Module in

Mathematics 10
Prepared by: Bien Terenz Carl Galoso

1
Budget of Work

First Quarter: Patterns and Algebra Lesson 1: The Distance Formula, the
Midpoint, and the Coordinate Proof
Module 1: Sequences Lesson 2: Equation of a Circle

Lesson 1: Arithmetic Sequence Third Quarter: Probability

a. Finding the Next Term
b. Finding the nth Term Module 6: Permutations and Combinations
c. Finding the Arithmetic Mean
d. Finding the Sum of the First nth Term Lesson 1: Permutations
e. Solving Real Life Problems a. Finding the Permutations of “n”
Lesson 2: Geometric and Other Sequences objects taken “r” at a time
a. Finding the Next Term b. Problems involving Permutations
b. Finding the nth Term Lesson 2: Combinations
c. Finding the Geometric Mean a. Finding the Combinations of “n”
d. Finding the Sum of the First nth Term objects taken “r” at a time
e. Solving Real Life Problems b. Problems Involving Combinations
c. Problems Involving Permutations
Module 2: Polynomials and Polynomial Equations and Combinations

Lesson 1: Division of Polynomials Additional or Enhancement Lesson:

a. Long Division a. Deriving Formula for Circular
b. Synthetic Division Permutations
Lesson 2: Theorems
a. Remainder Theorem Module 7: Probability
b. Factor Theorem
Lesson 3: Polynomial Equations Lesson 1: Probability of Compound Events
a. Union and Intersection
Module 3: Polynomial Functions b. Problem Solving
Lesson 2: Probability of Independent Events
Lesson 1: Polynomial Functions Lesson 3: Conditional Probability
a. Illustrations of Polynomial Functions
b. Graphs of Polynomial Functions Fourth Quarter: Statistics
c. Solutions of Problems Involving
Polynomial Functions Module 8: Measures of Position
Lesson 1: Ungrouped Data
Additional or Enhancement Lessons: Lesson 2: Grouped Data
a. Mathematical Induction Lesson 3: Percentile Rank
b. Binomial Expansion
c. Graphing Technology
d. Descartes‟ Rule of Sign
e. Rational Roots Theorem
f. Bounds for Zeroes of Polynomial Note:
Functions
Enhancement Lessons (every Monday) are part of the
Second Quarter: Geometry activities, exams, and the outline of Mathematics 10.

Most examples in this module were taken from the web.

Module 4: Circles

Lesson 1: Chords, Arcs, and Central Angles

Lesson 2: Arcs and Inscribed Angles
Lesson 3: Tangents and Secants of a Circle
Lesson 4: Tangents and Secant Segments

Module 5: Coordinate Geometry

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First Quarter

3
Enhancement Lesson 1: Combination of Using Composite Rule, just substitute the second
function to the variable of the first function
Functions
Summary for Composite Rule of Functions:
Definition of a Function Keep the equation of the first function and replace its variable with the
equation of the second function.
A function is a relation between two sets which satisfy
Meaning, in (fºg)(x), keep the equation of function “f” and replace its
that for every element of the domain, one and only one variable with the equation of function “g”.
element in the codomain is assigned.
(fºg)(x) = f(g(x)) Equation
Combination of Functions
Read as “f of „g of x‟ ”
In the set of real functions of real variable we can
define different operations: In the equation, “f” is the first function and “g” is the second function.
Meaning, we will substitute the value of function “g” to the variable of
function “f”.
1. Addition Rule (f+g)(x) = f(x)+g(x)
2. Subtraction Rule (f-g)(x) = f(x)-g(x) In the given problem, f(x)= 2x+3 and g(x)= 3x-1. Therefore:
3. Multiplication Rule (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x)
f f(x) Substitution
4. Division Rule ( )(x) = (fºg)(x) = 2(3x-1)+3
g g(x)
5. Composite Rule (fºg)(x) = f(g(x)) Notice that 2x+3 became 2(3x-1)+3 since we substituted the function
“g” to the variable of function “f” which, in this case, is x.
Note: The order of functions is based on the order of the given
question. Meaning, (f-g)(x) is different from (g-f)(x) because (f-g)(x) Simplify
(fºg)(x) = (6x-2)+3
yields to f(x)-g(x) while (g-f)(x) yields to g(x)-f(x). This applies to all
rules. (fºg)(x) = 6x+1 Simplify

Example: What if you are solving for (gºf)(x)?

f(x)= 2x+3 ; g(x)= 3x-1
Note: Make sure that they are both functions of the same element, in (gºf)(x) = g(f(x)) Equation
this case, x. (f of x and g of x)
Read as “g of „f of x‟ ”
Using Addition Rule, just add the two functions In the equation, “g” is the first function and “f” is the second function.
Meaning, we will substitute the value of function “f” to the variable of
(f+g)(x) = f(x)+g(x) Equation function “g”.
(f+g)(x) = (2x+3) + (3x-1) Substitution
In the given problem, g(x)= 3x-1 and f(x)= 2x+3. Therefore:
(f+g)(x) = 5x + 2 Simplify
(gºf)(x) = 3(2x+3)-1 Substitution
Using Subtraction Rule, just subtract the two functions
Notice that 3x-1 became 3(2x+3)-1 since we substituted the function “f”
(f-g)(x) = f(x)-g(x) Equation to the variable of function “g” which, in this case, is x.
(f-g)(x) = (2x+3) - (3x-1) Substitution
(f-g)(x) = (2x+3) - 3x+1 Distribute negative sign (gºf)(x) = (6x+9)-1 Simplify
(f-g)(x) = -x+4 Simplify (gºf)(x) = 6x+8 Simplify

Using Multiplication Rule, just multiply the two functions

(f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x) Equation Lesson 1: Arithmetic Sequence

(f·g)(x) = (2x+3)(3x-1) Substitution
(f·g)(x) = 6x2+7x-3 Simplify
Sequence vs. Series
Using Division Rule, just divide the two functions
Sequence is a particular order in which related things
f
( )(x) =
f(x) Equation follow each other.
g g(x)
f
( )(x) = (2x+3) / (3x-1) Substitution Series is a set of quantities constituting a progression
g
Simplify if possible. or having the several values determined by a common
relation.
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Definition of Arithmetic Sequence 9-11=-2; therefore, the common difference is -2.

Then the next term is 9+(-2)=7.

Arithmetic Sequence is a sequence where every term
after the first is obtained by ADDING a constant called
the common difference.
Lesson 1.b: Finding the nth Term (ARITHMETIC)
For example,
4,5,6,7,8 is an arithmetic sequence because the next term is obtained
by adding 1 to the preceding term.
Formula on finding the nth term
However, 6,7,9,10,13 is NOT an arithmetic sequence because of
different intervals between two consecutive numbers. an = a1 + (n-1)d
Arithmetic or Not
where:
1. 1,2,3,4,5 ARITHMETIC
an = nth term
2. 2,4,8,16 NOT ARITHMETIC a1 = first term
3. 5,8,11,14 ARITHMETIC d = common difference
n = position or number of terms

Basic Example: Example: Find the 50th term in the sequence:

5,9,13,_,21
2,4,6,8,10
By pattern, 5+4 is 9, 9+4 is 13, 13+4 is 17, 17+4 is 21. Therefore, the
missing number is 17 and the given sequence is arithmetic since it has d= (10-8)= 2
a common difference of 4. Since we are finding for the 50th term, n=50
a1 or the first term = 2 ; a50 = ?

Lesson 1.a: Finding the Next Term (ARITHMETIC) By substitution,

a50 = 2+(50-1)2
a50 = 2+(49)2
To find the next term of an arithmetic sequence, just add a50 = 2+98
a50 = 100
the common difference to the preceding term.
Example: There are 6 terms in an arithmetic sequence. If the last term
Formula on finding the common difference GIVEN THE is 39 and the common difference is 8, find the first term.
SEQUENCE
d=8
n=6
Pick two consecutive terms in the arithmetic sequence,
a6 = 39 ; a1 = ?
then: HIGHER POSITION-LOWER POSITION
By substitution,
Note: This only applies if the most parts of an arithmetic progression 39 = a1 + (6-1)8
are given and you have, at least, two consecutive terms. 39 = a1 + (5)8
39 = a1 +40
Example: 39 – 40 = a1
4,8,12,16,_ -1 = a1
First step is to pick two consecutive terms:

E.g. 8 and 12 Lesson 1.c: Finding the Arithmetic Mean

Second step is to find the difference between the higher position and
lower position. Since 12 is in the 3rd term or position while 8 is in the
2nd term or position, Definition of Arithmetic Mean

12-8=4; therefore, the common difference is 4. Arithmetic Means are terms between any two terms of
an arithmetic sequence.
Then the next term is 16+4=20.

Example:
Another Example:
15,13,11,9,_
68,55,42,29,16,3 form an arithmetic sequence
First step is to pick two consecutive terms:

E.g. 11 and 9 The arithmetic means between 68 and 3 are 55, 42,
29,and 16.
Second step is to find the difference between the higher position and
lower position. Since 9 is in the 4th term or position while 11 is in the
3rd term or position, The arithmetic mean between 42 and 16 is 29.

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Most problems involving arithmetic means usually give two terms Example: Insert the indicated number of arithmetic means between
only (the first and the nth). Without the sequence, we need to derive the given first and last terms
another formula for the common difference:
2 and 32 (insert 1 arithmetic mean)
Finding the arithmetic means
Solution:

Add the common difference to the preceding term. But 1. Since you are finding for 1 arithmetic mean between 2 and 32, there
in this case, only two non-consecutive terms are given, are 3 terms in total.
2, _ , 32
so you can‟t use the formula HIGHER POSITION –
a1 = 2
LOWER POSITION. Therefore, we will derive another an or a3 = 32
formula for the common difference. n=3

an = a1 + (n-1)d Formula on finding the nth 2. Solve for the common difference:
d = (an – a1) ÷ (n-1)
term (arithmetic) d = (32 – 2) ÷ (3-1)
an – a1 = (n-1)d Subtract a1 on both sides d = 30 ÷ 2
(an – a1) ÷ (n-1) = d Divide (n-1) on both sides d = 15

3. Add the common difference to the preceding term (until you reach 1
Formula on finding the common difference GIVEN THE arithmetic mean or 1 term as said in the problem)
FIRST AND NTH TERMS 2+15 = 17

Therefore: 17 is the arithmetic mean between 2 and 32.

d = (an – a1) ÷ (n-1)
To check your answer, make sure that the whole sequence forms an
arithmetic progression.
where:
an = nth term
Since 2, 17, 32 form an arithmetic sequence with 3 terms in total, your
a1 = first term
answer is correct.
d = common difference
n = position or number of terms

Example: Insert the indicated number of arithmetic means between Lesson 1.d: Sum of the first Nth term (ARITHMETIC)
the given first and last terms

10 and 40 (insert 5 arithmetic means) Formula on finding the sum of the first Nth term
Solution:
Equation 1:
n
1. Since you are finding for 5 arithmetic means between 10 and 40, Sn = 2(a1 + an)
there are 7 terms in total.
10, _, _, _, _, _, 40
a1 = 10 On lesson 1.b you learned that an = a1 + (n-1)d so you can substitute it
an or a7 = 40 to the first equation,
n=7
Equation 2:
2. Solve for the common difference. n
d = (an – a1) ÷ (n-1)
Sn = 2[a1 + a1 + (n-1)d]
d = (40 – 10) ÷ (7-1)
d = 30 ÷ 6
Notice that we substituted the value of an which is a1 + (n-1)d to the an
d=5
of the first equation.
3. Add the common difference to the preceding term (until you reach 5
If we simplify the second equation by adding the two a1, we will have:
arithmetic means or 5 terms as said in the problem)
10+5 = 15
Equation 3:
15+5 = 20 n
20+5 = 25 Sn = 2(2a1 + (n-1)d)
25+5 = 30
30+5 + 35
where:
Therefore: 15,20,25,30,and 35 are the 5 arithmetic means between 10 a1 = first term
and 40. an = last term
Sn = sum of the first n terms
To check your answer, make sure that the whole sequence forms an n = position or number of terms in a sequence
arithmetic progression. d = common difference

Since 10,15,20,25,30,35,40 form an arithmetic sequence with 7 terms in

total, your answer is correct. Notice that there is no an on equations 2 and 3. Therefore, if the last
term is given, use the first equation. If the last term is not given, use
the second or third equation.
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The Derivation of the first Equation Example Problem:
Find the sum of the first 25 terms of the arithmetic sequence
4,9,14,19,24…
Imagine that there are n terms in an arithmetic sequence with a 1 as its
first term and “d” as the common difference.
Solution:
Since only the first term is given in the equation, we will use either
The second term will be a1 + d, the third term will be a1 +d +d or a1+2d, n
equation 2 or 3, Sn = (2a1 + (n-1)d).
and the last term will be an 2
a1 = 4
Therefore: n = 25
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + … + an or d = 5 (since the sequence is given, we can use the formula HIGHER
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + … + [a1 + (n-1)d] POSITION – LOWER POSITION)

If we reverse the equation, use –d as the common difference since we By substitution,

n
are working backwards: Sn = (2a1 + (n-1)d)
2
Sn = an + (an – d) + (an - 2d)+ … + a1 or
Sn = an + (an - d) + (an - 2d) + … + [an - (n-1)d] Sn =
25
[2(4) + (25-1)5]
2

By using the systems of equations,(addition)

Notice that all common differences will be cancelled out leaving only Sn = 12.5 [8 + (24)5]
“n” terms of a1 and “n” terms of an
Sn = 12.5 (8 + 120)
Sn = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d) + … + [a1 + (n-1)d] Sn = 12.5 (128)
+ Sn = an + (an – d) + (an – 2d) + … + [an – (n-1)d] Sn = 1, 600

2Sn = n(a1) + n(an) Final Answer: 1,600

where n is the number of terms

By simplifying,
2Sn = n(a1 + an) Lesson 2: Geometric Sequence
n
Sn = (a1 + an)
2
Definition of Geometric Sequence
Example problem:
Find the sum of the integers from 31 to 50.
A geometric sequence is a sequence of numbers where
Solution: each term is obtained by MULTIPLYING the preceding
Since the first and last terms are given in the problem, we will use the term by a NONZERO constant called the common ratio.
n
first equation, Sn = (a1 + an).
2
an = 50 Finding the common ratio GIVEN THE SEQUENCE
a1 = 31
n=?
The common ratio or “r” can be determined by dividing
We do not know the number of terms between 31 and 50. any term in the sequence by the term before it.
We can use this formula from lesson 1.b to find the number of terms:
an = a1 + (n-1)d Example:
2,4,8,16,32 form a geometric sequence. Find the common ratio.
Based on the problem,
an = 50 Choose any number from the sequence and divide by the term before
a1 = 31 it.
d = 1 (it‟s obvious since the difference between two consecutive
integers is 1) If you choose 16, 16 divided by 8 is 2.
n or number of terms = ? If you choose 32, 32 divided by 16 is 2.

By substitution, Therefore, the common ratio is 2.

50 = 31 + (n-1)1
50 = 31 + n-1
50 = 30 + n
50 – 30 = n Lesson 2.a: Finding the Next Term (GEOMETRIC)
20 = n

Now, we can solve for the sum.

n To find the next term of a geometric sequence, just
Sn = (a1 + an)
2 multiply the common ratio to its preceding term.
2
Sn = (31 + 50) Example: 5, 15, 45, _
2
Solving for the common ratio, you will get 3.
Sn = 10(81)
So, 45 multiplied to 3 = 135.
Sn = 810
Note: This only applies if the most parts of a geometric progression
Final Answer: 810
are given and you have, at least, two consecutive terms.
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Another Example: 1024, 256, 64, 16, _
Solving for the common ratio, you will get 1/4
The geometric mean between 1296 and 36 is 216.
So, 16 multiplied to 1/4 = 4.
Most problems involving geometric means usually give two terms
only (the first and the nth). Without the sequence, we need to derive
another formula for the common ratio.
Lesson 2.b: Finding the nth Term (GEOMETRIC) Finding the geometric means

Formula on finding the nth Term Multiply the common ratio to the preceding term. But in
this case, only two non-consecutive terms are given, so
an = a1rn-1 you can‟t simply divide two terms to find the common
ratio. Therefore, we will derive another formula for the
where: common ratio.
an = nth term
a1 = first term an = a1rn-1 Formula on finding the nth
r = common ratio term (geometric)
n = position or number of terms
(an/a1) = rn-1 Divide a1 on both sides
1 1
Example: Find the 10th term in the geometric sequence Raise both sides by 1/(n-1)
(an/a1)n-1 = (rn-1)n-1
1
4,8,16,… Simplify
(an/a1)n-1 = r
Solution:
n-1
√(an a1) = r Radical Form
r = (16/8) or (8/4) = 2
a1 = 4
Since we are finding for the 10th term, n = 10, so n-1 = 9
Formula on finding the common ratio GIVEN THE FIRST
an = ? AND NTH TERM

By substitution, n-1
an = a1rn-1 r = √(an a1)
an = 4 (29)
an = 4 (512)
an = 2,048 where:
an = nth term
Example: If the last term is 1, the common ratio is 1/4, and there are 5 a1 = first term
terms in a geometric progression, find the first term. r = common ratio
n = position or number of terms
Solution:
an = 1 Example: Insert the indicated number of geometric means between
r=¼ each pair of numbers.
n = 5, so n-1 = 4
a1 = ? 16 and 81 (insert 3 geometric means)

By substitution, Solution:
an = a1rn-1
1 = a1[(1/4)4] 1. Since you are finding for 3 geometric means, there are 5 terms in
1 = a1 (1/256) total.
256 = a1 16, _, _, _, 81.
a1 = 16
an or a5 = 81
Lesson 2.c: Finding the Geometric Mean n = 5, so n-1 = 4
r=?

2. Solve for the common ratio.

Definition of Geometric Mean n-1
r = √(an a1)
4
r = √(81 16
Geometric Means are terms between any two terms of a r = 3/2
geometric sequence.
3. Multiply the common ratio to the preceding term (until you reach 3
geometric means or 3 terms as said in the problem).
Example: (16)(3/2) = 24
(24)(3/2) = 36
1296, 216, 36, 6, 1 form a geometric sequence. (36)(3/2) = 54

Therefore, 24, 36, and 54 are the 3 geometric means between 16 and
The geometric means between 1296 and 1 are 216, 36, 81.
and 6.
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To check your answer, make sure that the whole sequence forms a Notice that there is no an on equations 1 and 2. Therefore, if the last
geometric progression. term is given, use the third equation. If the last term is not given, use
the first or second equation.
Since 16,24,36,54,81 form a geometric sequence with 5 terms in total,
your answer is correct. The Derivation of the First Equation
Example: Insert the indicated number of geometric means between Imagine that there are n terms in a geometric sequence with a 1 as the
each pair of numbers. first term and “r” as the common ratio.

40 and 8/5 (insert 1 geometric mean) The second term will be a1r, the third term will be a1r2, and the last
term will be an or a1rn-1.
Solution:
Therefore,
1. Since you are finding for 1 geometric mean, there are 3 terms in Sn = a1 + a1r + a1r2 +…+ an or
total. Eq 1: Sn = = a1 + a1r + a1r2 +…+ a1rn-1
40, _, 8/5
a1 = 40 If we multiply both sides of this equation by r, we will have,
an or a3 = 8/5 Sn(r)= = a1(r) + a1r(r) + a1r2(r) +…+ a1rn-1(r) or
n = 3, so n-1 = 2 Eq 2: Snr = a1r + a1r2 + a1r3 +…+ a1rn
r=?
By using systems of equations, (subtraction)
2. Solve for the common ratio. Notice that all terms from a1r to a1rn-1 will be cancelled out leaving only
n-1
r = √(an a1) a1 and a1rn (since all terms from the second equation will become
2
r = √((8 5) 4 ) negative because of the operation, which is subtraction).
r = 1/5
Remember that a1rn-1 comes before a1rn so we will also cancel that
3. Multiply the common ratio to the preceding term (until you reach 3 term.
geometric means or 3 terms as said in the problem).
(40)(1/5) = 8 Sn = = a1 + a1r + a1r2 +…+ a1rn-1
- (Snr = a1r + a1r2 + a1r3 +…+ a1rn)
Therefore, 8 is the geometric mean between 40 and 8/5.
Sn – Snr = a1 – a1rn
To check your answer, make sure that the whole sequence forms a
geometric progression. Factor out Sn,
Sn (1–r) = a1 – a1rn
Since 40,8,8/5 form a geometric sequence with 3 terms in total, your Divide 1-r on both sides,
answer is correct. Sn = (a1 – a1rn) / (1-r)

Example Problem:
Find the sum of the first 10 terms in a geometric sequence:
Lesson 2.d: Sum of the first Nth term (GEOMETRIC)
2,4,8,…

Formula on finding the sum of the first Nth Term Solution:

Since the first term is given and the last term is not, we will use the
a1 (1-rn )
Equation 1: first or the second equation, Sn = .
1-r
a1 -a1 rn
Sn = a1 = 2
1-r
r = (4/2) or (8/4) = 2
n = 10
We can factor out a1 from the numerator, Sn = ?

Equation 2: By substitution,
a1 (1-rn ) a1 (1-rn )
Sn = Sn =
1-r
1-r
(1-21 )
On lesson 2.b, you learned that an = a1rn-1. If we multiply “r” on both Sn =
1-2
sides, it will become an(r) = (a1rn-1)(r) or anr = a1rn in simplest form.
Notice that we can replace a1rn from equation 1 with anr. (-1 23)
Sn =
-1
Equation 3:
-2, 46
a1 -an r Sn =
Sn = -1
1-r Sn = 2,046

where: Final Answer: 2,046

a1 = first term
an = last term
Sn = sum of the first n terms Example Problem:
n = position or number of terms in a sequence Find the sum of the terms in a geometric sequence with 3 as the first
d = common difference term and 729 as the 6th term.
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Solution: Remember that in sum to infinity, the number of terms ”n” is equal to
Since the first and last terms are given, we will use the third equation, infinity and the absolute value of the common ratio must not be
Sn =
a1 -an r
. greater than or equal to 1. Therefore, the values of the common ratio
1-r are fractions (terminating or not).
a1 = 3
an or a6 = 729 a1 a1 r n
r=? Going back to the equation, Sn = -
1-r 1-r
n=6
Sn = ? If we increase the value of “n”, a1 rn will become smaller since the
a1 r n
Common ratio is still missing so solve for “r” given the first and last common ratio is a fraction. That is why as “n” approaches infinity,
1-r
terms. a1
n-1 approaches 0, leaving only .
r = √(an a1) 1-r
6-1
r = √(729 3) a1
5
r = √(243)
So, the sum to infinity is .
1-r
r=3
Example Problem:
By substitution, Find the sum to infinity of a geometric sequence:
a1 -an r
Sn =
1-r
64, 16, 4, 1,…
3-(729)(3)
Sn = Solution:
1-3
1. Before proceeding, check if the absolute value of the common ratio
3- 2,187 is less than 1. If |r|<1, solve for the sum to infinity. If |r|≥1 or r=0, then
Sn = the sum to infinity does not exists.
-2

-2184 r = (16/64) or (4/16) or (1/4) = 1/4

Sn =
-2
Sn = 1,092 Since the absolute value of ¼ is less than 1, sum to infinity EXISTS.

Final Answer: 1,092 2. Substitute the values.

a1
S∞ =
1-r
a1 = 64
Lesson 2.e: Sum to Infinity (GEOMETRIC) r=¼
(Use the real value of r, not the absolute one. If r is positive, use
positive. If r is negative, use negative.)
It is POSSIBLE to find the sum of geometric sequence to S∞ =
a1

infinity when -1<r<1 or simply |r|<1 (the absolute value of 1-r

the common ratio is LESS THAN 1, except for 0). 64

S∞ =
1-(1 4)

If |r|≥1 (the absolute value of the common ratio is 64

S∞ =
GREATER THAN or EQUAL to 1), the sum of the terms of (3 4)

an infinite geometric sequence DOES NOT EXIST. 256

S∞ =
3

Formula on finding the sum to infinity Final Answer: 256/3.

a1
S∞ =
1-r

where: Lesson 3: Harmonic and Fibonacci Sequences

S∞ = sum to infinity
a1 = first term
r = common ratio Definition of Harmonic Sequence

The Derivation of sum to infinity Harmonic sequence is a sequence such that the
a1 -a1 rn
reciprocal of terms form an arithmetic sequence.
On lesson 2.d, you learned that Sn = . If we separate the
1-r
minuend and subtrahend, Example:
a1 a1 r n
Sn = - 24, 20, 16, 12, 8 form an arithmetic sequence. By definition, their
1-r 1-r
reciprocals form a harmonic sequence.
Notice that if we changed “n” only a1rn will be affected since it is the
1/24, 1/20, 1/16, 1/12, 1/8 form a harmonic sequence.
only term with the variable “n” or “number of terms.”

10
Another Example: Long Division
6/11, 6/17, 6/23, 6/29, 6/35 form an harmonic sequence because their
reciprocals form a arithmetic sequence: 11/6, 17/6, 23/6, 29/6, 35/6 with Long Division is the traditional way of dividing a
a common difference of 6/6 or 1. polynomial by another polynomial.

It has three basics steps:

Definition of Fibonacci Sequence 1. Divide
2. Multiply
Fibonacci sequence is the only sequence with definite 3. Subtract
set of numbers. Meaning, you can‟t change the numbers After that, repeat the process using the new polynomial
within the sequence.
Example:
Divide x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 by x+1
Its first two terms are either both 1, or 0 and 1 and then
each thereafter term is obtained by adding the two *The one with underline is the dividend. The one without is the divisor*
preceding terms.
Make sure that the equations are in standard form (highest to lowest
degree).
The pattern of Fibonacci:
Solution:
a.) First two terms are both 1: x2 + 3x + 2
x+1 x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2
-(x3 + x2) subtract by distributing the negative sign
1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…
3x2 + 5x + 2
(1 plus 1 is 2, then 2 plus 1 is 3, then 3 plus 2 is 5, then 5 plus 3 is 8,…)
-(3x2 + 3x) subtract by distributing the negative sign
2x + 2
b.) First two terms are 0 and 1: -(2x + 2) subtract by distributing the negative sign
0
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,…
THE PROCESS:
(0 plus 1 is 1, 1 plus 1 is 2, then 2 plus 1 is 3, then 3 plus 2 is 5, then 5 1. Divide the first term of dividend by the first term of the divisor.
plus 3 is 8,…) 2. Multiply the answer (on step 1) to the divisor.
3. Subtract the answer (on step 2) from the dividend.
Notice that both sequences have the same set of numbers (include 0 Repeat the process.
in the second sequence).
Synthetic Division

Take a look on this sequence: Synthetic Division is a short-hand version of long

division of polynomials.
3,4,7,11,18,29,…
(3 plus 4 is 7, then 7 plus 4 is 11, then 11 plus 7 is 18, then 18 plus 11 is Requirements for the divisor:
29,..)
1. The divisor must be a polynomial of degree one.
Based on the definition, we can‟t change the numbers in a Fibonacci 2. The coefficient of the variable x must be one.
sequence. But the sequence above still follows the rule of Fibonacci
sequence. This is why we consider it as another type of sequence. Example: The divisor is 2x+5 and the dividend is “k”.

In requirement 1, the divisor is already on the first degree.

In requirement 2, the given divisor has a coefficient of 2 so we will
Definition of Lucas Principle or Lucas Sequence divide the DIVISOR AND DIVIDEND by 2. So the new divisor is x+(5/2)
and the new dividend is k/2.
Lucas Sequence is a sequence like Fibonacci (because
it follows the rules of Fibonacci) but not considered as
Fibonacci (because the numbers on this sequence is not THE PROCESS:
on the original Fibonacci). 1. Copy the coefficients from the dividend in standard
form (decreasing degree or order). Use zeroes for
An example of this sequence is the one stated above, 3,4,7,11,18,29,… missing terms.
2. Find the root associated with the divisor.
3. Bring down the first coefficient.
Enhancement Lesson 2: Long and Synthetic 4. Multiply the root value and the first coefficient then
add it to the second coefficient.
Division
5. After adding, multiply the sum to the root value and
add the product to the next coefficient.
There are two common ways of dividing polynomials. 6. Continue until the last coefficient is used.
These are the long division and synthetic division.
11
7. Subtract one from the highest degree in your dividend (The first coefficient, 1, multiplied to the root value which is
-1 will yield to -1. Put the product below the next coefficient)
and it will become the highest degree in your answer.

Note: If the sum on the last coefficient yields to 0, then -1 | 1 4 5 2

there is no remainder. If the sum on the last coefficient -1
_________________________________________________
yields to a nonzero digit, there that is the remainder.
1 3

Example: (After getting the product, add this to the next coefficient,
Divide x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2 by x+1 which is 4, in this case. So 4+(-1) = 3.)

*The one with underline is the dividend. The one without is the divisor* Step 5: After adding, multiply the sum to the root value and add the
product to the next coefficient.
Solution:
-1 | 1 4 5 2
FIRST AND FOREMOST, MAKE SURE THAT YOU ALREADY FOLLOWED -1 -3
THE REQUIREMENTS ON THE DIVISOR. _________________________________________________
1 3
In this problem, the divisor, x+1, is already on the first degree and has
a coefficient of 1. Therefore, there is no need to change the divisor and (The sum yields to 3 so 3 multiplied to -1 = -3. Put the
the dividend. product below the next coefficient.)

-1 | 1 4 5 2
Step 1: Copy the coefficients from the dividend in STANDARD FORM -1 -3
(decreasing degree or order). Use zeroes for missing terms. _________________________________________________
1 3 2
The dividend is already in standard form so we will just copy
the coefficients. There is no missing term so we do not need (Add this product to the next coefficient, which is 5. It will
to use zero to fill the space of that missing term. give you a sum of 2.)

In the problem, the dividend is x3 + 4x2 + 5x + 2. So the Step 6: Continue until the last coefficient is used.
coefficients are 1, 4, 5, 2.
“n” degree -1 | 1 4 5 2
Step 2: Find the root associated with the divisor. -1 -3 -2
_________________________________________________
In this step, you will just equate the divisor to 0. “n-1” degree 1 3 2 0
x+1=0, so x=-1

After these first two steps, make this chart: After that, write down your new coefficients (the last
number will be the remainder)
the root of the divisor | the coefficients

By substitution, In this case, your new coefficients are 1, 3, and 2 with a

remainder of 0. (all positive based on their sums)
-1 | 1 4 5 2
Step 7: Subtract one from the highest degree in your dividend and it
_________________________________________________
will become the highest degree in your answer.
Step 3: Bring down the first coefficient.
In the given problem, the highest degree in the
-1 | 1 4 5 2 dividend is 3. So we will just subtract it by 1 (it
happened on first synthetic division) and the
_________________________________________________
1 highest degree in your answer will become 2.

Step 4: Multiply the root value and the first coefficient then add it to Attach your new coefficients with the variables
the second coefficient.
(highest degree is 2) in STANDARD FORM.
-1 | 1 4 5 2
-1 Answer: 1x2 + 3x + 2 remainder 0 or simply x2 + 3x + 2
_________________________________________________
1 3 *Operation between the terms is based on the sign of the coefficients*

(Multiply the first coefficient to the root value)

Just remember the basic steps:
-1 | 1 4 5 2 1. Bring down the first coefficient
-1 2. Multiply to the root value
_________________________________________________ 3. Add the product to the next coefficient
1
4. Bring down the sum
Repeat steps 2,3, and 4
12
Another Example:
Lesson 4: The Remainder Theorem
Divide -6x5 + 2x6 – 2x2 + 10x – 12 by 2x - 6

*The one with underline is the dividend. The one without is the divisor*
What is the remainder theorem?
Solution:
The remainder theorem states that given a polynomial
FIRST AND FOREMOST, MAKE SURE THAT YOU ALREADY FOLLOWED f(x) and a real number “r”, if f(x) is divided by x-r, the
THE REQUIREMENTS ON THE DIVISOR.
remainder is f(r).
In this problem, the divisor, 2x-6, is already on the first degree but has
a coefficient of 2 in the variable. Because of this, we will divide both In simple words, you will just substitute the value of “r” to the
DIVISOR AND DIVIDEND by 2. variables of the given function.

After dividing both sides by 2, our new divisor and dividend are: A TIP: The value of r is just the same as the root of the
Divide -3x5 + x6 – x2 + 5x – 6 by x – 3 divisor.

Check if the dividend is arranged in STANDARD FORM (decreasing Example:

degree or order). Find the remainder when 2x2 + x + 4 is divided by x-2

In this case, we need to rearrange the divisor since it is not in a If we will find the root of the divisor, r=2. So we will use f(2).
standard form. Meaning, all variables of the function will become 2.

Our new dividend will be: Next step is to substitute the value of r to the variables of the function.
x6 - 3x5 – x2 + 5x – 6 We will have:
coefficients: 1, -3, 0, 0, -1, 5, -6 2x2 + x + 4
2(2)2 + (2) + 4
In this case, the variables with degree of 4 and 3 are missing in the = 2(4) + 6
dividend, so we will put zero on their position. = 14

Remember that it is in standard position, so we will put zero (for the By using the remainder theorem, the remainder is 14.
degree 4) after the coefficient of degree 5, and another zero (for the
degree 3) before the coefficient of degree 2.
If we will use the synthetic division,
Then get the root of the divisor by equating it to zero:
x – 3 = 0, so x = 3 2| 2 1 4
4 10
the root of the divisor | the coefficients 2 5 14

We can now proceed to synthetic division. The remainder is still 14.

The Synthetic Division Steps: Usually, we use the remainder theorem if the degree of
1. Bring down the first coefficient
2. Multiply to the root value the function is small. It is better to use the synthetic
3. Add the product to the next coefficient division if the degree of the function is large.
4. Bring down the sum
Repeat steps 2,3, and 4. Another Example:
Find the remainder when x4 + x3 – 13x2 – 25x – 12 is divided by x+3.
3| 1 -3 0 0 -1 5 -6
3 0 0 0 -3 6 If we will find the root of the divisor, r=-3. So we will use f(-3).
_________________________________________________ Meaning, all variables of the function will become -3.
1 0 0 0 -1 2 0
Next step is to substitute the value of r to the variables of the function.
Remember that the highest degree of the answer is always one less We will have:
than the highest degree of the dividend. In the problem, the highest x4 + x3 – 13x2 – 25x – 12
degree of the dividend is 6, so 6-1 =5. Therefore, the highest degree of = (-3)4 + (-3)3 – 13(-3)2 – 25(-3) – 12
the answer is 5. = 81 – 27 – 117 + 75 -12
=0
After that, we will attach our new coefficients with the variables. (The
last number is the remainder. In this case, the last number is 0 so By using the remainder theorem, the remainder is 0.
there is no remainder.)
If we will use the synthetic division,
1x5 + 0x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 – 1x + 2 remainder 0
-3 | 1 1 -13 -25 -12
Final Answer: x5 – x + 2 -3 6 21 12
1 -2 -7 -4 0
Synthetic division is a faster and easier way to divide a
polynomial. But remember the requirements before The remainder is still 0.
doing this process.
13
Lesson 5: The Factor Theorem This is the concept that we will use to factor an equation
using synthetic division.

What is the Factor Theorem? Example:

Factor out x2 -4 = 0.
The factor theorem states that the linear expression x-r
With basic knowledge, we all know that the factors of x2 -4 are (x+2)
is a factor of f(x) if and only in f(r) = 0.
and (x-2).

In simple words, if you substituted the value of r to the variables of But with synthetic division, we will think of a root that will yield to a
the function and it yields to 0, then the divisor is a factor of the zero remainder.
dividend.
The coefficients of the given equations are 1, 0, -4.
A TIP: The value of r is just the same as the root of the
divisor. If we will try a root of 1, we will get:

1| 1 0 -4
Let‟s go back to the example on remainder theorem.
1 1
_________________________________________________
Example:
1 1 -3
Find the remainder when x4 + x3 – 13x2 – 25x – 12 is divided by x+3.
Since x-1 gives a root of 1, and a root of 1 gives a remainder
If we will find the root of the divisor, r=-3. So we will use f(-3).
of 3, x-1 is not a factor of x2 -4.
Meaning, all variables of the function will become -3.
If we will try a root of 2, we will get:
Next step is to substitute the value of r to the variables of the function.
We will have:
2| 1 0 -4
x4 + x3 – 13x2 – 25x – 12
2 4
= (-3)4 + (-3)3 – 13(-3)2 – 25(-3) – 12
_________________________________________________
= 81 – 27 – 117 + 75 -12
1 2 0
=0
Since x-2 gives a root of 2, and a root of 2 gives a remainder
By using the remainder theorem, the remainder is 0.
of 0, x-2 is a factor of x2 -4.

Notice that the remainder is 0, and according to the The new coefficients are 1 and 2. If we rewrite it, it will become x+2=0.
theorem if the result of f(r) is zero, then the divisor is a Solving for x, you will get x=-2.
factor of the dividend.
*This means that -2 is a root of x2 -4. Therefore x+2 is also a factor of
x2 -4.
In this case, f(-3) yield to 0 and that means x+3 is a
factor of x4 + x3 – 13x2 – 25x -12. If we will continue the process of synthetic division and try a
root of -2,
*Imagine that the red part is invisible*
Another Example:
Determine whether x-2 is a factor of x3 + 7x2 + 2x -40.
“n” degree 2| 1 0 -4
2 4
If we will find the root of the divisor, r=2. So we will use f(2).
_________________________________________________
Meaning, all variables of the function will become 2.
“n-1” degree -2| 1 2 0
-2
The divisor will only become a factor of the dividend if we substituted
_____________________________________
r to the variables of the function and we got 0.
“n-2” degree 1 0
By substituting the value of r to the variables of the function, we will
Since x+2 gives a root of -2, and a root of -2 gives a
have:
remainder of 0, x+2 is also a factor of x2 -4.
x3 + 7x2 + 2x -40
= (2)3 + 7(2)2 + 2(2) -40
The remaining coefficient is 1, and since it happened on the
= 8 + 28 + 4 -40
second synthetic division process, its coeffiecient becomes
=0
2 less than the highest degree on the dividend. Since the
highest degree on the dividend is 2, then 2-2 = 0. 1x0 = 1.
The remainder is zero, so x-2 is a factor of x3 + 7x2 + 2x -40.
Meaning, 1 is a factor also. But since it does not affect the
product we will not use it as a factor.
We can also use the synthetic division to find whether
the divisor is a factor of the dividend. With the same The factors of x2 – 4 are (x+2)(x-2).
rule: If the remainder is zero, then it is a factor.
A TIP: If you are doing a synthetic division, leaving only
How to factor out an equation using synthetic division? any real number “x” and , “x” is also a factor of that
equation.
A polynomial is a factor of an equation if it gives a If the last part of the synthetic division process is 2, 0, then 2 is also a
factor of the equation.
remainder of 0.

14
Another Example: The Descartes‟ Rule of Sign simply says that if the degree of
Factor out x3 – 2x2 –7x -4. polynomial is 4, then the number of real roots is at most 4. There can
be none,1,2,3,4. The number of real roots must not be higher than the
This is a trial and error approach. highest degree in the polynomial.

If we will use a root of 4, we will get: How to apply the Descartes‟ Rule of Sign?
4| 1 -2 -7 -4
4 8 4 The basic and the only step is to count the sign changes.
_________________________________________________ ALSO, DISREGARD ALL THE MISSING TERMS.
1 2 1 0
Example:
Since x-4 gives a root of 4, and a root of 4 gives a Give the possible number of positive and negative roots of:
remainder of 0, x-4 is a factor of x3 – 2x2 – 7x -4. 5x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 3= 0
We already have x-4 as a factor.
For the POSSIBLE POSITIVE roots, just copy the sign of the terms.
If we will write the new coefficients, we will yield to x2 + 2x + 1.
Basically, the factors of this special product are (x+1) and (x+1). 5x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 3= 0
The first term is positive, second term is positive, the third term is
Therefore, the factors of x3 – 2x2 – 7x -4 are negative, and the fourth term is positive:
(x-4)(x+1)(x+1).
(+) (+) (-) (+)
If we will continue the synthetic division process,
After that, count all the sign changes (from positive to negative or
negative to positive).
4| 1 -2 -7 -4
4 8 4
(+) (+) (-) (+)
_________________________________________________
-1 | 1 2 1 0
-1 -1
sign change sign change
_________________________________________
-1 | 1 1 0
The first and the second term have the same signs so there are only
-1
TWO sign changes in the equation.
_________________________________________
1 0
Meaning, there are TWO POSSIBLE POSITIVE real roots in the equation
5x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 3= 0
From the tip, If you are doing a synthetic division, leaving
only any real number “x” and , “x” is also a factor of the
For the POSSIBLE NEGATIVE roots, just copy the sign of the terms
equation.
with even degree while reverse the sign of the terms with odd degree.
Also, just copy the sign of the constant.
The last part of the process is 1,0 so 1 is also a factor of the
equation but we will not use it as a factor since it will not
Remember: EVEN DEGREE : STAY while ODD DEGREE : REVERSE
affect the product.
(This is because in this process, you will multiply “-1” to the variable. A
The roots that give a zero remainder are 4,-1, and -1.
negative raised to an even number is positive, making the signs of the
x-4 gives a root of 4 so it is a factor.
terms stay the same. A negative raised to an odd number is negative,
x+1 gives a root of -1 so it is a factor.
making the signs of the terms differ from the original.)
x+1 gives a root of -1 so it is a factor.
In the given equation,
Therefore, the factors of x3 – 2x2 – 7x -4 are 5x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 3= 0
(x-4)(x+1)(x+1).
The first and the third terms have even degrees so just copy their
signs. The second term has odd degree so reverse its sign. The sign of
Enhancement Lesson 3: Descartes‟ Rule of the constant will stay as is.

Sign The new signs:

(+) (-) (-) (+)

What is Descartes‟ Rule of Sign
After that, count all the sign changes (from positive to negative or
Rene Descartes stated that if the highest degree in a negative to positive).
polynomial is “n”, then the number of real roots is AT
(+) (-) (-) (+)
MOST “N”.

The number of positive real roots of f(x) is either: sign change sign change
a. The same as the number of sign changes of f(x).
Meaning, there are TWO POSSIBLE NEGATIVE real roots in the
b. Less than the number of sign changes. equation 5x4 + 3x3 – 4x2 + 3= 0

This rule only gives the POSSIBLE NUMBER of real roots. In total, there are 4 POSSIBLE REAL ROOTS (two negatives and two
positives).
15
Remember that in Descartes‟ Rule of Sign, if the highest The multiplicity rule shows the true number of real
degree in a polynomial is “n”, then the number of real roots in an equation.
roots is AT MOST “N”.
Another Example:
Find the degree and roots of (x-1)(x-3)3.
In the problem, the highest degree is 4. In our solution,
there are 4 possible real roots on that equation which 1. Find the degree
satisfy the Descartes‟ Rule of Sign.
If we will expand (x-3)3, the highest degree will be 3 (since it is raised
to 3). Therefore, the highest term is x3.
Just keep in mind that:
In the other expression, x-1, the highest degree is 1. Therefore, the
Possible positive real roots: keep the signs highest term is x.

Next step is to multiply (since it is the operation in the given problem)

Possible negative real roots: even degree: stay while
the highest term of each expression.
odd degree: reverse.
(x3)(x) = x4
Constant sign: always stays the same
Take the degree of the answer.

Therefore, the degree of the polynomial is 4.

Another Example:
Give the possible number of positive and negative roots of:
2. Find the roots of the polynomial
5x6 + 2x4 – 3x3 – 4x2 – 7x + 2 = 0
To find the roots of the polynomial, equate each factor to 0.
For the POSSIBLE POSITIVE real roots,
x-1 = 0, so x = 1
(+) (+) (-) (-) (-) (+)
x – 3 = 0, so x =3

Notice that x-3 appears three times as a factor. So the root 3 will also
sign change sign change
appear three times as a zero/root of the polynomial.
For the POSSIBLE NEGATIVE real roots,
Roots: { 1 , 3(m·3) }
(+) (+) (+) (-) (+) (+)
Remember: Use braces when the question asks for the roots.
Separate the roots using a comma.
sign change sign change

In total, there are 4 POSSIBLE REAL ROOTS (two positives and two Enhancement Lesson 5: Rational Root or
negatives) Rational Zeroes Theorem

Enhancement Lesson 4: Multiplicity Rule What is Rational Root Theorem?

Rational Root Theorem is a theorem that provides a

complete list of POSSIBLE RATIONAL roots of the given
Definition of Multiplicity polynomial. The list consists of all possible numbers of
p
the term , where p is the factor of the constant and q is
Multiplicity refers to the number of times a particular q
number is a zero or root for a given polynomial. a factor of the leading coefficient.

We write it as y(m·x) where “y” is the root and “x” is the Definition of leading coefficient
number of times it appears as a root.
The leading coefficient is the constant behind the
Basic Example: variable which has the highest degree. This is the
What are the roots of x2 + 2x + 1 = 0? number behind the first variable in a polynomial in
standard form (decreasing degree).
The factors of this equation are (x+1) and (x+1) so the roots are 1 and 1.

Instead of writing 1 and 1 as the roots of the equation, we use 1(m·2) Definition of Constant
because 1 appears twice as the root of the given equation.
The constant in the polynomial is the term without any
Answer: { 1(m·2) } variable. This is the last number in a polynomial in
standard form (decreasing degree).
Remember: Use braces when the question asks for the roots.

16
Take Note: Rational Root Theorem only provides the list We now have 1 and -1 as some of the roots of the polynomial.
Therefore, (x-1) ,which has the root of 1, and (x+1), which has the root
of possible rational roots. So, you need to solve for the
of -1, are the factors of the polynomial.
irrational roots of a polynomial, if possible.
The remaining constants are 1,0,-2. Since it happened after two
Steps on finding the rational roots synthetic divisions, the highest degree will become 2 less than the
highest degree of the given/original polynomial.

1. List all the factors of the constant. (p) The degree of the original polynomial is 4. So, 4-2 = 2. Therefore, the
2. List all the factors of the leading coefficient. (q) remaining constants 1, 0 and -2 will be on the second degree.
3. Divide each factor of the constant by each factor of
1x2 + 0x - 2 = 0 or simply x2 – 2 = 0
the leading coefficient (p/q)
4. Choose any number from the list of (p/q) then do the Thus, x2-2 is also a factor of the polynomial. If we equate it to zero, the
synthetic division. If the remainder is zero, then it is a roots are ± 2.
root of the polynomial.
5. Solve for irrational roots, if possible. Answer:
Roots: { 1, -1, ± 2 }
Factors: (x-1)(x+1)(x2-2)
The Rational Root Theorem is just the same as factoring
using synthetic division. The only difference is that, you
A TIP: After bringing down all the sums in a synthetic
are limited to the roots that you will use. Thus, it is
division with a remainder of 0, if you rewrite it as a
easier to perform trial and error approach with the help
polynomial expression, it is already a factor of the given
of this theorem than synthetic division alone.
dividend.
It is important to master the method of factoring using synthetic
The sums of the first synthetic division on the problem earlier are:
division because it will help you in this lesson.
(Refer to the numbers within the green box)

Example: 1 1 -2 -2 0
Find the factors and the roots of x4 – 3x2 + 2 = 0.
If we rewrite it as a polynomial expression, we will get:
Because the highest degree is 4, x4 is the leading coefficient. It has an
invisible “1” behind it since we do not write a coefficient of 1 anymore. x3 + x2 – 2x – 2,
This is already a factor of the given polynomial.
The constant is 2 (number without any variable) and the leading But since it is still factorable, we factored it out.
coefficient is 1 (the number behind the highest degree).
That is why we proceeded to the second synthetic division process
1. Factors of the constant, p. and got the sums:
In this case, we will list down the factors of 2, which is the constant in (Refer to the numbers within the blue box)
the given polynomial.
1 0 -2 0
p : {±1 , ±2} Which is x2 – 2 in polynomial expression.
This is not factorable (has radicals) so we already considered it as a
2. Factors of the leading coefficient, q. factor.
In this case, we will list down the factors of 1, which is the leading
coefficient in the given polynomial.

q : {±1 } Lesson 6: Polynomial Functions and Equations

3. Divide each factor of p by q.
Definition of a Polynomial Function
p/q : { ±1 , ±2 }

4. Perform synthetic division. Solve for irrational roots, if possible.

A polynomial is a function in the form:
Now, use the answers in step 3 as your choices for roots in trial and f(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + ao
error approach.

The constants of the dividend are 1, 0, -3, 0, 2. (based on the problem) where:
You have four choices (from step 3) for your roots. In this case, I used ao (the last term called constant) is not equal to 0 (red)
1 and -1. “n” is a nonnegative integer (the subscript and superscript)
an… are real numbers called coefficients (blue)
*Ignore the green and blue boxes, you will use it in the explanation* xn… are the literal coefficients (violet)
anx is the leading term (the term with underline)
n
1| 1 0 -3 0 2 an is the leading coefficient (blue with underline)
1 1 -2 -2
_________________________________________________
In standard form (decreasing degree), the leading coefficient is always
-1 | 1 1 -2 -2 0
the first number with variable, the constant is always the last number
-1 0 2
without variable, and the leading term is always the first term. There
_________________________________________________
are literal coefficients in every term (there is an invisible x0 for
1 0 -2 0
constants).
17
Requirements for Polynomial Equation
Lesson 7: Graphing Polynomial Equation by
1. A negative exponent on the variable is not allowed. Assumption
2. Dividing by a variable is not allowed (the variable
must not be in the divisor).
3. Fractional exponent on the variable is not allowed. Graphing polynomial equation by assumption obviously
4. Based on rule 3, variable inside the radical is not gives you an idea of the graph of the polynomial
allowed. equation (but not as accurate as the actual graph since
5. Since it is an equation, it must have a symbol to it is done by assumption).
where it is equated to.
Steps on Graphing a Polynomial Equation by
Roots of a Polynomial Equation Assumption

To find the roots of a polynomial equation, just equate 1. Solve for the x-intercept.
the polynomial to 0 and then use synthetic division or 2. Solve for the y-intercept.
factorization. 3. Plot the intercepts on a Cartesian plane.
4. Connect the points from left to right or right to left.
Example: 5. Check the number of turning points with a smooth
Find the roots of y=x3 + x2 – 12x curve. The maximum number of turning points must be
one less than the degree of the polynomial (the degree
First step is to equate the polynomial to 0.
x3 + x2 – 12x = 0 of the polynomial is based on the highest degree)

A. Using Factorization: Example:

Graph the equation y=2x4 + 8x3 + 4x2 – 8x -6
x3 + x2 – 12x = 0 Given
x(x2 + x -12) Factoring Greatest Monomial Solving for the x-intercept, let y be 0.
Factor 0=2x4 + 8x3 + 4x2 – 8x -6
x(x+4)(x-3) Factoring trinomial 0 = 2 (x+3)(x+1)(x+1)(x-1)

To find the roots, just equate each factor to 0. Thus, 0, -4, and 3 are Solving for roots, we will have:
the roots of the equation. x = { -3, -1(m·2), 1 }
This means that the graph passes through the points (-3,0), (-1,0), (1)
B. Using Synthetic Division, you have to do the trial and error
approach. To lessen your choices for the roots, use the Rational Root Solving for the y-intercept, let x be 0.
Theorem. y=2(0)4 + 8(0)3 + 4(0)2 – 8(0) -6

The constant is -12 so p = -12. The leading coefficient is 1 so q = 1. Solving for the roots, we will have:
List down all the factors. y = {-6}
This means that the graph passes through the point (0,-6).
p : { ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12 }
q : {±1} Plotting the points and joining it with a smooth curve, we will have:
(p/q) : { ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12 } *Graph not to scale*

Choose any number from (p/q). If we will choose -4 and 3, *The smooth curve is a line so it has no end points*
(In doing the second synthetic division, your new constants will be the
sums of the first synthetic division.) Is this graph correct?

-4 | 1 1 -12 0 turning point

-4 12 0
_________________________________________________
3| 1 -3 0 0
3 0 0
_________________________________________
1 0 0

If we will rewrite the constants 1,0,0 to a polynomial

expression, we will get x (the degree is 1 since it happened
on the second synthetic division, making it 2 degrees less
than the original degree of the given polynomial which is 3).
turning point
So, x is also a factor of the polynomial. Equating it to zero,
we will get a root of 0.

Thus, the roots of the polynomial are -4,0, and 3.

This graph is NOT CORRECT. We are expecting three turning points

Answer: { -4, 0, 3 }
(since all roots are real numbers & the degree of the polynomial is 4).
18
Remember that there are two -1 roots in our solution, yet, we only To do this method, you must determine the following
considered one of them because we cannot plot the same point at the
requirements:
same Cartesian plane.

This is a special case of graphing polynomial equations by 1. Leading coefficient

assumption. 2. End behaviour
3. x-intercepts and points on the x-axis
This is the correct graph of y=2x4 + 8x3 + 4x2 – 8x -6 by assumption.
4. y-intercepts and points on the y-axis
5. Multiplicity of roots if there are any
6. Number of turning points
7. Table and Sketch
turning point
In this method, you will use this table:

Leading Degree Expected End Behaviour

Coefficient Sketch of the Sketch
*what happens on the left
and right tail of the sketch
Left tail Right

positive odd down up

turning point

We are expecting three turning points since the highest degree is 4,

odd
and there are three turning points in the graph. negative up down
There are some times that the turning point is not
always one less than the degree of the polynomial. For
instance, the graph of a polynomial with imaginary roots
does not satisfy this condition. positive even up up
If the roots of the polynomial equation are all real
numbers, expect that the graph follows the rule on the
number of turning points.

The graph of a polynomial equation by assumption is negative even down down

more accurate if all roots are real numbers and are
different from one another (no multiplicity). This will
give you a right number of turning points by connecting
the intercepts with a smooth curve (without applying TIPS AND TRICKS:
the special case in adding a turning point). If it has a
multiplicity, check if it already satisfies the number of For leading coefficients,
turning points.
A positive leading coefficient always yields to upward
For example, (x+1)3 has roots -1(m·3). There are three (0,-1) points, but right tail and a negative leading coefficient always yields
we will only consider one on graphing. Since the graph of this function to downward right tail.
has two turning points, we will not put an additional turning point on
(0,-1) anymore.
POSITIVE = RIGHT UPWARD
NEGATIVE = RIGHT DOWNWARD
This is why we rarely use graphing by assumption. (It is
easy, yet, it will not give you an accurate graph)
For degree,

An even degree always yields to the same direction of

Lesson 8: Graphing Polynomial Equation with right and left tails while an odd degree always yields to
Table of Values and Bounds of Zeroes the opposite direction of right and left tails.

EVEN = SAME
This is a more accurate way of graphing polynomial ODD = OPPOSITE
equation with the help of table of values.
19
So, if you want to know the direction of the left tail, just Points on the y-axis: (0,28)
remember the direction of the right tail (with the help of
5. Multiplicity of roots if there are any
the sign of the leading coefficient) and the degree of the None
polynomial (to know if they are the same or not).
6. Number of turning points
The degree of the polynomial is 4 so the number of turning points is 3.
In this method, you will also use this table:
7. Table and Sketch.
x-coordinate y-coordinate Position on the Before doing the table, know the boundaries of the polynomial.
Cartesian plane
Since the smallest x-intercept is -2 and the largest is (7/2), the
with respect to boundaries are -3 and 4.
the x-axis
Make your boundaries as the first and last rows of your table of
any real number equal to 0 on the x-axis values.
any real number greater than 0 above the x-axis The intervals between the values of x-coordinates must be the same
any real number less than 0 below the x-axis (an interval of 0.5 is recommended to touch all the x-intercepts)

Fill the column for the x-coordinate first. Start from the largest
boundary to the smallest boundary (or vice versa) with the same
Lesson 8.b: Bounds for Zeroes of a Polynomial interval in between. (I used 0.5 as the interval)
Equation
After that, substitute each value of x to the given polynomial equation
to get the value of y-coordinate.

To find the boundaries, know the largest and the

smallest x-intercept of the given polynomial and find The table of values:
the NEAREST INTEGER on each intercepts. (Without
y=2x4 – 3x3 – 18x2 + 6x + 28.
using the numbers between the smallest and the
largest intercepts) x-coordinate y-coordinate Position on the
Cartesian plane with
For example, the smallest x-intercept is -5 and the respect to the x-axis
largest is (3/2). To find the boundaries, we cannot use
-3 (lowest boundary) If we substituted -3 above the x-axis
the numbers between -5 and (3/2) so the nearest as x on the equation,
integer on -5 is -6 while the nearest integer on (3/2) is we will get
3. Therefore, the boundaries for the table of values are
x= -6 and x=3. 91
-2.5 (since I used 0.5 45.5 above the x-axis
as interval)
Example Problem:
-2 0 on the x-axis
Sketch the graph of y=2x4 – 3x3 – 18x2 + 6x + 28.
-1.5 1.25 above the x-axis
-1 9 above the x-axis
Solution:
-0.5 21 above the x-axis
Do the following requirements. 0 28 above the x-axis
0.5 26.25 above the x-axis
1. Leading coefficient 1 15 above the x-axis
The leading coefficient is positive 2. 1.5 -3.5 below the x-axis
2 -24 below the x-axis
2. End behaviour 2.5 -38.25 below the x-axis
Since the leading coefficient is positive, the right tail is UPWARD. 3 -35 below the x-axis
Since the degree is even, the left tail is also UPWARD. 3.5 0 on the x-axis
4 84 above the x-axis
Up(left) – Up(right)
Plot each ordered pair on the Cartesian plane and join the points with
3. x-intercepts and the points on the x-axis a smooth curve. We are expecting an UP-UP end behaviour.(based on
By letting y=0, step 2)
0=2x4 – 3x3 – 18x2 + 6x + 28 (-3,91),(-2.5,45.5),…
0 = (x+2)(2x-7)(x2-2)
x = { -2, -√2, √2, 7/2 } This is the graph of the equation.
It satisfies the following:
Points on the x-axis: (-2,0). (-√2, 0), (√2, 0), (7/2, 0)
1. Must have three x-intercepts
4. y-intercepts and the points on the y-axis 2. Must have one y-intercept
By letting x=0, 3. Must have 3 turning points
y=2(0)4 – 3(0)3 – 18(0)2 + 6(0) + 28 4. Must be in the UP-UP behaviour
y = {28}

20
Second Quarter

21
Lesson 1: Circles There are three main types of arc:
a. Minor Arc – measures less than 180 degrees.
b. Semi-circle- measures exactly 180 degrees.
Definition of a Circle c. Major Arc- measures greater than 180
degrees.
The world circle came from the Latin word “circulus”
which means disk. 4. Chord (labelled pink)
Chord is any line segment that has both
It is a closed curve plane on which each point from the endpoints on circumference.
curve is equidistant from the center. It has 360 degrees.
5. Segment (labelled brown)
Circle Formulas in terms of r (radius) Segment is a portion inside the circle bounded
by a chord and an arc. (We use the term arc
Diameter: because it is only a portion of the
2r circumference)

Circumference: 6. Diameter (labelled purple)

2πr Diameter is a special type of chord. It is still a
line segment that has both endpoints on the
circumference but its added feature is that it
Area passes through the center.
πr2
7. Radius (labelled red)
π(pi) has a value of approx. 3.14. Radius is a line segment that has 1 endpoint at
the center and the other is on the
circumference. It measures half of a diameter.
Parts of a Circle
8. Sector (labelled gray)
Sector is any portion on a circle bounded by two
3 radii and an arc.
8
9. Secant (labelled yellow)
6 Secant is a line that intersects the
2
9 7 circumference at two points.

1 There are two types of secant:

a. External Secant- part of the secant which is
outside the circle.
4 b. Internal Secant – part of the secant which is
inside the circle.
5
10 10. Tangent (labelled blue)
Tangent is a line that touches only 1 point on the
circumference.

1. Center
Center is the middle point/part of the circle. The Understanding Minor and Major Arcs
distance from the center to the circumference
is always equal. Example:
B
C
2. Circumference (labelled green)
Circumference is the perimeter of the circle. As
a perimeter, it is the external boundary of the
plane. A
D
3. Arc (inside the light green)
Arc is any portion on the circumference.

22
The whole circumference of a circle measures 360o. Practicing your knowledge about intercepted arcs and central angles:

̂ , with
Imagine that the arc ACB, labelled with red (written as ACB W
curve above ACB) measures 90 degrees.

Therefore, the measurement of arc ADB, labelled with green (written

̂ ) is 360-90 = 270 degrees.
as ADB
l
Y X
This means that arc ACB is a minor arc while arc ADB is a major arc.
k

Lesson 2: Central Angles

Z

Problem:
Definition of a Central Angle ̂ measures 40o and angle k
The center of the circle is point X. If W
measures 100o, find the measurement of angle l and ̂ .
A central angle is an angle formed by two radii with the
vertex at the CENTER of the circle. 1. Finding the angle measure of angle l.

Angle l is a central angle (since the vertex is in the center) with an

For Example: intercepted arc of WY. The measurement of W ̂ is 40o.

central angle = intercepted arc

angle l = arc WY
angle l = 40o

2. Finding the arc measure of ̂ .

O
Arc YZ is the intercepted arc of angle k which is a central angle (since
the vertex is in the center). The measurement of angle k is 100o.
B central angle = intercepted arc
angle k = arc YZ
100o = arc YZ.
82o
A

Since angle AOB has a vertex in the center, O, of the Lesson 2.b: Theorems involving Chords, Arcs,
circle, angle AOB is a CENTRAL ANGLE.
and Central Angles
Notice that this angle formed a minor arc of 82 o. This is
what we call the intercepted arc. Theorem Involving Central Angles and Arcs

Definition of Intercepted Arc In a circle, or congruent circles, congruent central

angles have congruent arcs.
Intercepted Arc is an arc formed between the sides of
any specified angle in the circle. A
It refers to an arc “cut off” or “lying between” the sides of the specified
angle.
a
Relationship of Central Angle and Intercepted Arc
b
Central Angle = Intercepted Arc
B
The measurement of the central angle of a circle is
always equal to the measurement of its intercepted arc. It simply says that if angle a has an intercepted arc of A, and angle b
has an intercepted arc of B, where angle a is equal to angle b, then
Going back to the problem, angle AOB is a central angle with arc A is equal to arc B.
̂ ) of 82o. Based on the relationship
intercepted arc AB (written as AB
stated above, Just remember that:
If central angle “a” is congruent to central angle “b”
measurement of angle AOB = intercepted arc AB
central angle a = central angle b
Thus, the measurement of angle AOB is also 82o. intercepted arc A = intercepted arc B
23
and since central angle = intercepted arc, Angle a and b are central angles of the circle. If angle a, which
measures 500, is congruent to angle b and chord A measures 12 cm,
find the value of angle b and chord B.
If central angle “a” is congruent to central angle “b”
Since angle a and b are congruent central angles,
central angle a = central angle b = central angle a = central angle b
intercepted arc A = intercepted arc B
Because of this, according to the theorem, their chords are also equal.
chord A = chord B
Example Problem:
Angles a and b are central angle. Suppose that angle a is congruent to If central angle a is 50o, then central angle b is also 500.
angle b and it measures 55o. Find the measurement of angle b, arc A, If chord A is 12 cm, chord B is also 12 cm.
and arc B.

The Illustration:

Converses of the Theorems Involving Chords, Arcs, and

A Central Angle

a Converses (if q then p) are just the reverse of the

original theorems (if p then q)
b
The converse of the first theorem:
1. In a circle, or congruent circles, congruent arcs have
B congruent central angles.
Since angle a and b are congruent central angles,
central angle a =central angle b =intercepted arc A = intercepted arc B The converse of the second theorem:
2. In a circle, or congruent circles, congruent chords
If, central angle a measures 55o then the other variables measure 55o have congruent central angles.
also.

Answer: Angle B measures 55 degrees, Arc A measures 55 degrees, These two converses are still true.
and Arc B measures 55 degrees.

Theorem Involving Central Angles and Chords Lesson 3: Inscribed Angles

In a circle, or congruent circles, congruent central

angles have congruent chords. Definition of Inscribed Angles

Just remember that: An inscribed angle is an angle with its vertex ON the
If central angle “a” is congruent to central angle “b” circle, formed by two intersecting chords.

central angle a = central angle b

chord A = chord B O

Note: This is a theorem which involves central angles

and chords and since chords are measured by length
and not in degrees, we cannot equate these four
variables (unlike on the theorem involving intercepted
arcs and central angles). B

Example:
82o
A
A
a Since angle AOB has a vertex, O, on the circle, angle
AOB is an INSCRIBED ANGLE.
b
Based on the illustration, angle AOB, an inscribed angle,
B forms an intercepted arc of 82o. So what is the
measurement of angle AOB?

24
Relationship of Inscribed Angle and Intercepted Arc Lesson 3.b: Theorems involving Arcs and
Inscribed Angles
Inscribed Angle = Intercepted Arc

The measurement of the inscribed angle of a circle is The Thales Theorem

always equal to half the measurement of its intercepted
arc. This theorem states than an angle inscribed in a
semicircle is a right angle.
Going back to the problem, angle AOB, an inscribed angle, forms an
intercepted arc of 82o. This is because a semicircle measures 180o. Therefore,
Inscribed Angle = (1/2) Intercepted Arc its inscribed angle is half of 180 which is 90o, a right
Angle AOB = (1/2) Arc AB angle.
Angle AOB = (1/2) 82o
Angle AOB = 41o

Thus, the measurement of angle AOB is 41o. C B

Practicing your knowledge about inscribed angles and intercepted
arcs:

K A
r M
q If Arc AB = 180O, a semicircle, then the inscribed angle ACB measures
90o.

*When you connect the two endpoints of the angle (labelled with a
broken line), the diameter is formed.*
L

Theorem involving inscribed angles and same arc

J
In a circle, inscribed angles that intercept the same arc
are congruent.
Problem:
K is a point on the circle such that angles JKL (angle q) and LKM
(angle r) are inscribed angles. If angle r measures 20 degrees and arc This is because the two inscribed angles will share with
JL measures 50 degrees, find the measurement of angle q and arc one arc and definitely, both will have the same angle
ML. measure.
1. Solving for the value of angle q.
C B
Angle q is an inscribed angle with arc JL as its inscribed angle. Since
arc JL measures 50o,

Inscribed Angle = (1/2) Intercepted Arc

Angle q = (1/2) Arc JL
Angle q = (1/2) 50o A D
Angle q = 25o 120
o

The measurement of angle q is 25 degrees.

Since both inscribed angles ACD and ABD have an intercepted arc AD,
2. Solving for the value of arc ML. which measures 120o, these two angles will have the same
measurement.
ML is the intercepted arc of the inscribed angle r. Since angle r
measures 20 degrees, Inscribed Angle = (1/2) Intercepted Arc
Angle ACD = Angle ABD = (1/2) 120O
Inscribed Angle = (1/2) Intercepted Arc Angle ACD = Angle ABD = 60O
Angle r = (1/2) Arc ML
20o = (1/2) Arc ML Therefore, both angles ACD and ABD measure 60o.
by multiplying 2 on both sides,
Note: If two angles intercepted the same arc length but NOT the same arc, their
40o = Arc ML degrees (measurements) are equal but NOT CONGRUENT.

The measurement of arc ML is 40o. If two angles intercepted the same arc length AND the same arc, their degrees
(measurements) are equal AND congruent.

25
Theorem Involving Cyclic Quadrilateral Problem: Quadrilateral TURV is inscribed in a circle. If angle R is 50o
and angle U is 100o, find the angle measure of angles T and V.
Cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral inscribed in a
Solution:
circle.
We have a cyclic quadrilateral. Based on the theorem, its opposite
In geometry, when we use the term “inscribed in a circle”, a certain sides are supplementary.
polygon is inside the circle.
1. Finding the angle measure of angle T.
When we use the term “circumscribed a circle”, a circle is inside the
certain polygon. The opposite angle of T is angle R. Based on the theorem,
angle T + angle R = 180o
Since cyclic quadrilateral inscribes in a circle, the quadrilateral itself angle T + 50o = 180o
is inside the circle. angle T = 130o

This theorem states that the opposite angles in a cyclic The measurement of angle T is 130o.
quadrilateral are supplementary (sum is 180o).
2. Finding the angle measure of angle V.

Proving the theorem, The opposite angle of V is angle U. Based on the theorem,
angle V + angle U = 180o
angle V + 100o = 180o
arc G X angle V = 80o
W
The measurement of angle V is 80o.
arc F
Y Z

Lesson 4: Tangents and Secants of a Circle

1. Choose any angles that are opposite to each other.
(Either angles W and Z, or angles Y and X)
Note: All angles of a cyclic cylinder are inscribed. Secant is a line that intersects the circumference at two
points.
Suppose that we choose angles W and Z.

2. Know the intercepted arcs of those angles. The types of secant are external secant and internal
secant, but usually, they are found in a secant SEGMENT
The intercepted arc of angle W is arc F while the intercepted arc of (which is on the next lesson).
angle Z is arc G.

3. Make an equation using your arcs and angles.

Since the intercepted arc of the inscribed angle W is arc F,

angle W = (1/2) arc F

Since the intercepted arc of the inscribed angle Z is arc G,

angle Z = (1/2) arc G

If we will add these two equations,

angle W + Z = (1/2) arc F + (1/2) arc G The black line is an example of a secant because it intersects the
circumference of the circle at two points.
By factoring out (1/2),
angle W + Z = (1/2)(arc F+G) Tangent is a line that intersects the circumference at
Notice that when arc F is added to arc G the result is already the one point.
whole circle. Remember that a whole circle measures 360o.

W + Z = (1/2)(360o)
angle W + Z = 180o

The sum of angles W and Z is 180. W and Z are opposite angles of a

cyclic quadrilateral. Therefore, it satisfies the theorem.

Example:

T
U The black line is an example of a tangent because it intersects the
circumference of the circle at one point (the point of tangency).

V R

26
Definition of Point of Tangency

Point of tangency is a point on a circle where the

tangent and the circle intersect.

Theorem Including the Point of Tangency

If a line is tangent to a circle, it is perpendicular to the

radius drawn to the point of tangency.

3. Draw a common tangent. (Since it is a common tangent, it must be

the tangent of all circles).

This common tangent intersects the imaginary line (the segment that
If you draw a line (blue) from the center of the circle to joins the centers of the circles). Therefore, it is an INTERNAL
the point of tangency (red), it forms a 90o with the TANGENT or internal common tangent.
tangent line (black).
Draw another common tangent. (Since it is a common tangent, it must
be the tangent of all circles).
Common Tangents

Common tangents are lines, rays, or segments that are

tangent to more than one circle at the same time.

There are two types of common tangents:

1. External Tangent: These are the tangents that do not Notice that this tangent does not intersect the imaginary line (the
segment that joins the centers of the circles). Therefore, it is an
intersect the segment that joins the centers of the
EXTERNAL TANGENT or external common tangent.
circles.

2. Internal Tangent: These are the tangents that REMEMBER: If a line intersects ONE CIRCLE at ONE
intersect the segment that joins the centers of the POINT then it is a TANGENT.
circles.
If a line intersects MORE THAN ONE CIRCLE at ONE
To understand the types of common tangents: POINT EACH CIRCLE then it is a COMMON TANGENT.

Since we are talking about common tangents (not tangent alone), the
number of circles in this scenario is more than one.
Number of Common Tangents on Each Case
1. First step is to locate the center of each circle.
1. Two Separate Circles
This will yield to 4 common tangents.

(Two EXTERNAL tangents in yellow and two INTERNAL tangents in

purple)
2. Draw an imaginary line that connects these two points.

27
2. Two Externally Tangent Circles Scenario 1: Concentric Circles
This will yield to 3 common tangents. Concentric circles are circles with the same center.
Two circles are externally tangent if they share a single point and one
circle is NOT IN the other circle.

(No external and internal tangents)

This is an example of Externally Tangent Circles.
Scenario 2: One circle floating inside the other, without
touching.

(Two EXTERNAL tangents in yellow and one INTERNAL tangent in (No external and internal tangents)
purple)

3. Two Overlapping Circles

This will yield to 2 common tangents Lesson 5: Tangent and Secant Segments of a
Circle

Tangent segment and secant segment have the same

meaning as tangent and secant. But, instead of using
lines, you will use segments (has endpoints).

An example of secant segment:

(Two EXTERNAL tangents in yellow, no internal tangent)

4. Two Internally Tangent Circles external secant

This will yield to 1 common tangent

Two circles are internally tangent if they share a single point and one
circle is INSIDE the other circle. internal secant

(The black line is an example of a secant segment).

External secant is the portion of the secant which is not

in the circle.

This is an example of internally tangent circles. Internal secant is the portion of the secant which is
inside the circle.

An example of tangent segment/ external tangent

segment:

(One EXTERNAL tangent in yellow, and no internal tangent)

5. Circle within a circle but do not share any points.

No common tangents
(The black line is an example of a tangent segment)

28
Theorem on Tangent Segments The segments of the chord are:

Tangent segments to a circle from the same external Yellow chord : a and b
point are congruent. Blue chord : c and d

A Based on the formula,

C
(a)(b) = (c)(d)

Example:
B
Find the value of x in the illustration:

Tangent segment AC and tangent segment BC are both 10 20

from the external point C.

By applying the theorem, 5 x

Tangent AC is congruent to tangent BC (thus, they are

equal).
Based on the power theorem involving intersecting chords, multiply
the lengths of the segments of one chord and equate it to the product
of the lengths of the segments of the other chord.

The segments of the yellow chord are 10 and x. The segments of the
Lesson 6: Power Theorems involving Tangents, blue chord are 20 and 5. Substituting the values, we will get:
Chords, and Secants
(10)(x) = (20)(5) or (20)(5) = (10)(x)
(10)(x) = 100
10x = 100
x = 10
Power Theorem Involving Intersecting Chords
The value of x is 10.
This theorem states that if two chords intersect in a
circle, the product of the lengths of the segments of one Power Theorem Involving Two Secants
chord is equal to the product of the lengths of the
segments of the other chord. This theorem states that if two secant segments are
drawn to a circle from the same external point, the
A TIP: The segments of a particular chord are always on product of the length of one secant segment and its
the same side of the equation. external part is equal to the product of the length of the
other secant segment and its external parts.
Intersecting Chords Formula:
A TIP: The external segment and the whole secant of a
(segment piece)(segment piece) = (segment particular secant are always on the same side of the
piece) (segment piece) equation.

Using the tip, if the chord has segments X and Y, then X and Y
are the factors on one side of the equation. Two Secants Formula:

Illustration: (whole secant)(external part) = (whole

secant)(external part)

a d Using the tip, if the secant is A, then the whole secant A and
the external part of secant A are the factors on one side of the
c b equation.

Illustration:
29
 x Secant-Tangent Formula:

(whole secant)(external part) = (tangent)2

y Illustration:

w
k

l
z

m
The whole yellow secant is “x”, and its external part is
“y”.

The whole blue secant is “z”, and its external part is “w”. The whole blue secant is “m”, and its external part is “l”.
Based on the formula, The tangent segment is “k”.
(x)(y) = (z)(w) Based on the formula,
Example: (m)(l) = k2
Find the length of the purple secant.
Example:

Find the length of the tangent segment.

6
27
3

20

The whole red secant measures 20 with an external segment of 3.

The external part of the purple secant is 6 and the measurement of The whole blue secant measures 27 with an external segment of 3.
the whole secant is unknown.
The measurement of the tangent is unknown.
By using the theorem involving two secants,
By using the theorem involving secant and tangent,
(whole secant)(external part) = (whole secant)(external part)
(20)(3) = (x)(6) (whole secant)(external part) = (tangent)2
60 = 6x (27)(3) = (x)2
10 = x 81 = x2
9=x
The length of the purple secant is 10.
The length of the tangent segment is 9.

Power Theorem Involving Secant and Tangent

Lesson 7: Formulas for Angles in a Circle
If a secant segment and tangent segment are drawn to
a circle from the same external point, the product of the There are five formulas to find the angles in a circle. We
length of the secant segment and its external part is already discussed the central and inscribed angle. So,
equal to the square of the tangent segment. the remaining three formulas are:

30
1. Tangent Chord Angle Problem: XY (a chord) and YZ (a tangent segment) intersect at point Y,
which is a point on the circle, forming the angle XYZ. If angle XYZ
measures 60o, find the measurement of its intercepted arc.
An angle formed by an intersecting tangent and chord
has its vertex “on” the circle. Solution:

Angle XYZ is an angle formed by an intersecting tangent and chord

Example:
and its vertex, point Y, is ON the circle. Therefore, angle XYZ is a
tangent chord angle and it intercepts arc XY.
200o C Based on the relationship of tangent chord angle with its intercepted
arc,

1
Tangent Chord Angle = Intercepted Arc
B 2
angle XYZ = (1/2) arc XY
60o = (1/2) arc XY

multiplying both sides by 2,

A 120o = arc XY

Thus, the intercepted arc (arc XY) of angle XYZ measures 120o
Segment AB (chord in the circle) intersects with segment CB (tangent
segment) at point B (point ON the circle) forming the angle ABC.
Based on the definition above, angle ABC is a tangent chord angle. 2. Angle Formed by Two intersecting Chords
Angle ABC intercepted an arc AB which measures 200o.
When two chords intersect inside a circle, four angles
Relationship between Tangent Chord Angle and are formed. At the point of intersection, there are two
Intercepted Arc pairs of vertical angles. Also, two adjacent angles form
a linear pair (adjacent with a sum of 180o).
Tangent Chord Angle:
Example:
1
Tangent Chord Angle = 2Intercepted Arc
A
The measurement of the tangent chord of a circle is
C
always equal to half the measurement of its intercepted
arc. E
Going back to the problem, angle ABC is a tangent chord angle with an
intercepted arc AB of 2000. Using the formula, B D
1
Tangent Chord Angle = Intercepted Arc
2
Angle ABC = (1/2) arc AB Segment AB and segment CD are chords of the circle which
Angle ABC = (1/2) 200o intersected at point E.
Angle ABC = 1000
According to the definition above, there are TWO PAIRS ( a total of
Thus, the measurement of angle ABC is 100o. four) of vertical angles when two chords intersect.

Practicing your knowledge about tangent chord angle and its In the example, angle CEA and angle BED are vertical
intercepted arc: angles. Angle AED and angle CEB are vertical angles.

Example: We all know that a vertical angle is equal to its

corresponding vertical angle. So,
X angle CEA = angle BED
angle AED = angle CEB

The definition above also states that two adjacent angles form a linear
pair (adjacent with a sum of 180o).

In the example, angles CEA and AED are adjacent , CEA and
Y 60o CEB are adjacent, CEB and BED are adjacent, BED and AED
are adjacent. As stated in the definition, each pair of
adjacent angles form a linear pair (a sum of 180o). So,
angles CEA + AED = 180o
Z angles CEA + CEB = 180o
angles CEB + BED = 180o
angles BED + AED = 180o
31
Relationship between Angles formed by Two Remember that both angles AED and CEB form a linear pair
(sum of 180o) with either angle CEA or angle BED.
Intersecting Chords and their Intercepted Arcs
Since angles CEA and BED both measure 43o,
Angle Formed by Two Chords: Angle AED = 180O – 43O = 137o
Angle CEB = 180O – 43O = 137o
1
Angle formed by two chords = (Sum of Answer:
2 Angle CEA = 43o
Intercepted Arcs Angle BED = 43o
Angle AED = 137o
Angle CEB = 137o
One angle formed by two chords is equal to half the
sum of intercepted arcs
3. Angles formed Outside of the Circle by Intersection of
*The sum of the intercepted arcs in this equation is the Two Tangents, Two Secants, or Tangent and Secant
sum of the arc intercepted by an angle and the arc
intercepted by its vertical angle* The formulas for all three of these situations are the
same:
Example:
1
Find the value of angles CEA, BED, AED, and CEB.
Angle formed outside the circle = (Difference
2
of Intercepted Arcs)
32o
A The angle formed outside the circle is equal to half the
C difference of its two intercepted arcs

*When subtracting, start with the larger arc*

E

B Scenario 1: Angles formed Outside of the Circle by

o D Intersection of Two Tangents
54
Example:

Solution:
A C
Arc AC is the intercepted arc of angle CEA. Arc BD is the intercepted
arc of angle BED.
120o
Angle CEA and angle BED are vertical angles. Meaning, they have the
same angle measure.
D
Given the intercepted arcs and their corresponding vertical angles, we
can use the formula above. 240o B

Since we only need one angle, either choose angle CEA or

BED.

If we will choose angle CEA, its intercepted arc is arc AC Suppose that arc AB (red) measures 120o while arc ADB
while the intercepted arc of its vertical angle is arc BD. By (green) measures 240o. Find the measurement of angle
substitution,
ACB.
1
Angle formed by two chords = = (Sum of Intercepted Arcs)
2 Solution:
Angle CEA = (1/2)(Arc AC + Arc BD)
Angle CEA = (1/2)(32o+ 54o) Angle ACB is an angle formed by two tangent segments, AC and BC.
Angle CEA = (1/2)(86o) Notice that it intercepted two arcs, ADB and AB (since both arcs are
Angle CEA = 43o located between the sides of the angle).

Remember that angle CEA and BED are vertical angles. So, Using the formula above,
angle BED also measures 43o.
1
Angle formed outside the circle = (Difference of Intercepted Arcs)
2
To find the values of angles AED and CEB, Angle ACB = (1/2)(Arc ADB – Arc AB)
*when subtracting always start with the larger arc*

32
 Angle ACB = (1/2)(240o– 120o) Solution:
Angle ACB = (1/2)(120o)
Angle ACB = 60o Angle ACD is an angle outside the circle formed by intersecting
tangent (AC) and secant (CD). Notice that it intercepts two arcs, AB
The measurement of angle ACB is 60o. and AD (since both arcs are located between the sides of the angle).

Using the same formula,

Scenario 2: Angles formed Outside of the Circle by 1
Intersection of Two Secants Angle formed outside the circle = (Difference of Intercepted Arcs)
2
Angle ACD = (1/2)(Arc AD – Arc AB)
*when subtracting always start with the larger arc*
Example:
Angle ACD= (1/2)(164o-70o)
C Angle ACD = (1/2) (94o)
A Angle ACD = 47O
30o
The measurement of angle ACD is 47o.
D
B

100o
Enhancement Lesson 1: Area of Sectors and
Segments
E
Suppose that arc AB (red) measures 30o and arc DE
(blue) measures 100o.Find the measurement of Angle Definition of a Sector
DCE.
Sector is any portion on a circle bounded by two radii
Solution: and an arc. (Sector usually looks like a pizza)
Angle DCE is an angle outside the circle formed by two intersecting
secants, DC and EC. Notice that it intercepts two arcs, AB and DE
(since both arcs are located between the sides of the angle).

Using the same formula,

1
Angle formed outside the circle = (Difference of Intercepted Arcs)
2
Angle DCE = (1/2)(Arc DE – Arc AB)
*when subtracting always start with the larger arc*

Angle DCE = (1/2)(100o-30o)

Angle DCE = (1/2) (70o)
Angle DCE = 35O

The measurement of angle DCE is 35o.

The gray part in the figure is an example of sector
because it is bounded by two radii and arc. The white
Scenario 3: Angles formed Outside of the Circle by part inside the circle is a sector too! because it is still
Intersection of Tangent and Secant bounded by two radii and an arc.

Example: The whole circle has an area of πr2. Thus, a semi-circle has an area of
C (1 2)πr2 while a quarter circle has an area of (1 4) πr2.
A
Note: A semi-circle has a central angle of 180o. A whole circle has a
70o central angle of 360o. Therefore semi-circle, in fractional part, is
180o/360o or ½ of the whole circle. That is why we multiplied (1/2) to
B πr2.

164o Notice that the sector covers a fractional part of the

whole circle. This is why the area of a sector is:
D n
36
πr2
Suppose that arc AB (red) measures 70o and arc AD
(blue) measures 164o.Find the measurement of Angle
ACD. where n is the central angle of the sector

33
Definition of a Segment Instead of using the actual length of the figure, we use
“coordinate” to locate a position of a certain point.
Segment is a portion of a circle bounded by a chord and
an arc. For example,
Square with a side of 3.

Without the using coordinate geometry, the square is located

anywhere on the Cartesian plane. Therefore, it has no definite
position.

If we use coordinate geometry and say,

The vertices of a square are at points (0,0) , (0,3), (3,0), and (3,3).

This means that the square is in a certain position. If we will connect

the points to form a square and measure each length, we will find out
that the square has a side of 3 units.

Coordinate proof is easy to perform if we use the x- and

y-axis of the Cartesian plane as the sides of a polygon.
The gray part is an example of a segment. Also, use coordinates that will make computations as
simple as possible.
To find the area of a segment, just draw a triangle with
radii and chord as its legs. Coordinate proofs include the usage of some formulas
like the midpoint and distance formula.

Midpoint Formula

Distance Formula

Notice that if you add the area of the triangle and the
segment, you will get the area of a sector.
Lesson 9: Equation of a Circle
So, the formula to find the area of a segment is:

Segment Area = Sector Area – Area of the Standard Form Equation

Triangle
(x -h)²+(y -k)²=r²

where:
h is the x-coordinate of the center of the circle
Lesson 8: Coordinate Geometry k is the y-coordinate of the center of the cicle
*meaning (h,k) is the center*
r is the radius of the circle
Definition of Coordinate Geometry
General Form Equation
Coordinate geometry is a process that often involves
placing geometric figures in a coordinate plane x²+y²+Dx+Ey+F=0
(Cartesian plane). This blends algebra and geometry
which is referred to as “analytic geometry”.
where:
D=-2h
The Coordinate Proof E=-2k
F=h²+k²-r²
The Coordinate proof is a proof of a geometric theorem
which uses “generalized” points on the Cartesian plane. *The meaning of h, k, and r are still the same with the equation above*

34
Third Quarter

35
Lesson 1: Counting Principle
principle of counting). Meaning, the number of ways on
the first event is just the same as the number of ways
Definition of Fundamental Principle of Counting on the second event.

The Fundamental Principle of Counting states that if one If there is a repetition of events: If the first event has “n” ways, then
the second event has “n” ways too. Using the Fundamental Principle of
event has m possible ways and a second independent
Counting, we will multiply the number of ways of each event.
event has n possible ways, then there are m x n total
possible ways for the two events together. Then, we will yield to “n times n”. Basically, we will just multiply “n”
ways to itself (the number of times the event repeats/appears).
Fundamental Principle of Counting formula:
Formula for repetition of events:
(m)(n)… (n)(n)… or nx
*the number of factors to be multiplied is based on the number of
events*
where n is number of possible ways of one event and x
Example: is the number of times it will appear/repeat.

You are buying a new car. You have the following Example:
choices:
In a lock, there are 10 numbers to choose from
a. 2 body styles (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and we have to choose 3 numbers to
b. 5 available colors unlock it. Find the total number of arrangements.
c. 3 models
Solution:
We have three events (since we will choose 3 numbers to unlock it).
Find the total number of choices.
Event 1: The First Number
Since there are 10 numbers to choose from, the number of
By using a tree diagram:
ways on this event is 10.

Event 2: The Second Number

Since there are no restrictions, we still have 10 numbers to
choose from. The number of ways on this event is 10.

Event 3: The Third Number

Since there are no restrictions, we still have 10 numbers to
choose from. The number of ways on this event is 10.

Multiplying all the possible ways on each event, we will get 1000
Counting the last branches of the tree diagram, we will possible arrangements.
get 30 car choices.
In short, since there are no restrictions, repetition of the
If we will use the fundamental principle of counting: numbers is allowed on three events (since we will
choose 3 numbers to unlock it). There are 10 numbers to
Based on the problem the first event (body styles) has 2 choose from. Thus,
possible ways, the second event (available colors) has 5
possible ways, and the third event (models) has 3 103 = 1000
possible ways.
*where 10 is the number of ways on each event and 3 is the number of
events*
Multiplying all the possible ways per event,
(2)(5)(3) = 30 choices The total number of arrangements is 1000.

Repetition of Events Example of a Scenario with and without repetition

Repetition of events still follows the definition of the Problem: In a lock, there are 10 numbers to choose from
fundamental principle of counting. (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) and we have to choose 4 numbers to
unlock it but the 4th number must not be 0. Find the
The special case is, the first event is not different from total number of arrangements.
the second event (unlike on a basic fundamental

36
Solution: Lesson 3: Permutations
We have four events (since we will choose 4 numbers to unlock it).

Event 1: The First Number Definition of Permutation

Since there are no restrictions on the first number, we still
have 10 numbers to choose from. The number of ways on
A permutation is an arrangement of objects in specific
this event is 10.
order.
Event 2: The Second Number
Since there are no restrictions on the second number, we REMEMBER: The order of the arrangement is important!
still have 10 numbers to choose from. The number of ways
Order matters! (meaning AX is different from XA)
on this event is 10.

Event 3: The Third Number Example: You have four dogs namely 1,2,3 and 4. How
Since there are no restrictions on the third number, we still many different ways could the dogs be arranged in a
have 10 numbers to choose from. The number of ways on
line?
this event is 10.

Event 4: The Fourth Number By listing,

Since there are RESTRICTIONS on the fourth number, we
have 9 numbers to choose from (The problem stated that 1,2,3,4 2,1,3,4 3,1,2,4 4,1,2,3
the fourth number must not be 0). The number of ways on 1,2,4,3 2,1,4,3 3,1,4,2 4,1,3,2
this event is 9. 1,3,2,4 2,3,1,4 3,2,1,4 4,2,1,3
1,3,4,2 2,3,4,1 3,2,4,1 4,2,3,1
Multiplying all the possible ways on each event, we will get 9000 1,4,2,3 2,4,1,3 3,4,1,2 4,3,1,2
possible arrangements. 1,4,3,2 2,4,3,1 3,4,2,1 4,3,2,1

In short, the first three numbers have no restrictions Counting all the possible ways, the answer is 24.
(so each has 10 numbers to choose from) while the last
number has a restriction (leaving only 9 numbers to By using the Fundamental Principle of Counting, we will
choose from). Thus, multiply all the possible ways on each event.

There are four events (since we will arrange four dogs):

(103)(9) = 9000
First Event: We have a total of 4 dogs to choose from.
*where 10 is the number of ways on the first three events; 3 is the Second Event: Since we already picked 1 dog, we have a total of 3 dogs
number of events with 10 number of ways; 9 is the number of ways on left to choose from.
the last number (note that the factor 9 has an invisible exponent of 1 Third Event: Since we already picked 2 dogs, we have a total of 2 dogs
because only one event has 9 number of ways* left to choose from.
Fourth Event: Since we already picked 3 dogs, we have a total of 1 dog
The total number of arrangements is 9000. left to choose from.

Multiplying all ways on each event, we will have:

Lesson 2: Factorials 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 ways

We also use factorials on permutations.

Definition of factorials Formula for Permutation:

Factorial refers to the process of multiplying an integer

to all the POSITIVE integers below it.
n
Factorial form:
n r
where:
n! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)…1 “n” is the total number of objects
r is the number of object chosen (wanted to arrange)
where n is any positive integer

Example: In a calculator, the notation for permutation is:

7! = 7 ∙ 6 ∙ 5 ∙ 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 5040 (read as “n” objects taken “r” at a time)
(read as 7 factorial)
n Pr
Note: 0! = 1 (0 factorial is 1, special case) We write it as P(n,r) on a solution.
37
Going back to the problem, total number of objects = 2
total number of object chosen or wanted to arrange = 1
By using the formula on permutations,

Since we have 4 dogs (which is the total number of objects) and we by substitution,
will arrange 4 dogs (which is the number of object chosen or wanted
to arrange), we will have:
n
n n r
n r 2
4 2 1
= = 2 ways
(4-4)

4 *There are 2 possible letters on the first letter*

=

b. The last letter must be a consonant.

4!, which is 24, divided by 0!, which is 1, will yield to: We have 4 consonants in the word WIZARD and we will
only use one of them as the last letter. So,
= 24 ways
total number of objects = 4
Note: To check, input 4 P4 on your calculator.
total number of object chosen or wanted to arrange = 1
Dealing with Special Arrangements
by substitution,
Example: Using the letters from the word “WI ARD”, n
how many 6-letter arrangements (no repetition) are
n r
possible if the first letter must be a vowel and the last 4
letter must be a consonant?
4 1
In this case, there is a condition needed to be satisfied. (4)(3)(2)(1)
=
3
If we will use the fundamental principle of counting,
(4)(3)(2)(1)
Make sure to do the letters with conditions first. =
(3)(2)(1)
FIRST LETTER: The first letter must be a vowel. Since there
are two vowels in the word WIZARD, there are 2 ways in = 4 ways
this event.
LAST LETTER: The last letter must be a consonant. Since
there are four vowels in the word WIZARD, there are 4 ways c. The remaining letters
in this event. We have 4 remaining letters and we will use all of the,.
So,
SECOND LETTER: There is no restriction on this letter. Since
we already picked 2 letters, we have a total of 4 letters left
to choose from. total number of objects = 4
THIRD LETTER: There is no restriction on this letter. Since total number of object chosen or wanted to arrange = 4
we already picked 3 letters, we have a total of 3 letters left
to choose from.
FOURTH LETTER: There is no restriction on this letter. Since
we already picked 4 letters, we have a total of 2 letters left by substitution,
to choose from.
FIFTH LETTER: There is no restriction on this letter. Since n
we already picked 5 letters, we have a total of 1 letter left to
choose from.
n r
4
Multiplying all the possible ways on each event we will 4 4
have: 192 ways. = 24 ways

Using the formula on permutations, By multiplying all the answers, we will get 192.
*Always do the object with condition first*

a. The first letter must be a vowel. Therefore: We can arrange the word WIZARD, with a
We have 2 vowels in the word WIZARD and we will only vowel on the first letter and a consonant on the last
use one of them as the first letter. So, letter, in 192 ways.

38
Lesson 3.a: Linear Permutations If we arranged all books, it can be CMMCMM which does not satisfy
the condition.

Scenario 1: Without Restriction If we arranged it by books, the math books will only replace the math
books while the chemistry books will only replace the chemistry
Example: The number of ways where 10 students can be books which will satisfy the condition (they must be alternating).
arranged in a row of seats.
MCMCMCM

Number of objects = 10 We will arrange the Math books first, (this is to let the alternating
Number of objects chosen or wanted to arrange = 10 pattern stay)
4
Substituting to the formula, 4 4

n = 4! or 24 ways
n r We will arrange the Chemistry book next, this is to let the alternating
pattern stay)
1 3
1 1 3 3
= 10!
= 3! or 6 ways
= 3,628,800 ways
Multiplying both events we will have:
A TIP: If you want to arrange ALL OBJECTS WITHOUT (24)(6) = 144 ways
ANY CONDITIONS or restrictions, the number of ways is
always n! (where n is the number of objects). A TIP: If you arrange an ODD TOTAL NUMBER of objects
ALTERNATELY, the total number of ways is (a!)(b!),
where “a” is the number of objects of the same kind and
Scenario 2: Limited to certain positions “b” is the number of objects of the same kind (but
different from “a”). You can use this if and only if the
Example: The number of ways where 3 out of 11 given condition is “it must be alternating”. Having other
contestants in a pageant will win 1st, 2nd and 3rd. conditions may affect the formula.

Substituting to the formula, Going back to the third scenario, if we will use the tip
above, we will have:
11
*4 Math books and 3 Chemistry books arranged alternately*
11 3
(4!)(3!)
11 *multiply 4 factorial by 3 factorial*
8
*since we are dividing 11 factorial by 8 factorial, factors on the = 144 ways
numerator, starting from 8 to 1, will be cancelled out*
Scenario 4: Alternating Arrangement (Even Objects)
= (11)(10)(9)
= 990 ways Example: The number of ways where 5 boys and 5 girls
can be arranged alternately on a bench.
Scenario 3: Alternating Arrangement (Odd Objects)
*The total number of objects is 10, which is even*
Example: The number of ways where 4 math books and
3 chemistry books can be arranged alternately. Again, since we are dealing with alternating condition,
we will arrange the boys and the girls separately.
*The total number of objects is 7, which is odd*
Illustration:
We are going to arrange the math and chemistry books BGBGBGBGBG or GBGBGBGBGB
separately. (This is because if we arranged the 7 books
We will arrange the boys first, (this is to let the alternating pattern
together, we will not satisfy the condition) stay)
5
Illustration: 5 5
MCMCMCM
= 5! or 120 ways
“M” refers to math books while “C” refers to chemistry books.

39
We will arrange the girls next, (this is to let the alternating pattern (2)(5!)(5!)
stay) *multiply 2 by 5 factorial and 5factorial*
5
= 28, 800 ways
5 5

= 5! or 120 ways Scenario 5: Separate Groups

Multiplying both answers, we will have 14, 400 ways. Example: The number of ways where 3 girls and 2 boys
can be arranged such that all girls are seated next to
BUT, remember that there are two ways to arrange this scenario (the
first person is either a boy or a girl) because they still satisfy the each other and all boys are seated next to each other.
alternating condition. So we will multiply the number of ways by 2.
Illustration:
(14, 400)(2) = 28, 800 ways
GGGBB or BBGGG
In a factorial notation, the solution to this problem is
Notice that there are two possible scenarios so expect a factor of 2 in
written as: the solution.
n
*Note: P(n,r), a notation, means
(n-r)
We will still arrange the boys and girls separately. In total, there are:
(2)(3!)(2!)
[ P(5,5)× P(5,5) ] + [ P(5,5)× P(5,5) ] = 28, 800 ways
= 24 ways

Why did we use addition and not multiplication? Notice that it has the same formula on scenario 4. This
is because (1) we arrange the boys and girls separately
We multiply the number of ways if two or more events to maintain the pattern on both scenarios, and (2) there
can happen at the same time. are two possible ways since the objects on both
scenarios may interchange positions.
We add the number of ways if two or more events
cannot happen at the same time. A TIP: In scenario 5, the formula (2)(a!)(b!) is used for
both odd and even total number of objects, where “a” is
In the example, we tried the first scenario where the first person is a the number of objects of the same kind and “b” is the
boy. We arranged the boys first before the girls and multiplied the number of objects of the same kind (but different from
number of ways. We multiplied the number of ways because arranging “a”). However, this is only applicable IF and ONLY IF the
the objects is part of the SAME SCENARIO, where the first person is a
boy.
condition is “the object of the same kind must be next to
each other; a set of another object of the same kind
We also tried the second scenario where the first person is a girl. We must be next to each other as well” and there are two
arranged the girls first before the boys and multiplied the number of possible scenarios. Having other conditions may affect
ways. We multiplied the number of ways because arranging the
objects is part of the SAME SCENARIO, where the first person is a girl.
the formula.

When we solved for the total number of ways, we ADDED the number In the problem, there are 2 possible scenarios (GGGBB or BBGGG), 3
of ways of the first scenario to the number of ways of the second girls and 2 boys. That is why we used: (2)(3!)(2!)
scenario. This is simply because they are DIFFERENT SCENARIOS. You
can‟t place a boy AND a girl on the first bench at the same time.
Scenario 6: Togetherness

A TIP: If you arrange an EVEN TOTAL NUMBER of objects

ALTERNATELY, the total number of ways is (2)(a!)(b!), Example: The number of ways where 7 people can be
where “a” is the number of objects of the same kind and seated in a row of seats with having France, John, and
“b” is the number of objects of the same kind (but Andrew together.
different from “a”). You can use this if and only if the
given condition is “it must be alternating” and there are
two possible scenarios. Having other conditions may The first step to solve this kind of scenario is to count
affect the formula. all those objects (that are together) as one.

If we will count France, John, and Andrew as one person, there is a

Going back to the fourth scenario, if we will use the tip total 5 people. (4 remaining people + France, John and Andrew as one
above, we will have: person)

*5 boys and 5 girls arranged alternately* Solving for the number of ways, we will have
There are two possible scenarios and that is why we multiply it by 2. 5! = 120 ways.
BGBGBGBGBG or GBGBGBGBGB
Remember that we counted France, John, and Andrew as one to keep

40
them together (or sit next to each other). But in reality, France, John, so we will have another 2! on the denominator. Letter L
and Andrew can also arrange themselves on different positions.
also repeated twice so we will have another 2! on the
3! = 6 ways
denominator.
Since both events are in the same scenario (can happen at the same
time), we will multiply 3! and 5!. There are 12 letters in the word CANCELLATION. Thus,
(3!)(5!) = 720 ways

A TIP: In scenario 6, the total number of ways is (x!)(y!), 12

where “x” is the total number of objects that are 2222
together and “y” is the total number of objects in an
event if those objects, which are together, are counted = 29,937,600 distinguishable permutations
as one.
In the word “CANCELLATION”, we have 12 letters and if we will
In the example above, there is a total of 7 people. Three of them are arrange them, we will have 12! ways. But, there are repeating letters
together so, there is a total of 5 if we counted those 3 as one. in the word (letters C,A,N and L).
(3!)(5!) = 720 ways
Since we are finding for DISTINGUISHABLE PERMUTATION, we must
make sure that we will only count one of the events that are just the
Scenario 7: Not Togetherness same (eg. since there are two C‟s, we will have two CCA. CCA and CCA
are just a single event because even when the letter C switched
places, it would still be the same). So, in this case we have to divide
the 12! ways to 2!2!2!2! which is the number of times each letter can be
Example: The number of ways where 7 people can be switched together (because the letters C, A, N and L all repeated
seated in a row of seats such that France, John, and twice).
Andrew are not together?

To find the number of ways in this scenario, just find the

difference between the total number of arrangements Lesson 3.c: Circular Permutation
and the number of ways that France, John, and Andrew
are together.
To calculate the number of ways in which n objects can
Since there are 7 people, the total number of arrangements is 7!. We be arranged in a circle, we arbitrarily fix the position of
already solved the number of ways in which France, John, and one object, so the remaining (n-1) objects can be
Andrew were together. arranged as if they were on a straight line. The number
To solve for not togetherness,
of arrangements in a circle WITHOUT any condition is:
Not togetherness = total number of ways – number of
ways that the objects are together (n-1)!

Not togetherness = 7! – [(3!)(5!)] We arbitrarily fix a position in circular permutation to

Not togetherness = 5040 – 720 have an end object (starting and ending point).
Not togetherness = 4,320 ways
Unlike in a linear permutation, where the total number of ways is n!, a
circular permutation doesn‟t have a starting object. Since it is round, if
all objects will move, then it is possible for the arrangement to be just
Lesson 3.b: Distinguishable Permutation the same.

For example, there are 3 people seated on a round table. Person 1

seated on chair A, person 2 seated on chair B, person 3 seated on
If we have “n” elements of which x are alike of one kind, chair C. If person 1 will move to chair B, person 2 will move to chair C,
y are alike of another kind, z are alike of another kind, and person 3 will move to chair A, their positions changed but NOT
then the number of ordered selections or permutations THE ARRANGEMENT (since it is a circle). In a definite direction (either
is given by: clockwise or counter clockwise), person 1 still seated next to person 2
and person 2 still seated next to person 3.
n
xyz If we will fix person 1 as an arbitrary position, meaning it will not
change its position, only person 2 and 3 will interchange positions
making a NEW ARRANGEMENT where person 1 will sit next to person
Example: The number of ways the word CANCELLATION 3 and person 3 will sit next to person 2. This is why we use the
formula (n-1)! in circular permutations given that there are no any
can be arranged.
given restrictions.

Letter C repeated twice so we will have 2! on the

denominator. Letter A repeated twice so we will have Scenario 1: No restrictions
another 2! on the denominator. Letter N repeated twice
41
Example: The number of ways 5 people can be seated in (5-1)! = 4!
a round table.
Remember that France and Andrew can also arrange
themselves in 2!. Thus, there is a total of
Using the formula (because there are no restrictions),
we will have: (2!)(4!) = 48 ways
(5-1)!
= 4! Scenario 4: Keys in a Ring
= 24 ways

Scenario 2: Alternating Arrangements Example: The number of ways where 5 keys in a key
ring can be arranged.

Example: The number of ways where 3 boys and 3 girls

can sit alternately in a round table. This is a special case of circular permutations wherein
the keys in the key ring can be turned over, clockwise
and anti-clockwise, and still have the same
Note: In a linear permutation, there are two possible events: arrangements. That is why we needed to divide the total
Either BGBGBG or GBGBGB. But in a circular permutation, if number of arrangements by 2. To solve this one, we can
we will arrange them in a circular manner, BGBGBG is just the use the equation (n-1)!/2 (the factorial of n minus 1
same as GBGBGB. This is why we only have 1 event in this divided by 2).
example.
(5-1)!/2
We are going to arrange the boys and the girls = 4! / 2
separately to maintain the condition that they must sit = 12 ways
alternately. But, the boys and the girls are part of only 1
circle. Remember that we need to fix an arbitrary
position. We only need one person as the arbitrary Lesson 4: Combinations
position. So, if we will choose a boy as the starting
point, just subtract 1 from the total number of boys; if
we will choose a girl as the starting point, just subtract
Definition of Combination:
1 from the total number of girls.
A combination is a selection of items from a collection,
such that (unlike permutations) the order of selection
Boys: 2! and Girls: 3!
does not matter.
or
Boys: 3! and Girls: 2!
REMEMBER: The order of selection is not important.
Meaning AX is the same as XA.
Thus, the total number of ways is:
Choosing three students from a room is an example of combination.
(3-1)!(3!) ou only need three students so the arrangement doesn‟t matter.
2!3! Choosing student A first then student B and C is just the same as
= 12 ways choosing student B first then student A and C since they are still the
SAME SET of three students.

Scenario 3: Togetherness The number of different combinations of r objects from

n distinct objects is represented by:

Example: The number of ways where 3 boys and 3 girls permutations

can sit alternately in a round table and France and combinations=
arrangement of r objects
Andrew sit next to each other.
in notation (for calculator),
Just like in a linear permutation, we will count all the objects (that are
nPr
together) as one. nCr =
r
If we will count France and Andrew as one, there will be
where:
a total of 5 people. By setting an arbitrary position, we
“n” is the total number of objects
will have: “r” is the number of object chosen

42
From the previous lesson, nPr = (n!)/(n-r)! Scenario 3: Not Including a Particular Object

n
n r Example: The number of ways a committee of 6 people
nCr =
r can be selected from a group of 8 people if one
particular person must NOT be chosen from the
By simplifying,
committee.
n
combination =
(n r) r
Since one person must not be chosen from the
where: committee, the total number of objects will become 8-1
“n” is the total number of objects which is 7. We will still choose 6 people from the group.
“r” is the number of object chosen
7
Scenario 1: No Restrictions (7 6) 6

= 7 ways
Example: The number of ways a committee of 6 people
can be selected from a group of 8 people. Scenario 4: Specific Object in a Group

The total number of objects is 8 and we will only choose Example: The number of ways a committee of 6 people
6 from it. By substituting to the formula, (4 girls and 2 boys) can be selected from a group of 8
people (4 girls and 4 boys).
n
(n r) r
We will solve for the combinations of girls and boys
8 separately.
(8 6) 6
Since there are 4 girls in the group and we will choose
8 4 girls,
26 4
(4 4) 4
8x7
2 = 1 way
(remember that there is only 1 set of 4 girls in a group)
= 28 ways
Since there are 4 boys in the group and we will choose
Scenario 2: Including a Particular Object 2 of them,
4
(4 2) 2
Example: The number of ways a committee of 6 people = 6 ways
can be selected from a group of 8 people if one
We only separate the solution for boys and girls but remember, they
particular person must be chosen from the committee. are still part of the same scenario so we will multiply the results.

(1)(6) = 6 ways
Since there is one person that must be chosen, one
option and one position is excluded from the selections Scenario 5: Standard Deck of Cards
that‟s why we only need to get the combinations of the
remaining options and positions which are 7 and 5, A standard deck of cards has:
respectively.
4 aces
7 4 for each number cards (2-10)
(7 5) 5 4 for each face cards (jack, queen, and king)
13 hearts
= 21 ways 13 diamonds

43
 13 spades Singing and clapping are events that can happen at the
13 clubs same time. Thus, they are non-mutually exclusive.
26 red cards
26 black cards 3. Independent Events
Total of 52 cards
Two events are said to be independent if the result of
Example: Given that 5 cards are chosen from a standard the second event is not affected by the result of the first
deck of cards, how many of these cards are 2 clubs, 2 event.
spades, 1 heart and 1 diamond?
Tossing a coin will always give you a probability of ½
(either a head or a tail) If you toss a coin and get a head
Since 5 cards are chosen from a standard deck of each time, this is because it is an example of
cards, then it involves combinations. There are 13 clubs independent event. (The result of your second toss is
and 2 of them are chosen so, not affected by the result of your first toss)

13 4. Dependent Events
(13 2) 2
Two events are said to be dependent if the result of the
There are 13 spades and 2 of them are chosen so, second event is affected by the result of the first event.

13 If there are five balls, then the probability of choosing

(13 2) 2 one is 1/5. If you already picked a ball, then the
remaining probability of choosing another one is ¼. This
There are 13 hearts and only one of them is chosen so, is an example of dependent events where the result of
picking a second ball is affected by the result of the first
13 event.
(13 1) 1

Lastly, there are 13 diamonds and only one of them is Lesson 6: Probability
chosen so,

13 Definition of Probability
(13 1) 1
Probability is a numerical description of how likely an
Multiplying them altogether we will get the answer event is to occur or how likely it is that a proposition is
which is 1028196. true. It is a number between 0 and 1 (or 0% to 100%),
where 0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty.

Probability is defined as:

Lesson 5: Types of Events
no. of favorable outcomes
Probability=
total no. of outcomes
1. Mutually Exclusive Events

Two events that have no common outcomes are called Scenario 1: Simple Event
mutually exclusive. These are events that cannot occur
at the same time.
Example: The probability of getting a number 5 in rolling
Running and walking are events that cannot occur at the a die.
same time. Thus, they are mutually exclusive events.
Since a die has 6 numbers, we have 6 total number of
2. Non-Mutually Exclusive Events outcomes. There is only “1” number 5 in a die so we have
1 number of favorable outcome. The probability is:
Two events that have common outcomes are called
non-mutually exclusive. These are events that can 1/6 or 0.166… or 16.67%
occur at the same time.

44
Scenario 2: Compound Events P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B)
when A and B are non-mutually exclusive which means
Example: The probability of getting a 6 and a 1 in a two- they have common outcomes
die experiment.
*Probability of getting A OR B is equal to probability of getting A added
to probability of getting B subtracted by the intersection of A and B (or
the probability of getting A and B)*
In a two die-experiment, the total number of outcomes
is 36 (because we can form 36 pairs).
Example for Mutually Exclusive: A die is rolled. What is
(Based on the fundamental principle of counting, we will have 6
the probability that the number is a 4 OR the number is
outcomes from the first die multiplied to 6 outcomes from the second
die. Another reason is that the two dice are in the same scenario so a 1.
we will multiply the total outcomes of each die)
Based on the definition on lesson 5, mutually exclusive events are
For the favourable outcomes, there are only 2. Either events that do not have a common outcome. Since getting a number 4
and 1 cannot happen at the same time, then they are mutually
the first die is 1 and the second die is 6 OR the first die is
exclusive.
6 and the second die is 1. So the probability is,
Mutually exclusive also means that there are NO
2/36 or 1/ 18 or 0.055… or 5.56% intersections.

Solution:
If we will use another way on solving this problem,
There is only one number 1 and one number 6 on each Sample space: A die has 6 numbers so the sample
die. space is 6.

If the first die rolled a number 1, then the other die must Event A, getting a number of 4: There is only one 4 in a
rolled a number 6 to satisfy the condition. And take note, die so the probability is 1/6.
these may interchange so we will multiply it by 2.
Event B, getting a number of 1: There is only one 1 in a
(1/6) × (1/6) × 2 = 2/36 or 1/18 die so the probability is 1/6.

Using the formula for the Union of Mutually Exclusive

*The first 1/6 refers to either the probability of getting 1 or probability
events,
of getting 6 on a die. If you choose to refer it as the probability of
getting 1, then the second 1/6 refers to the probability of getting 6 on a (1/6) + (1/6)
die. We multiplied it by 2 since these may interchange.* = 2/6 or 1/3

Example for Non-Mutually Exclusive Events: A die is

rolled. What is the probability that the number is even
Lesson 6.a: Union and Intersection of Events OR less than 4.

Based on the definition on lesson 5, non-mutually exclusive events

Union of Events are events that have a common outcome. Since getting an even
number and getting a number less than four can happen at the same
time (the number 2 is an example because it is even and less than 4),
In probability, if the outcome is in either (or both) event then they are non-mutually exclusive.
A and event B, then it is a result of union of events.
Non-mutually exclusive also means that THERE ARE
“OR is associated with the concept of union (combining intersections.
together)”
Solution:
The Addition Rule of Probability is used to find the
probability that event A OR event B happens. Sample Space: A die has 6 numbers so the sample
space is 6.

Rule for Union of Events: Event A, getting an even number: There are 3 even
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) numbers in a die so the probability is 3/6.
when A and B are mutually exclusive
Event B, getting a number less than four: There are 3
*Probability of getting A OR B is equal to probability of getting A added numbers in a die that are less than four so the
to probability of getting B* probability is 3/6.
45
Since event A and event B can happen at the same time. Event A, getting a 3 on a die: There is only one 3 in a die
so the probability is 1/6.
Event A and B, getting an even number AT THE SAME
TIME getting a number less than four: There is only one Sample Size of a Penny: There are two faces in a penny
number (which is the number 2) that is even and so the sample size is 2.
smaller than 4 in a die. So, the probability is 1/6.
Event B, getting a head with a penny: There is only one
Using the formula for the Union of Non-Mutually head in a penny so the probability is 1/2.
Exclusive Events,
(3/6) + (3/6) – (1/6) Using the formula for Intersection of Independent
= 5/6 Events,
(1/6)(1/2)
Intersection of Events = 1/12

In probability, if the outcome is in BOTH event A and

event B, then it is a result of intersection of events. Lesson 6.c: Dependent Events and Conditional
Probability
“AND is associated with the concept of intersection
(overlapping)”
Definition of Conditional Probability
The Multiplication Rule of Probability is used to find the
probability that event A AND event B both occur. The conditional probability of an event B, in relation to
event A, is the probability that event B will occur given
the knowledge that an event A has already occurred.
Rule for Intersection of events
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B) In notation, P(B|A), read as probability of B given A.
when A and B are independent events
If event A occurred first:
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B | A)
when A and B are dependent events – if A occurs first P(A and B)
P B | A)=
P(A)
P(A and B) = P(B) × P(A | B)
when A and B are dependent events – if B occurs first where A and B are DEPENDENT.
*Probability of B given A (or simply probability of B) is equal to the
*We will tackle each rule in the next two lessons* probability of A and B (intersection) divided by probability of A*

Rewriting the formula, we will get

P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B | A)
Lesson 6.b: Probability of Independent Events
The conditional probability of an event A, in relation to
event B, is the probability that event A will occur given
Based on the definition on lesson 5, two events are said to be
independent if the result of the second event is not affected by the the knowledge that an event B has already occurred.
result of the first event.
In notation, P(A|B), read as probability of A given B.
Example for Independent Events: A die is rolled and a
penny is tossed. What is the probability that that a 3 is If event B occurred first:
rolled on the die AND a head is tossed on the penny?
P(A and B)
*The result of the die and the penny does not affect each other so they P A | B)=
are independent events. Since the problem used AND, we are going to P(B)
look for the intersection of events.*
where A and B are DEPENDENT.
Solution: *Probability of A given B (or simply probability of A) is equal to the
probability of A and B (intersection) divided by probability of B*
Sample Size of a die: There are 6 numbers so the
sample size is 6. Rewriting the formula, we will get
P(A and B) = P(B) × P(A | B)

46
Probability of Dependent Events Event A, drawing a club: There are 13 clubs in a deck so
the probability is 13/52 or 1/4.
Two events are said to be dependent if the result of the
second event is affected by the result of the first event Sample Space after getting a card: There are 51 cards
or vice versa. left.

Meaning, one event must happen first before the other Event B, drawing a heart: There are 13 hearts in a deck
one to occur. This is why the probability of Dependent so the probability is 13/51.
Events follows the formula of Conditional Probability.
Since event A happened first,
Example for Dependent Events: Two cards are drawn
from a standard deck of card. What is the probability P(A and B)
P B | A)=
that the first card is a club and the second card is a P(A)
heart? (The first card was not put back into the deck of or
cards) P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B | A)

*Probability of B given A simply means the probability of B*

Since the first card was not put back into the deck of
cards, the probability of getting the second card will be Solving for the probability of A AND B,
affected. Thus, they are dependent events.
P(A and B) = 1/4 × 13/51
Solution: = 13/204

Sample Space: There are 52 cards in a standard deck so

the sample space is 52.

47
Fourth Quarter

48
Lesson 1: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Mean is the average of all the numbers in a data set.
Data Median is the middle number in a given data set.

What is a quantile?
What is a measure of position?
Quantile is where a sample is divided into equal-sized,
adjacent subgroups. It can also refer to dividing a
A measure of position is a method by which the position
probability distribution into areas of equal probability.
of a particular data value within the given data set can
be identified.
Quartiles, Deciles, and Percentiles are the example of
Quantiles.
What is a standard score?

The standard score (z-score) is the distance of the The Quartile

score from the mean in terms of the standard deviation.
It tells the position of the observed values (wheter Quartile is a type of quantile which divides the number
above or below the mean of the distribution). of data points into four equal parts or quarters (25%).

The 2nd quartile (Q2) is the median of the whole data set.
50% of the data is below the second quartile. Called as
the middle quartile.

The 1st quartile (Q1) is the median of the lowest data and
the second quartile. 25% of the data is below the first
quartile. Called as the lower quartile.

The 3rd quartile (Q3) is the median of the second

quartile and the highest data. 75% of the data is below
the third quartile. Called as the higher quartile.

What is the interquartile range?

Interquartile range is the just the difference between Q 3

and Q1.

Formula for z-score The Decile

-
Z= Decile is a type of quantile which divides the number of
data points into ten equal parts (10%).
where:
x= raw score The Percentile
μ= mean
s or δ = standard score Percentile is a type of quantile which divides the
number of data points into a hundred equal parts (1%).

What is an ungrouped data?

Solving the quartiles of this example manually:
 The ungrouped data has not been classified or
has not been subdivided in the form of groups. Example: A group of students obtained the following
 This type of data is totally the raw data in the scores in their statistics quiz:
form of number list. 8, 2, 5, 4, 8, 5, 7, 1, 3, 6, 9. Find Q1, Q2 and Q3.
 It is the data collected in original form. We can
Arrange the given raw scores first.
say that ungrouped data is an array of numbers.

Definition of mean and median 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9

Q1 is 3 since it is the median of the first half.

49
Q2 is 5 since it is the median of the whole data set. (Note
Q1 = Q3 =
If the total sample, n, is odd, the middle score is the Q 2.
If the total sample, n, is even, then you must get the Q1 = 3 or 3rd position Q3 = 9 or 9th position
average of the two middle numbers to find the Q 2.
Since 3 is the 3rd number in the given data set, it is
Solving the problem by Mathematical Approach: equal to the first quartile.

1. The Mendelhall and Sincich Method: Interpretation: 25% of the scores is below 3.

This method suggests to round up or round down the Since 8 is the 9th number in the given data set, it is
rank of a given quartile and locating the nth number equal to the third quartile
with the nth rank in a given data set. It does not provide
the exact score of the given quartile Interpretation: 75% of the scores is below 9.

For all quantiles, If the number after the decimal point is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4,

round down the rank. Another Example:
If the number after the decimal point is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round up the The following are the scores of 9 students in thei Math
rank. (For quantiles less than 75% only) quiz: 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 23, 25, 30, 33. Solve for the
following: Q1, Q3, D8, and P85.
For Q3 and other quantiles equal or greater than 75% , if the number
after the decimal point is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, round down the rank. The data is already arranged form lowest to highest.

General Formula in Mendallhall and Sincich Method in Q1 = Q3 =

solving for the positions:
Q1 = Q3 =

Qk = Q1 = Q3 =
Q1 = 2.5 or 3rd position Q3 = 7.5 or 7th position based
based on the rule. on the rule
Dk =
Since 16 is the 3rd number in the given data set, it is
equal to the first quartile.

Pk = Interpretation: 25% of the scores is below 16.

Q means quartile, D means decile, and P means percentile Since 25 is the 9th number in the given data set, it is
equal to the third quartile

where: Interpretation: 75% of the scores is below 25.

k= given quantile
n= number of sample D8 = P85 =
Let us go back to the given problem and solve its Q 1 and D8 = P85 =
Q3 with Mendelhall and Sincich Method.
D8 = P85 =
Example: A group of students obtained the following D8 = 8 or 8th position P85 = 8.5 or 8th position based
scores in their statistics quiz: on the rule
8, 2, 5, 4, 8, 5, 7, 1, 3, 6, 9. Find Q1 and Q3.
Since 30 is the 8th number in the given data set, it is
Arrange the given raw scores first. equal to the 8th decile.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9 Interpretation: 80% of the scores is below 30.

Since 30 is the 8th number in the given data set, it is

Q1 = Q3 =
equal to the 85th percentile.
Q1 = Q3 =
Interpretation: 85% of the scores is below 30.
50
2. The Linear Interpolation Method: Step 5: Multiply your answer in step 4 to the decimal
point of your answer in step 2.
Linear Interpolation is applicable with a decimal
position. It provides a more accurate data score than in 4(0.5) = 2
Mendelhall and Sincich Method. This proves that
quantile of a data set is not always a raw score. Step 6: Add the result in step 5 to the lower score in
step 4.
Steps in Linear Interpolation
The lower score in step 4 is 3 since it is in the
1. Arrange the raw scores from lowest to highest. 2nd position.
2. Solve for the position of the required quantile.
(Still use the process in Mendelhall and Sincich By adding 2 to 3, we will get 5.
method but do not round off your answer)
3. Know the two integeral positions where the In linear interpolation, Q1 is 5.
position of the required quantile is included in Interpretation: 25% of the scores is below 5.
between.
4. Subtract the lower score from the higher score Example: Find the 45th percentile of the given scores:
which corresponds the two integral positions in
step 3. 1, 3, 7, 7, 16, 21, 27, 30, 31
5. Multipy your answer in step 4 to the decimal
point of your answer in step 2.
6. Add the result in step 5 to the lower score in P45 = Required
step 4.
P45 = 4.5 Simplify
between 4th and 5th Positions where 4.5 is included
position in between
Example: Find the first quartile of the given scores: 16 – 7 = 9 4th position in the data set is 7.
5th position in the data set is
16. Subtract the higher score
1, 3, 7, 7, 16, 21, 27, 30, 31
from the lower score
9 (0.5) Multiply the decimal point of
Step 1: Arrange the raw scores from highest to lowest. the answer in second row to
the answer in the 4th row.
Step 2: Solve for the position of the required quantile. 4.5 Simplify
4.5 + 7 = 11.5 Add the answer in the 6th row
Q1 = to the lower score.

Q1 = By linear interpolation, P45 is 11.5.

Q1 =
Interpretation: 45% of the scores is below 11.5.
Step 3. Know the two integral positions where the
position of the required quantile is included in between.

The position of the required quartile is 2.5. The

two integral positions, where 2.5 is included in between, Lesson 2: Measures of Position for Grouped
are 2 and 3. Data

Step 4: Subtract the lower score from the higher score What is a Grouped Data?
which corresponds the two integral positions in step 3.
Grouped data contains raw data that has been sorted
Two integral positions are 2 and 3. The 2nd into groups called classes. It serves as a convenient
position corresponds to 3. The 3rd position corresponds means of summarizing or analyzing the data.
to 7. (Refer to the given problem to know the number
which corresponds to the position) Requirements for a grouped data:
 Sample size must be equal or greater than 30
By subtracting 3 from 7, we will get 4. for it to be considered a population size.
 frequency table

51
  boundaries If we will follow step A from the problem earlier, we
will get:
Requirements for a frequency table:
 intervals 399.2 – 300.1 = 99.1 + 1 = 100.1, WHICH IS WRONG.
 total population You must add 0.1 instead of 1 since we have a decimal
 cumulative frequency point in the given boundaries.
 classes
 range Boundary with After getting the
difference between
What is a cumulative frequency? the boundaries, add
no decimal point 1
A cumulative frequency is the sum of the class and all one decimal place 0.1
classes below it in a frequency distribution. two decimal places 0.01
three decimal places 0.001
Less than cumulative frequency is obtained by adding
successively frequencies of all class starting from the See the pattern?
lowest to the highest class size.
The position of the number “1” is based on the number of
Hint in less than cumulative frequency: The total number of population
decimal places of the boundary.
is equal to the cumulative frequency of the highest class.

Greater than cumulative frequency is obtained by adding If the boundary has one decimal place, number “1” must
successively frequencies of all class starting from the be in the first decimal place. If the boundary has three
highest to the lowest class size. decimal places, number “1” must be in the third decimal
place.
Hint in greater than cumulative frequency: The total number of
population is equal to the cumulative frequency of the lowest class.
How to calculate the interval from an ungrouped data to
form a grouped data?
What is an interval?
For example,
An interval is a range of numbers between two given
numbers and includes all of the real numbers between Total population of 38. The highest score is 29 while the
those two numbers. lowest is 10.

How to find the value of the interval? Formula:

400-499 i=
300-399
Where R is range (the difference between the highest
There are two steps in finding the interval score and the lowest score).
A. In the same row, find the difference of the two Step 1: Solve for R.
numbers then add 1 (for whole numbers only) Higest score-lowest score
29-10
In the example, 399-300 = 99+1= 100; or R= 19
499-400= 99+1= 100; interval = 100 Step 2: Solve for k.
Always remember that 2k > N.
B. Subtract the boundary of the class from the
corresponding boundary above it. (only if the boundary Since we have a population of 38,
above it is given) 2k > 38
k = 6 (since 2 is 64 which is greater than 38)
6
In the example, 400-300 = 100; or 499-399 = 100
Interval = 100 To find k, you may also use log2N, but make sure to round off the
answer to the nearest integer greater than it.
TAKE NOTE:
Substitute the values:
What is the interval of 300.1 – 399.2?
52
 i= Boundary with To find the lower and
upper boundaries,
i= 3 (rounded off to the nearest integer) no decimal point ± 0.5
one decimal place ± 0.05
two decimal places ± 0.005
What is a frequency? three decimal places ± 0.0005

Frequency refers to the number of a certain variable See the pattern?

which has the given class interval. It is the number of
times a data value occurs. The number of zeroes between the decimal point and “5”
is based on the number of decimal places of the
What is the difference between a class limit and a class boundary.
boundary?
If the boundary has one decimal place, there is one 0
Refer to this table: between the decimal point and 5. If the boundary has
three decimal places, there are 3 zeroes between the
400-499 decimal point and 5.
300-399

Class limits refer to the actual values that you see in General formula for Quantiles of Grouped Data:
the table. For example, 300-399 would be the class
limits of the first class. The lower class limit is 300 and
the higher class limit is 399. Qk = LB + ( )i
400-499 would be the class limits of the second class.
400 is the lower class limit while 499 is the higher class
limit. Dk = LB + ( )i

On the other hand, class boundaries are not always

observed in the frequency table. Class boundaries give
the true class interval, and similar to class limits, are Pk = LB + ( )i
divided into lower and upper class boundaries.

To find the lower class boundary, simply subtract 0.5 to Q means quartile, D means decile, and P means percentile
the lower class limit. (applies only to whole numbers) where:
LB= lower boundary of the class
To find the upper class boundary, add 0.5 to the upper Cfb = cumulative frequency below the class
class limit. (applies only to whole numbers) fqk / fdk/ fpk= frequency of the class
k= nth quartile
Looking back to the example, i= interval

In the first class, the lower class limit is 300. Therefore, NOTE: ALWAYS USE LESS THAN CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY
the lower class boundary is 299.5.
Example:
In the first class, the upper class limit is 399. Therefore,
the upper class boundary is 399.5. NCAE Scores F Cf Position
24-26 10 42 33rd-42nd
TAKE NOTE: 21-23 9 32 24th-32nd
18-20 7 23 17th-23rd
What is the lower class boundary of 300.1 – 399.2? 15-17 8 16 9th-16th
12-14 4 8 5th-8th
If we will follow the rule stated above, we will get 299.6, 9-11 2 4 3rd-4th
WHICH IS WRONG. 6-8 1 2 1st-2nd
You must subtract 0.05 instead of 0.5 since we have a 3-5 1 1 1st-1st
decimal point in the given boundaries.
Solve for 6th decile.

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Step 1: Solve for the position. Lesson 3: The Percentile Rank

Percentile rank of a score is the percentage of scores in

25. 2 is included in the 24th-32nd position in the class of
its frequency distribution that are lower than it.
21-23.
What is the difference between percentile or other
Technique in looking for the class of a certain position:
quantile and percentile rank?
Check the cumulative frequency. If the position is less than the
cumulative frequency of classX but greater than the cumulative In solving percentile and other quantile, we will obtain
frequency below it, classX is the class of that position. scores that seves as a boundary for a given quantile.
If there are two or more classes which have cumulative frequencies
greater than the position, always choose the lower one.
In solving percentile ranks, we will obtain a number that
serves as a “percent” or portion of a distribution below
In the example, the position is 25.2. There are two classes, 24-26 and or equal and greater than the given score. If the scores
21-23, with cumulative frequencies greater than 25.2. But since you are normally distributed, percentile rank can be inferred
will always choose the lower one, 25.2 is included in the class of 21-
23.
from the standard score

Example: 75% of the data is below 30.

Step 2: Substitute the values. 30 is the 75th percentile while the percentile rank of 30
is 75.

D6 = LB + ( )i What is the difference between a percent and

percentage?

Percent is a unit of measure while percentage identifies

D6 = 20.5 + ( )3 that which is being measured?

Step 3: Simplify. Example:

Sam: “What is the percentage of the students who failed
D6 = 21.23 the exam?”
Ana: “25 percent.”
Interpretation: 60% of the students scored below 21.23.
General Equation for the Percentile Rank:
How many students scored below 21.23?

Since 60% of the students scored below 21.23 and there

are 42 students in the room,
where:
42(0.6)= 25.2.
Ppr= Percentile Rank
LB= lower boundary of the class
Answer: 25 students
Cfb = cumulative frequency below the class
fp= frequency of the class
P= given score
Why not 26?
i= interval
For it to become 26, you must add 0.8. Since 25.2 scored
You can also derive the percentile rank from the
below 21.23, that 0.8 is included in the 40% of the
percentile of grouped data.
students who scored 21.23 and above.
Percentile of Grouped Data
There is already a certain number of 25 students who
scored 21.23, but how about the remaining 0.2? Pk = LB + ( )i

By probability, 0.2 < 0.8 and there is a higher chance that

Additive inverse of LB. Simply
the student scored 21.23 and above, rather than below
Pk – LB= ( )i subtract LB on both sides.
21.23.

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 Divide i on both sides WHY NOT 28?
–
= ( )
There is already a certain number of 28 students who
passed the exam, but how about the remaining 0.97?
– Multiply Frequency on both
= sides By probability, 0.03 < 0.97 and there is a higher chance
that the student passed the exam.
( )
Check this example:

– Transpose Cfb. Age f cf

10-12 3 10
7-9 2 7
= 4-6 3 5
– Multiply 100 on both sides 1-3 2 2

= kn Find the Percentile Rank of 6.5.

– Divide N on both sides
6.5 is the lower boundary of the class of 7-9 and the
=k upper boundary of the class 4-6.

A. If we will use class 7-9 in the solution

Example:

Scores f cf
91-97 2 50
84-90 3 48 %
77-83 10 45
70-76 15 35 B. If we will use class 4-6 in the solution
63-69 11 20
56-62 6 9
49-55 3 3

Find the Percentile Rank of 70. %

Step 1: Know the class of 70. 70 is included in 70-76. Interpretation: 50% of the students aged below 6.5 years
old.
Step 2: Substitute the value.
Therefore: If a certain score is included in the
boundaries of two classes, you can use either of the two
to solve for the percentile rank.

Step 2: Simplify.

Interpretation: 42.14% of the students scored below 70

while 57.86% of the students scored 70 and above.

How many passed the test if 70 was the passing score?

Since 57.86% of the students scored 70 and above, the

number of students who passed the exam is:

50 (0.5786)= 28.93

Answer: 29
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