç1 + 34 ÷÷ = 2.495 çç1 + ÷÷ = 3.67 V
è R10 ø è 10K ø

This value is a trade-off between a high-resolution (low AREF value) and a high signal-to-
noise ratio (high AREF value). The voltage reference is common for both battery charger
designs

Battery Temperature Temperature is measured by a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistor. It has
an approximate resistance of 10 kW at 25°C. The NTC is part of a voltage divider, which
is powered by the reference voltage.
The resolution in respect to the voltage measured across the NTC is the same as for the
voltage measurement circuit.
Resolution:

3.67V mV
= 3.58
1024steps step

The steps can be calculated by the following equation:

RNTC
N = 1024 ×
RNTC + 10kW

The NTC resistance does not follow a linear curve, which makes it difficult to calculate
the temperature from the ADC value. Using a table to look up the temperature solves
this (see Table 2). The table indicates the steps equal to 0.5°C for ADC values 400 to
675. ADC value 400 is approximately 37°C and 675 is 8.6°C. Using this table and doing
some minor changes in the header file B_DEF.H will make it easy to implement any
NTC resistor. The ATtiny15 battery charger design assumes that the linearity of the ther-
mistor is sufficient to detect a temperature increase. Therefore, it uses a constant
compare value to monitor the temperature.
The values in the table are calculated from the voltage divider at the NTC and datasheet
for the NTC.

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Table 2. NTC Steps According to Temperature

ADC Reading Tempereature (°C) 0.5°C Steps NTC (W) Resistance
675 8.6 5 19341
650 11 4 17380
625 14 6 15664
600 16 5 14151
575 18.8 5 12806
550 21.2 5 11603
525 23.6 5 10521
500 26.2 5 9542
475 28.8 4 8652
450 32 6 7840
425 34 4 7095
400 37 5 6410
375 39.4 5 5778

AT90S4433 Battery This section describes theory specific for the battery charger design based on
Charger AT90S4433.

Parameters for Layout Oscillator frequency: fOSC = 7.3728 MHz

Saturation voltage: Vsat = 0.5V
Input voltage: VI = 15V
Output voltage: VO = 1.5V
Maximum output current: IO,max = 1.5A
8-bit PWM:

510
T= = 69.199ms
fOSC

With duty cycle of 50%:

69.199ms
t on = = 34.60ms
2

Inductance:
(VI - Vsat - V0 )t on (15V - 0.5V - 1.5V )34.60 ms
L= = = 149.9 mH
2 I o ,max 2 × 1.5 A

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 L × 2 × I Omax 150mH × 3A
t on = = = 33.83ms
VI - Vsat - VO 15V - 0.2V - 1.5V

This gives a duty cycle of

t on 33.83 ms
= = 0.489 = 48.9 %
T 69.199 ms

AT90S4433
Measurement Circuitry

Battery Voltage The charging voltage is monitored using an op-amp to measure the voltage difference
between the positive and the negative pole of the battery. In order to select a suitable
measurement range for the charger, decide how many battery cells and what type of
batteries to charge, select a suitable input voltage (V1 - V2) and scale resistors for the
voltage measurement. The op-amp circuit for measuring the battery voltage is an ordi-
nary differential op-amp circuit. The equation for the output voltage from the op-amp
circuit is shown below. The ADC is capable of measuring the voltage range from AGND to
AREF (3.67V). The output voltage (VBAT2) from the op-amp has to be within this range:.

* (V 1 - V 2)
Ra
VBAT 2 =
Rb

Where:
• VBAT2 is the output voltage from the op-amp to the AVR A/D.
• V1 is the positive pole of the battery.
• V2 is the negative pole of the battery.
• Ra and Rb are the resistors in the resistor network used to set the gain for the op-
amp.
• Ra is equal to R10 and R12.
• Rb is equal to R6 and R7.
The maximum charge voltage will be:

Rb 33kW
(V 1 - V 2) = * AREF = * 3.67 = 12.1V
Ra 10kW

Gain in op-amp:
Ra 10 k W
GU 1B = = = 0 .303
Rb 33 k W

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The resulting battery measurement resolution:

ADCresolut ion 3 .58 mV mV

= = 11 .82
G U 1B 0 .303 step

Charge Current The charge current is measured by sensing the voltage over a 0.033W shunt-resis-
tor(R1). This voltage is amplified using an op-amp to improve the accuracy of the
measurement before it is fed into the A/D converter.
This voltage is amplified by the factor:

R5 39kW
1+ = 1+ = 58.4
R2 680W

The op-amp output voltage is therefore:

æ R ö
VIbat2 = çç1+ 5 ÷÷ × IShunt × R6
è R2 ø

which is:

VIbat 2 = 1.926 × IShunt

The maximum current that can be measured is:

3.58
IBATmax = = 2.0A
1.926

This gives a resolution of:

2000mA mA
= 1.95
1024steps step

The step number for a given current can now be calculated from:

mA
IShunt = N × 1.95
step

The current from a certain step number is:

IShunt
N=
mA
1.95
step

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ATtiny15 Battery Charger This section describes theory specific for the battery charger design based on ATtiny15.
The 25.6 MHz oscillator frequency is generated with an on-chip PLL from an 1.6 MHz
internal RC-oscillator. The reference design is shipped without resistors for dividing
down the voltage of the battery. This limits the maximum voltage to 3.67V, making it
suitable for 1-2 cells NiCd or NiMh batteries. To use higher voltages, simply add the
required resistors to divide down the voltage into the 0-3.67V range. Calculation of the
resistors are described at the end of this section.

Parameters for Layout Oscillator frequency: fOSC = 25.6 MHz

Saturation voltage: Vsat = 0.5V
Input voltage: VI = 12V
Output voltage: VO = 1.5V
Maximum output current: IO,max = 1.5A
8-bit PWM:

255
T = = 9 .96 mS
fOSC

With duty cycle of 50%:

9 . 96 m s
t on = = 4 . 43 m S
2

Inductance:

L=
(VI - Vsat - V0 )t on
=
(15V - 0 .5V - 1.5V )4.43 ms = 21 .1mH
2Io ,max 2 × 1 .5 A

L × 2 × I Omax 22mH × 3A
t on = = = 4.88mS
VI - Vsat - VO 15V - 0.5V - 1.5V

This gives a duty cycle of

t on 4.88ms
= = 0.449 = 44.9 %
T 9.96ms

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ATtiny15 Measurement
Circuitry

Battery Voltage The charge voltage is measured directly on the positive battery pole. When a voltage
higher than the reference voltage (3.67V) is used to charge the battery, the charging
voltage can be divided down with two resistors to fit into the 0-3.67V area. This input is
also the negative input for the differential measurement of the battery charge current as
shown in Figure 4. The current is measured as the difference between the negative and
positive input to the internal 20x gain stage. This voltage is measured over a 0.25 W
shunt resistor.
All measurements are done with 10-bit (1024 steps) resolution.

Figure 4. Voltage and Current Measurement

tiny15
I BAT
20x
Gain Sense
Stage Resistor
ADC2

ADC3 VBAT

The voltage resolution is decided by AREF.

Resolution:

3.67V mV
= 3.58
1024steps step

In order to select a suitable measurement range for the charger, decide how many bat-
tery cells and what type of batteries to charge. The ADC is capable of measuring the
voltage range from AGND to AREF (3.67V). The output voltage (VADC) from the voltage
divider has to be within this range.

* (Vb)
Rb
VADC =
Ra + Rb

Where:
• VADC is the output voltage from the voltage divider to the AVR A/D.
• Vb is the battery voltage.
• Ra and Rb are the resistors used to scale down the battery voltage.
• Ra is equal to R8 in the reference design.
• Rb is equal to R16 in the reference design
Note that the resistors R9 and R17 for scaling down the voltage of the shunt resistors
must be equal to R8 and R16 for scaling down the voltage measurement. The reference
design uses R8 = R9 = 3.7 kW and R16 = R17 = 2.2 kW.

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 This gives maximum charge voltage:

R8 ö
V bat = æ 1 + -------- = æ 1 + --------ö 3.67 = 9.8 V
3.7
- V
è R ø ADC è 2.2ø
16

Charge Current The charge current is measured by sensing the voltage over 0.025W shunt-resistor. This
voltage is amplified 20 times using the internal gain stage to improve the accuracy of the
measurement before it is fed into the A/D converter.
The ADC input voltage output voltage is:

æ R ö
VIbat = 20çç B ÷÷×Ishunt×R18
èRB+RA ø

where:
• VIbat is the analog input voltage to the A/D converter.
• Ishunt is the current through the 0.25W shunt resistor.
• Ra and Rb are the resistors used to scale down the voltage on the shunt resistor
with the same scale as the voltage measurement.
• Ra is equal to R9.
• Rb is equal to R17

VIbat = 1.864 × Ishunt

The maximum current that can be measured is:

3.67
Ishuntmax = = 1.96A
1.864

This gives a resolution of:

1968mA mA
= 1.92
1024steps step

The step number for a given current can now be calculated from:

IBAT
N=
mA
1.92
step

The current from a certain step number is:

mA
I BAT = N × 1.92
step

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Software This section describes the software used in the battery charger reference design, it
Implementation explains the C-code implementation for AT90S4433. The same principles also applies
for the assembly code for ATtiny15. For complete description of the ATtiny15 assembly
code, see the comments in the source code.
The battery type to be charged has to be set at program compile time.
The software can be extended to support charging of more than one battery. The
straightforward implementation is to charge batteries sequentially allowing each battery
a timeslot during trickle-charge. SLA and Li-Ion batteries can be charged in parallel with
constant voltage charging if the number of battery cells in each battery-pack is the
same. The charging current for each battery is limited and the charging voltage is limited
as for one cell.
In the “Battery Characteristics” (b_car.h) all values are calculated with all their scaling
factors. These values are defined in the include files, calculated at compile time and
then handled as constants during program execution. All values taken from the A/D con-
verter can directly be compared to these constants. This means that no time is used on
recalculating values during program execution, saving time and memory space. The val-
ues and formulas used to calculate the values are extracted from the
“Measurement Circuitry” section. See “AT90S4433 Measurement Circuitry” on page 10
and See “ATtiny15 Measurement Circuitry” on page 13.
For NiCd battery, charge is started if the battery temperature is within the temperature
range. Charge is always terminated with an error message if the temperature is higher
than the maximum temperature, if the voltage exceeds the maximum battery voltage or
if the maximum fast-charge time expires.
The normal ways to detect that the battery is fully charged, are the Temperature Rise
(dT/dt) and the Voltage Drop (-dV/dt) methods. Therefore, a sample is taken every
minute for the temperature and every second of the voltage. The values are compared
to the sample taken one minute/second ago. In case the battery is fully charged, the
charge status is automatically changed to trickle-charge, causing the program to jump
into the trickle_charge() function.
The trickle_charge() function executes in a loop checking for a change of the charge
status, temperature and voltage measurement and adjusting the current. In case the
temperature is outside the valid range or a voltage overflow is detected, the error flag is
set and the function is terminated. If no error occurs and charge status is not changed
by the user, the program loops forever, adjusting the charge current to the current
defined at the top of this module.

User Settings The charger is built as a multipurpose charger that can charge four types of batteries
and a various number of cells by changing parameters before compiling the code. It is
very important that this is done properly before compiling or it can damage the battery
and the surroundings.

Change Battery Type There is a C-file and an h-file for each battery type. Include the desired battery files in
the compiler before compiling and “uncomment” the battery type under “Battery Type” in
B_Def.h

Change Number of Cells Change parameter “cells” in B_Def.h

Change Cell Capacity Change parameter “capacity” in B_Def.h

Change Li-Ion Cell Voltage Change parameter “cell_voltage” in B_Def.h

15
1659B–AVR–11/02
Change ADC Step Size After changing the resistor values as described in the Measurement section, the param-
eters “voltage_step” and “current_step” must be changed in B_Def.h. This is very
important and may damage the charger if not done properly.

Source Code Files The following files are included in the source code directory:

Table 3. C Source Code Files

File Name Description Code Size(1)
Io4333.h Header file with symbolic names for AT90S4333
cstartup.s90 Start-up files for the C-compiler
Lnk0t.xcl Command file for the linker, optimized for AT90S4433
B_def.h Defines battery type, cell voltage, battery capacity and voltage
steps
Bc.h Header file for bc.h, constants and macro definitions
Bc.c Main program, common for all battery types 474 bytes
SLA.h Header file for Lead Acid battery, charger parameters and
function declarations
SLA.c Source code for Lead Acid battery 446 bytes
NiCd.h Header file for Nickel Cadmium battery, charger parameters
and function declarations
NiCd.c Source code for Nickel Cadmium battery 548 bytes
NiMh.h Header file for Nickel Metal Hydride battery, charger
parameters and function declarations
NiMh.c Source code for Nickel Metal Hydride battery 514 bytes
Liion.h Header file for Lithium-Ion battery, charger parameters and
function declarations
Liion.c Source code for Lithium-Ion battery 690 bytes
Note: 1. The Code Size applies for version 1.0 of the code. Compiled with IAR compiler ver-
sion 1.41C, maximum size optimization.

Table 4. Assembly Source Code Files

File Name Description Code Size
bc.inc Include file for register definitions, A/D channel definitions and
general constants
tn15def.inc Include file for ATtiny15
NiCd.inc Include file for Nickel Cadmium battery, charger parameters
NiCd.asm Source code for Nickel Cadmium battery 324 bytes
NiMh.inc Include file for Nickel Metal Hydride battery, charger
parameters
NiCd.asm Source code for Nickel Metal Hydride battery 328 bytes
Liion.inc Include file for Lithium-Ion battery, charger parameters
Liion.asm Source code for Lithium-Ion battery 340 bytes

16 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

BC.C This module contains the main function, the setup and the UART functions, the real-time
clock and the interrupt handling routines.
In the “setup” routine, all low-level initialization are done. The UART is initialized and the
real-time clock set to zero. After the initialization the program loops in idle mode until the
status is changed in the global status variable.
The real-time clock is started when the PWM is started, and is also stopped when the
PWM is stopped, i.e., when the battery voltage is measured. This ensures that only the
time when the battery is charged is taken into account. On the other hand, this method
has the disadvantage that measurements that rely on time (dV/dt or dT/dt) may be
inaccurate.
The user can cause an external interrupt by pressing a button to change the charge sta-
tus. In the interrupt handling routine, the status is changed according to the button
pressed, either to “fast-charge” or to “trickle-charge”. In the main function the program
then calls a function depending on the value set in the “charge status” variable.
BC.C also includes some common functions used by the different battery programs. The
two most important are on the following

17
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Figure 5. The Main() Function
Main

Setup

Clear Termination Status

NO
Status = Fast
?

YES

YES Error
Detected
?

NO

fast_charge

NO
Status = Trickle
?

YES

Error
YES
Detected
?

NO

trickle_charge

NO
Error
Detected
?

YES

Red LED On

END

18 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

int battery (Unsigned Char The function is called for each A/D conversion and controls the ADC registers and PWM
Value) according to the measurement requested. It reads eight measurements from the ADC
and calculates an average, which is returned to the calling function.

Figure 6. The Battery() Function

Battery

Measurement
Type?

Current Charge Voltage Temperature Battery Voltage

ADMUX = “Current” ADMUX = “Volt” stop_PWM() stop_PWM()

ADMUX =
ADMUX = “Volt”
“Temperature”

stable_ADC stable_ADC

AV = 0
I=0

I ≤ 7?

YES

Start ADC

YES

NO

NO ADC Done?

AV = AV +ADC

AV = AV/8

PWM On?

NO YES

PWM On

Return(AV)

19
1659B–AVR–11/02
void stable_ADC (Void) The stable_ADC function is used when measuring battery voltage or temperature. It
makes sure the ADC values are stable inside a defined area. This is important for an
accurate measurement. The function loops until it gets three ADC values where the
highest is no more than one step higher than the lowest.

Figure 7. The stable_ADC() Function

stable_ADC

V[0] > V[1]+1

YES

V[5] = V[4]
V[4] = V[3]
V[3] = V[2]

Start ADC

NO

ADC Done?
NO

YES

V[2] = ADC

V[1] = Highest Value of

V[2] to V[5]
V[0] = Lowest Value of
V[2] to V[5]

Return

BC.H In this module, the bit handling macros, the charge status and the termination bit mask
constants are defined.
The “charge status” indicates the actual status of the battery charger; fast-charging,
trickle charging or if an error has occurred. For Li-Ion and SLA battery types, an indica-
tion on the charge mode, constant voltage or constant current is included as well as if Li-
Ion is in the final stage of its fast-charge mode (called “delay”). The “termination” indi-
cates the reason why fast-charge mode terminated or in case of a charge error where
the error was detected and can be used for program debugging.

B_DEF.H This module defines the battery to be charged. When a customer designs a battery
charger using the given circuit and program code, this file has to be changed to meet the
needs.
The battery type defines the charging and termination algorithm. If more than one bat-
tery type is chosen an error will occur during linking the program, as all functions with
the same functions for different battery types have the same names battery(),
fast_charge() and trickle_charge(). An error message will also occur if no battery type is
chosen.
The cell number determines the voltage of the battery pack and all related constants. It
is assumed that all cells are in series. Zero cells are not very reasonable but will only
result in zero charge current. The voltage range of the buck converter and the voltage
measurement circuit sets the upper limit.

20 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

The capacity (in mA) defines the charge current and all related constants.
All battery types except SLA, are fast charged in a “conservative” way at 1C. SLA is
charged with 2C. This sets the limit for the battery capacity. The buck converter is calcu-
lated to supply a maximum current of 1.5 A. The maximum capacity for SLA is 750 mAh,
for the other battery types 1500 mAh. If a higher charge current for NiCd or NiMH is
required, the buck converter layout has to be changed. In case of a current higher than 2
A, the current measurement circuit also need some modifications. If batteries with a
higher capacity than calculated above should be charged, it is possible to change the
buck converter or to reduce charge current.
For the Li-Ion battery type, two cell voltages exist, depending on the battery manufac-
turer. This voltage, 4.1V or 4.2V, must be edited. It will be included automatically if the
Li-Ion definition is chosen. Stating a wrong voltage in this place will not necessarily
result in an error message, but will lead to incorrect charge methods, which can damage
the battery and the battery charger.
The ADC step parameters are to be edited according to the resistors used in the mea-
surement circuitry. This is described under measurement circuits.
The NTC table defines the ADC step value. A step value indicates 0.5°C change in the
temperature. This lookup table is used in NiCd charging. The table may be edited if the
NTC is different from the used in this description.

SLA.C

Charge Method Fast-charge of Sealed Lead Acid batteries uses constant voltage. Before charging
begins, a simple (but surprisingly effective) method is used to determine the charge volt-
age. A constant current of 1C (10 mA) is applied and the corresponding battery voltage
is measured.
The battery is first charged with Constant voltage, fixing the voltage to that level and let
the current float. When the current drops below 0.2C the charge cycle has finished.
Fast-charge mode is then terminated and trickle-charge mode started.
Trickle charge is a constant voltage charging at a level slightly below the fast-charge
voltage. Trickle charge can be terminated after a set time.

Charge Parameter Summary Fast-charge:

Fixed fast-charge voltage = cells * 2450 mV
Trickle charge:
Fixed trickle-charge voltage = cells * 2250 mV
General charge termination:
Absolute minimum temperature T = 0°C
Absolute maximum temperature T = 45°C
Fast-charge termination:
Minimum current threshold I = 0.2C
Fast-charge error:
Maximum fast-charge temperature T = 30°C
Maximum fast-charge time t = 60 min at 1C current
Maximum fast-charge current I = 2C

21
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Trickle charge termination:
None

Figure 8. The Trickle_charge() Function for SLA

SLA_trickle

Start PWM
with Zero Output

NO Status = Trickle
and No Error
?

YES

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

Green LED Blinking

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

Regulate Battery Voltage

Green LED Off

END

22 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 9. The Fast_charge() Function for SLA, Part 1(2)

SLA_fast_1

Start PWM
with Zero Output

set last_T

set last_sec_V

set last_min_V

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO T
< max_T_fast
?

YES

Calculate fast_finish_time

Green LED On

NO Status = Fast
and No Error
?

YES

Regulate Battery Current

Read Voltage

NO Status = Fast
and No Error
?
Green LED Off
YES

Regulate Charge Voltage

END

NO Time
Overflow
?

YES

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

A B

23
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Figure 10. The Fast_charge() Function for SLA, Part 2(2)
A SLA_fast_2 B

NO Temperature
Within Limits
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
YES

YES Current
Too High
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

60 Sec. Over NO
?

YES

Current NO
Below Threshold
?

YES

Stop PWM
Change Status to Trickle

NiCd.C

Charge Method NiCd battery types are charged with a constant current. In fast-charge mode this current
is set to 1C. In trickle-charge mode, it is C/40. The charging is terminated by the Voltage
Drop (-dV/dt) method. Maximum charge voltage, Temperature Rise (dT/dt), and maxi-
mum charge time are used as backup terminations.
In case the battery is fully charged, the charge status is automatically changed to trickle-
charge, causing the program to jump into the trickle_charge() function.

24 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Charge Parameter Summary Charge conditions:

Fast-charge:
Fast-charge current = 1C
Trickle charge:
Trickle charge current = 0.025C
General charge termination:
Absolute minimum temperature T = 5°C
Absolute maximum temperature T = 40°C
Absolute maximum charge voltage V = cells * 1500 mV
Fast-charge termination:
Voltage drop threshold -dV/dt = 20 mV/min per cell
Temperature rise threshold dT/dt = 1°C per minute
Fast-charge error:
Minimum fast-charge temperature T= 15°C
Maximum fast-charge time t = 90 min at 1C current

Figure 11. The Trickle_charge() Function for NiCd

NiCd_trickle

Start PWM
with Zero Output

NO Status = Trickle
and No Error
?

YES

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES

Stop PWM Green LED Blinking

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

Green LED Off Regulate Battery Current

END

25
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Figure 12. The Fast_charge() Function for NiCd, Part 1(2)
NiCd_fast_1

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES
Flag Error

NO T
> min_T_fast
?

YES

Start PWM
with Zero Output

Set last_min_T

Set last_min_V

Calculate fast_finish_time

Green LED On

NO Status = Fast
and No Error
?

YES

Green LED Off Regulate Battery Current

NO Time
END Overflow
?

YES

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

A B

26 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 13. The Fast_charge() Function for NiCd, Part 2(2)

A NiCd_fast_2 B

NO Temperature
Within Limits
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
YES

NO Voltage
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
YES

NO 60 Sec. Over
?

YES

YES dT/dt
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
Change Status to Trickle
NO

YES
-dV
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
Change Status to Trickle
NO

Read last_min_T

Read last_min_V

27
1659B–AVR–11/02
NiMH.C

Charge Method NiMH battery types are charged with a constant current. In fast-charge mode, this cur-
rent is set to 1C. In trickle-charge mode it is C/40.
The charging is terminated by the Temperature Rise (dT/dt) and the Voltage Drop (-
dV/dt) methods. Maximum charge voltage and maximum charge time are used as
backup terminations.
In case the battery is fully charged the charge status is automatically changed to trickle-
charge, causing the program to jump into the trickle_charge() function.

Charge Parameter Summary Charge conditions:

Fast-charge:
Fast-charge current: I = 1C
Trickle charge:
Trickle charge current: I = 0.025C
Maximum trickle-charge time t = 90 min at 0.025C current
General charge termination:
Absolute minimum temperature = 5°C
Absolute maximum temperature = 40°C
Absolute maximum charge voltage = cells * 1500 mV
Fast-charge termination:
Temperature rise threshold dT/dt = 0.5°C per minute
Fast-charge error:
Minimum fast-charge temperature T = 15°C
Maximum fast-charge time t = 90 min at 1C current

28 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 14. The Trickle_charge() Function for NiMH

NiMH_trickle

Start PWM
with Zero Output

NO Status = Trickle
and No Error
?

YES

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES

Calculate finish_time

Green LED Blinking

Regulate Battery Current

Time NO
Overflow
?

YES

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

Green LED Off

END

29
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Figure 15. The Fast_charge() Function for NiMH, Part 1(2)
NiMH_fast_1

Start PWM
with Zero Output

Set last_min_T

Set last_min_V

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES

NO T
> min_T_fast
?

YES

Calculate fast_finish_time

Green LED On

NO Status = Fast
and No Error
?

YES

Green LED Off Regulate Battery Current

NO Time
END Overflow
?

YES

Stop PWM
and Flag Error

A B

30 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 16. The Fast_charge() Function for NiMH, Part 2(2)

A NiMH_fast_2 B

NO Temperature
Within Limits
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
YES

YES Voltage
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

NO 60 Sec. Over
?

YES

NO dV/dt
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
Change Status to Trickle
YES

Read last_sec_V

NO 60 Min. Over
?

YES

YES
dT/dt
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
Change Status to Trickle
NO

Read last_T

31
1659B–AVR–11/02
LiIon.C

Charge Method Li-Ion batteries are the most advanced battery types to charge. Fast-charge starts at a
constant current of 1C. This current is kept constant until a cell voltage level of 4.1 or
4.2V ± 50 mV is set. Then the battery is charged with constant voltage until the current
drops below Imin.
For an accurate measurement of the battery voltage (and not the charge voltage), the
PWM is turned off during voltage measurements. If the charge method then changes
from “constant current” to “constant voltage”, the charge voltage is the relevant parame-
ter to be measured. This is the reason why there are two voltage measurement modes,
one with “PWM turn off” and one without.
Trickle charge of Li-Ion batteries is in principle the same as fast-charge. The current is
much lower than in fast-charge mode and the constant voltage phase of the trickle-
charge mode is simply terminated by a timer.

Charge Parameter Summary Charge conditions:

Fast-charge:
Absolute maximum charge voltage = cells * cell voltage
Voltage tolerance = cells * 50 mV
Fast-charge current = 1C
Minimum current threshold = 50 mA per cell
Trickle charge:
Trickle charge current = 0.025C
Maximum trickle-charge time = 90 min at 0.025C current
General charge termination:
Absolute minimum temperature T = 5°C
Absolute maximum temperature T = 40°C
Fast-charge termination:
See “charge conditions”
Fast-charge error:
Minimum fast-charge temperature 10°C
Maximum fast-charge time = 90 min at 1C current

32 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 17. The Trickle_charge() Function for Li-Ion

LiIon_trickle

Start PWM
with Zero Output

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES

Calculate fast_finish_time

Green LED Blinking

Status = Delay

NO Status = Trickle
and No Error
?

Green LED Off

YES

Regulate Battery Current

END

Read Charge Voltage

YES
Charge Voltage
Withinin Limits
Change Status ?
from const_C
to const_V NO

NO
Status = const_V
?

YES

Regulate Voltage

YES
Trickle Finish Time
Reached
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Termination
NO

YES Time
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

YES Temperature
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

33
1659B–AVR–11/02
 Figure 18. The Fast_charge() Function for Li-Ion, Part 1(2)
LiIon_fast_1

Start PWM
with Zero Output

Status = const_C

NO T
Within Limits
?

YES

NO V
< max_V
?

YES

NO T
> min_T_fast
?

YES

Calculate fast_finish_time

Green LED On

NO Status = Fast
and No Error
?

YES

NO
Status = const_C
?

YES

Regulate Battery Current

Read Charge Voltage

YES
Charge Voltage
Withinin Limits
?

Change Status
NO
from const_C
to const_V

B C A D

34 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Figure 19. The Fast_charge() Function for Li-Ion, Part 2(2)

B C A LiIon_fast_2 D

NO
Status = const_V
?

YES

Regulate Voltage

YES Time
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

YES
Temperature
Overflow
?
Stop PWM
and Flag Error
NO

NO 60 Sec. Over
?

YES

NO const_V, NOT Delay

& Current Below
Threshold
?

YES

Calculate fast_finish_time

Status = Delay

Delay Time NO
Over
?

YES

Stop PWM

Status = const_C
Status = trickle

Green LED Off

END

35
1659B–AVR–11/02
Suggested NiCd batteries suffer from “Memory Effect” – after charging the battery several times, it
Improvements will not charge completely. To reset the “memory”, a shunt resistor can be added, allow-
ing the MCU to completely discharge the battery prior to charging.

36 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Appendix 1: Schematic
Figure 20. Block Diagram of Main Blocks
Powersupply, Switches, LED and Analog referance AT90S4433 and 14 kHz Buck converter
BC2_PSU.SCH BC2_14K.SCH
VIN VIN
VCC VCC
AVCC AVCC
AREF AREF

LED0 LED0
LED1 LED1
LED2 LED2
LED3 LED3

SWITCH0 SWITCH0
SWITCH1 SWITCH1
SWITCH2 SWITCH2
SWITCH3 SWITCH3

AGND

GND

ATtiny15 and 100 kHz buck converter

BC2_100k.SCH
VIN
VCC
AREF

AGND AGND

GND GND

37
1659B–AVR–11/02
 38
TP14 Powersupply VCC
VIN Testpoint TP3, TP4, TP10, TP11, LEDs and switches
VIN TP19 and TP20 have no marking LED0
I<=3A TP10 LED0
in the silkscreen. They are placed
close to their respective resistors R25
LED0
U6 VCC making it easy to (if desired) cut 330R
L78M05ABDT TP1 LED1 GREEN
D9 D10 1 3 the track and patch the LED to an LED1
LSM345 LSM345 Vin +5V TP11
other function. R21
J3 VCC

AVR450
LED1
1 330R

GND
2 LED2 RED
3 TP19 LED2
C13 C5 LED7

2
100 uF/25V 100 nF RED R22
DC_JACK_2_1MM LED2
330R
LED3 YELLOW
Vin 9-15V DC TP20 LED3
9-12V AC D11 D12 R35
LSM345 LSM345 330R R23
LED3
TP2 330R
LED4 GREEN
TP3 LED4
GND
LED4 R41
GND 330R
LED5 GREEN
TP4 LED5
LED5 R42
330R
GREEN
3
4

R26
SWITCH0
1k S1
Figure 21. Power Supply and Reference Voltage Schematic

2
1

GND
3
4

R27
SWITCH1
1k S2
2
1

Analog voltage reference GND

3
4

R28
SWITCH2
1k S3
Vcc
2
1

R24
AREF 1k GND
3
4

AREF R29
SWITCH3
1k S4
TP13

Vcc
R34 AREF

1
2
1

4k7 R15 D13

C11
U5 100 nF 10K BAS16 GND
2
TL431
3
4

RESET

3
C14 S5
R14 47nF RESET
10k TP15

AGND AGND GND

2
1

GND

1659B–AVR–11/02
1659B–AVR–11/02
Vcc
Buck-converter 100kHz
LED6 L2
22uH
RED VIN CDRH127-220

1
2
3
8
7
6
5
D2
R32 R4 D4 LSM345
330R 680R LSM345 +
C12 C3
TP6 Q3 100uF/25V 100nF
PWM1 SI4425DY

4
GND GND GND
U3 ATTINY15
RESET 1 2 R19 Q1
RESET RESET/PB5 ADC3/PB4 IBAT1 PWM1 BC847C
AREF 5 3 1k
AREF PB0/MOSI/AREF ADC2/PB3 VBAT1 R30
VCC 7
C4 PB2/ADC1/SCK TBAT1 10k R9
8
100 nF C6 VCC 33k
TP9
IBAT1
GND 100 nF 4 6 R18
GND PB1/MISO/OCP PWM1
GND GND 0R25
CC2520FC
R36 IBAT1

0R Vcc AREF
GND AGND Vcc
Figure 22. ATtiny15 and 100 kHz Buck Converter Schematic

JP1 R17
1 2 10k
MOSI VCC
3 4 R13
LED GND
5 6 10K
RESET GND R37 R38
7 8
SCK GND 4k7 4k7
9 10 AGND
MISO GND R8 TBAT1
TP12
ISP GND VBAT1 33k/0.1%
1
3

SCL B1
BATTERY
SDA
VBAT1
-T
SMBus

R16
SCL
SDA

10k/0.1%
NOTE: Use Either R37 and R38
2
4
5

or R8, R9, R16 and R17.

(R37 and R38 for SMBus and R8, R9,
R16 and R17 for voltage and current
measurement using the ATtiny15.) AGND GND
Using both will not work in either case.
AVR450

39
 40
Buck-converter 14kHz
Vcc

VIN L1

1
2
3
8
7
6
5
150uH
D1
R39 R40 R3 D3 LSM345
4k7 4k7 680R LSM345 +

AVR450
C1 C2
U4 AT90S4433-PC TP16 TP17 TP18 TP5 1000 uF/25V 100 nF
SDA 4 28 PC3 PC4 PC5 PWM2 Q4

4
PD2/INT0 ADC5/PC5 VBAT2
SCL 5 27 SI4425DY GND GND GND
PD3/INT1 ADC4/PC4 IBAT2
6 26 Q2
SWITCH0 PD4/T0 ADC3/PC3 TBAT2 R20
11 25 BC847C AREF
SWITCH1 PD5/T1 ADC2/PC2 PWM2 U1B
12 24 1k
SWITCH2 PD6/AIN0 ADC1/PC1 R31 R6
13 23 5
SWITCH3 PD7/AIN1 ADC0/PC0 10k
AREF 7 33k
14 TP7 6 R11
LED0 PB0/ICP
16 21 VBAT2 10 k
LED1 PB2/SS AREF
17 AVCC L4 VCC C22 LM358
LED2 PB3/MOSI
18 20 100nF GND GND R10
LED3 PB4/MISO AVCC TBAT2
1
3

19 BLM-21-xxx 10k
PB5/SCK VBAT2
C9 AGND
3 100nF
TxD PD1/TXD R33
2 22 R12 10k AGND
RxD PD0/RXD AGND B2 -T
SMBus

0R BATTERY
RESET 1 15 AGND GND
RESET RESET OC1/PB1 PWM2
SCL
SDA

VCC AVCC
7 9 R7
VCC XTAL1
C8 8 10 TP8
2
4
5

GND XTAL2 33k

8

X1 IBAT2 C24
100nF 100 nF U1A
JP2 VCC 7.3728MHz 3
GND 1 2 X2 AGND 1
MOSI VCC IBAT2 R1
3 4 2
LED GND R033
5 6 C15 7.3728MHz C16
RESET GND CC2520FC
7 8 LM358
SCK GND
9 10 22pF 22pF
4

MISO GND
ISP GND GND GND
AGND
R5 R2
Figure 23. AT90S4433 and 14 kHz Buck Converter Schematic

39k 680R

GND

VCC Serial interface (RS-232)

C20 C23

100 nF 100 nF U7
16 1 C18 TP21
VCC C1+
J1 GND TXD
1 2 3 100 nF
V+ C1-
6 RS232 TTL
2 14 T1 11
TxD
7
3 13 R1 12
RxD
8
4 7 T2 10
9
5 8 R2 9 TP22
RXD
DB9 GND 6 4
V- C2+
C19 C17
15 5
GND C2-
100 nF 100 nF
MAX202CSE

GND GND

1659B–AVR–11/02
 Supply

1659B–AVR–11/02
Appendix 2: Power

+15V 1,5A
V15P
+
D304 C310
PBYR1645 +
T301 C307
L302
100 uF/35V
Phillips EFD20 ** 1000uF/35V 3,3 uH
5 6 GND
GND
D301 +5V 0.5A
L301

4
3
J1 C301 C302 1,2A/500V 7
L 39 mH D302 VCC
100 nF/400V 100nF/400V
1 BZW04-188 D305
PBYR1645 + +
2 C308 C311
Figure 24. Power Supply Schematic

L303
N D303
Mains in 10 U302 3,3 uH
BYV26C GND 1000 uF/35V R303 R304 R305 100 uF/35V
2 4 1

1
2
85-265V AC 100 22k
D306 GND 91k GND
+ 3 1 1N4148 3 2
C303
100 uF/400V PC817
R302
charger and +5V for the AVR microcontroller.

C305

3
100
U301
1 100nF
Control
+
C306
TOP224 R301 47 uF

2
1

C309
6R2
100 nF
U303
2
C304
1n0 TL431 R306
Y1* 10k
3

GND
GND
* Two series connected, 2.2 nF, Y2-capacitors can replace C304
** Pins 4, 8 and 9 on T1 are not connected
design. The input voltage may vary from 85 VAC to 265 VAC (50 - 60 Hz).
AVR450

gration. The flyback design technique makes a compact and efficient power supply
The schematic below shows a power supply that supplies both +15V for the battery

The power supply unit for the battery charger is built around a TOP224 from Power Inte-

41
 Table 5. Power Supply Part List
Part Part Type Description
R301 6,2W Series resistor for C306 (U301 power supply)
R302 100W Series Resistor for the Opto-coupler
R303 100W Series resistor for the voltage reference
R306 10 kW Feedback circuitry
R304 22 kW Feedback circuitry (5V)
R305 91 kW Feedback circuitry (15V)
C304 1n0/Y1 Y1 capacitor (Can be replaced by 2 * 2.2 nF Y2 capacitors)
C305 100 nF
C309 100 nF
C301 100 nF/400V X Capacitor
C302 100 nF/400V X Capacitor
C310 100 µF/35V Post LC filter
C311 100 µF/35V Post LC filter
C303 100 µF/400V Primary capacitor
C307 1000 µF/35V
C308 1000 µF/35V
L302 3.3 µH Post LC filter
L303 3,3 µH Post LC filter
L301 33 mH Input choke
D301 1.2A/500V Rectifier Bridge
D302 P6KE200 Clamping Zener diode
D303 BYV26C Blocking diode for clamping diode.
D304 PBYR1645 Rectifier diode for 15V supply
D305 PBYR1645 Rectifier diode for 5V supply
D306 1N4148 Rectifier diode for bias/U301 power supply
U301 TOP224 Top switch regulator
U302 TL431 Voltage reference
U303 PC817 Opto-coupler
T301 Phillips EFD20 Transformer, see text below for details

The transformer T301 is built around an EFD20 transformer kernel from Philips. The pri-
mary winding and the bias winding use AWG26 (0.40 mm) wire gauge. The secondary
winding uses AWG20 (0.80 mm). The primary winding and the bias windings are sepa-
rated from the two secondary windings with insulation tape. The 5V secondary winding
is also a part of the 15V winding. It is very important to make the windings according to
the directions shown in the schematic.

42 AVR450
1659B–AVR–11/02
 AVR450

Table 6. Power Supply Transformer Windings

Winding Turns Wire Gauge
Primary winding 86 AWG26
Bias winding 8 AWG26
Secondary winding (5V) 4 AWG20
Secondary winding (15V) 8 (+4) AWG20

43
1659B–AVR–11/02
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1659B–AVR–11/02 0M