Manual 3d
Manual 3d
Manual 3d
- O1A1-
Transfer of knowledge about basics of 3D printing concepts
to the VET teachers.
1
ERASMUS3D+
For the immersion in 3D printing of VET centres.
PARTICIPANT ORGANIZATIONS
Disclaimer:
"The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of
the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any
use which may be made of the information contained therein."
Output Identification O1
2
INDEX
SCHEMES INDEX ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
TABLES INDEX .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1. INTRODUCTION TO ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING ....................................................................................................... 6
1.1. What is Additive Manufacturing? ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2. How does 3D printing work? ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.3. What is Rapid Prototyping? .............................................................................................................................. 8
2. TECHNOLOGIES......................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.1. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM) ........................................................................................................... 12
2.1.1. Process, Materials, Application Areas .................................................................................................... 12
2.1.2. Strengths and Weaknesses ................................................................................................................... 13
2.2. SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS) .................................................................................................................. 15
2.2.1. Process, Materials, Application Areas .................................................................................................... 15
2.2.2. Strengths and Weaknesses ................................................................................................................... 17
2.3. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SLA) ........................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1. Process, Materials, Application Areas .................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2. Strengths and Weaknesses ................................................................................................................... 20
3. PRODUCTION PROCESS IN 3D PRINTING .................................................................................................................. 22
3.1. Obtaining the digital model ............................................................................................................................ 23
3.2. Exporting and repairing the STL file ................................................................................................................ 25
3.3. Testing, orientation, distribution and G-Code ................................................................................................. 27
3.3.1. Analyzing the piece or model ................................................................................................................ 27
3.3.2. Support structures................................................................................................................................ 29
3.3.3. Model infill ........................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3.4. Positioning and orientation ................................................................................................................... 32
3.3.5. Generating the G-Code. ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.4. 3D printing .................................................................................................................................................... 36
3.5. Extracting pieces............................................................................................................................................ 37
3.6. Post-processing ............................................................................................................................................. 38
4. SOFTWARE THAT YOU NEED FOR 3D PRINTING........................................................................................................ 41
4.1. Programmes for designing ............................................................................................................................. 42
4.2. Programmes for testing, orientating and repairing.......................................................................................... 44
4.3. Programmes for generating the G-code.......................................................................................................... 47
4.4. 3D Printing Workflow..................................................................................................................................... 49
5. 3D PRINTING MATERIALS ........................................................................................................................................ 50
5.1. Overview ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
5.2. FDM, SLS and SLA 3D Printing Materials ......................................................................................................... 53
6. LIMITATIONS OF PRINTED OBJECTS ......................................................................................................................... 55
6.1. Limitations of additive manufacturing and 3D printing .................................................................................... 55
6.2. Limitations depending on the type of technology ........................................................................................... 56
6.3. Introduction to the limitations of FDM technology.......................................................................................... 59
7. EXAMPLE ................................................................................................................................................................ 67
3
FIGURE INDEX
Figure 1: FDM Printer. [3] ................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2: SLA Printer. [4] ..................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: SLS Printer. [5] ..................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 4: 3D printing process. [7] ........................................................................................................ 8
Figure 5: Prototypes of a ski goggles' frame printed with FDM, SLA and SLS technology (from left to
right). [9] .......................................................................................................................................... 10
Figure 6: 3DP Technologies Comparison. [10] ................................................................................... 11
Figure 7: FDM Technology. [12] ........................................................................................................ 12
Figure 8: FDM advantages. [18] ........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 9: SLS technology. [19] ........................................................................................................... 15
Figure 10: Shoe silhouette created using SLS. [23] ............................................................................ 16
Figure 11: Resin 3D Printer parts overview. [24] ............................................................................... 18
Figure 12: Resins, properties. [25] .................................................................................................... 20
Figure 13: Photocentric 3D prints. [26] ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 14: Piece modelled with Rhinoceros. [28]............................................................................... 23
Figure 15: Reverse engineering process. [29] .................................................................................... 24
Figure 16: Examples of pieces from Thingiverse repository. [30] ....................................................... 25
Figure 17: How STL file works. [31] ................................................................................................... 26
Figure 18: Exporting to STL in different software. [32] ...................................................................... 26
Figure 19: Thickness analysis (1 millimetre) implemented with Meshmixer. [33] .............................. 28
Figure 20: Angle analysis. [34] .......................................................................................................... 29
Figure 21: Support structures. [35] ................................................................................................... 29
Figure 22: Different types of support structures. [36] ....................................................................... 30
Figure 23: Differences between a piece with optimized support structures (left) and non-optimized
(right). Differences between printing times can also be seen. [37] .................................................... 30
Figure 24: Different infill percentages. [38] ....................................................................................... 31
Figure 25: Different infill patterns. [39] ............................................................................................. 32
Figure 26: Quality differences in the same piece, according orientation. [40].................................... 33
Figure 27: Tension load. [41] ............................................................................................................ 34
Figure 28: Different layers thickness. [42] ........................................................................................ 34
Figure 29: Two different layer heights. [43] ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 30: Detail of the layers of a piece. [44] ................................................................................... 35
Figure 31: Layers and path. [45] ........................................................................................................ 36
Figure 32: Extraction. [46] ................................................................................................................ 37
Figure 33: SLA extraction process. [47] ............................................................................................. 37
Figure 34: SLS extraction process. [48] .............................................................................................. 38
Figure 35: Finishing process. [49] ...................................................................................................... 38
Figure 36: Mechanical process. [50] .................................................................................................. 39
Figure 37: Bath for removing the support structures. [51] ................................................................ 39
Figure 38: Different finishing. [52] .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 39: Process to develop a 3D Model. [54] ................................................................................ 41
Figure 40: Repairing a STL file. [58] ................................................................................................... 45
Figure 41: Netfabb Premium Interface. [59]...................................................................................... 46
Figure 42: Open a 3D design with Slic3r. [60] .................................................................................... 47
Figure 43: G-Code with Slic3r. [61] .................................................................................................... 48
Figure 44: Diagram 3D Printing Workflow. [62] ................................................................................. 49
Figure 45: 3DP materials used (%). [65] ............................................................................................ 51
4
Figure 46: 3D Printer Filament Trends: November 2017. [68]............................................................ 52
Figure 47: Lego bricks from ABS. [69] ................................................................................................ 54
Figure 48: Polyamide. A strong and flexible material with a high level of detail. [70]......................... 54
Figure 49: FDM printed puzzle piece with support removed showing surface roughness. [73] .......... 60
Figure 50: The variation in slicer program vs. actual diameter of vertical holes is due to compression
of the extruded profile. [74] ............................................................................................................. 61
Figure 51: The effect of increasing overhang angle (in increments of 5 degrees) on print quality. Max.
angle shown is 70 degrees. [75] ........................................................................................................ 62
Figure 52: Side view of elephant's foot feature that can occur on the base layers of an FDM print. [76]
......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 53: Print of vertical pins with decreasing diameter (from 25 to 5mm) illustrating the upper
diameter of the print becoming too small to print accurately. [77] ................................................... 64
Figure 54: Splitting a model in order to eliminate the need for support. [78] .................................... 65
Figure 55: Re-orientation of horizontal axis holes can eliminate the need for support. [79] .............. 65
Figure 56: Build direction. [80].......................................................................................................... 66
Figure 57: Layers with radius. [81] .................................................................................................... 66
Figure 58: Digital model, result of the 3D scanning. [83] ................................................................... 68
Figure 59: Positioning the model in Meshmixer. [84] ........................................................................ 69
Figure 60: General analysis in Meshmixer. [85] ................................................................................. 70
Figure 61: Jaw with repaired holes and defects. [86]......................................................................... 71
Figure 62: Model loaded in Cura. [87] ............................................................................................... 72
Figure 63: Configuration and parameters of the model in Cura. [88] ................................................. 72
Figure 64: Jaw printing sequence. [89] .............................................................................................. 73
Figure 65: Piece extraction process. [90] ........................................................................................... 73
Figure 66: Support structures and pliers. [91] ................................................................................... 74
Figure 67: Removing support structures. [92] .................................................................................. 74
Figure 68: Final result. [93] ............................................................................................................... 75
SCHEMES INDEX
Scheme 1: Processes and manufacturing techniques. [2] .................................................................... 6
Scheme 2: Production process in 3D printing. [27] ............................................................................ 22
Scheme 3: Production process for 3D printing. [53] .......................................................................... 41
TABLES INDEX
Table 1: Software to Designing a 3D Model. [55] .............................................................................. 43
Table 2: Software to Scanning a 3D Model. [56] ................................................................................ 44
Table 3: Software to Testing, Orientating and Repair a 3D Model. [57] ............................................. 45
Table 4: Comparative table. [72] ....................................................................................................... 59
5
1. INTRODUCTION TO ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
PROCESSES AND
MANUFACTURING
TECHNIQUES
Subtractive
Joining process
Manufacturing.
6
Some of the most used additive manufacturing technologies that best suits to the educational
area will be described in the following point of this guide. These technologies are: Fused
Deposition Modeling (FDM), Stereolithographic (SLA) and Selective Laser Sintering (SLS).
7
3D Object
3D Print
G-Code
STL file
Design OBJ file
...
Figure 4: 3D printing process. [7]
8
It is important not to confuse rapid prototyping with 3D printing or with additive
manufacturing, because the concepts are used interchangeably and wrongly many times. We
can say that additive manufacturing is one of the technologies with which we can produce a
rapid prototyping product.
It is convenient to underline that every technology and every process has a starting point in
common: computer aided design (CAD).
Here some of the most common techniques for Rapid Prototyping:
• 3D Scanner / Reverse Engineering.
• Additive Manufacturing.
• CNC Machining.
• Vacuum Fast Casting.
• Prototype Moulds.
• Sand Casting.
• Investment Casting.
The purpose of rapid prototyping is to test the various design features, ideas, concepts,
functionality, output and performance.
2. TECHNOLOGIES
In order to identify the most suitable 3D printing technologies for educational purposes, the
following table was developed. It presents a comparison between a total of 7 technologies,
which are the most used currently, according to the latest trends. The analysis was based on
12 parameters, which are considered the best ones in order to have a full overview on what
3D printing offers. Special focus was given to strengths and weaknesses for each technology
as they are important indicators in the identification.
9
Figure 5: Prototypes of a ski goggles' frame printed with FDM, SLA and SLS technology (from left to right). [9]
Through the study carried out in the report IO1 / A3: Identification of 3D printing most suitable
technologies for education, the consortium identified the three printing technologies
described below as the most recommended for use in the educational field. Here, in addition
to the Process, Materials, Application Areas, the Strengths and Weaknesses are also described
for each one of them.
10
Figure 6: 3DP Technologies Comparison. [10]
11
2.1. FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING (FDM)
12
There are many different materials which can be used with FDM. In the first place, they are
divided between the industrial and the consumer categories. The most commonly used are
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), PLA (Polyactic Acid) and Nylon (Polyamide), but other
exotic varieties of materials can also be used, like a material blend of plastic and wood or
carbon. [13]
Because this technology presents some very good pros, FDM is often used in the area of non-
functional prototypes in order to produce concept parts, functional models, prototypes in
general, manufacturing tooling and modeling, and end use parts. More specifically, FDM can
be used for low-volume production and prototypes aimed at form, fit and function tests.
At the same time, it is most commonly used in the aerospace sector, for example, to produce
wind turbines. Anatomical models for medical use are also very much suitable to be built with
this technology. Finally, FDM has slowly been enabling the rapid prototyping of biomedical
micro devices, the kind of devices that are used on a daily basis in hospitals, for example,
therefore very much fundamental, as it is considered both cheap, but at the same very safe.
[14]
Since 2004, FDM technology has been used in a particular sector to produce load-bearing
scaffold, which, according to a study, “has the potential for osteochondral defect repair”. [15]
13
Resolution depends mainly on the size of the nozzle that is used. The precision of the machine
is dependent on the extruder movements on the X and Y axis, but there are other factors to
be taken into consideration. For example, the bonding force between the layers is lower than
in the Stereolithography process. Consequently, the weight of the layers might squeeze the
lower layers, which can therefore influence and even compromise the quality of the 3D print.
Contrary to SLA, FDM presents also an increased complexity. One needs to keep in mind
weight and size, but also constraints. It is very important to make sure that a print can meet
the expectations that one sees on the screen when first modelling. The constraints in this case
depend on several factors, but mainly on the material chosen, through which it is possible to
understand how big an item can be printed through FDM. [17]
Another negative side of FDM is that it presents a generally slower compared to both
Sterelithography and Selective Laser Sintering, which is to be analysed next. Moreover,
Surface finish is considered fair, but not at the same level as these other two technologies. In
fact, when printing with FDM, one needs to take into the consideration that the chances are
a print will require post processing and finishing.
14
2.2. SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)
15
The use of SLS technology makes it possible to involve a variety of materials which range from
nylon, glass and ceramics, to aluminium, silver and even steel. However, some of them, like
ceramics, are not laser sintered. A binder, in this case, is used to glue parts together and this
is usually known as “Powder & Binder-based 3D Printing”.
The starting process of this technology is quite similar to Laser Sintering: a roller puts a thin
layer of powder on a platform. However, instead of a laser beam, a special print head places
a binding agent at specific points, printing a thin layer of your model that is able to bind to
subsequent layers. This process is then repeated over and over again until your model is
complete.
Since in this case the model was only "glued" together, some post processing is. The exact
post-processing steps heavily depend on the material: Multicolour models get a bath in
superglue, Ceramic prints are put in a drying oven and fired several times, High Detail Stainless
Steel and Steel objects are placed in an oven for fusing. Steel models are additionally infused
with Bronze for extra strength. [20]
Areas of application of SLS technology range from the automotive sector to the consumer
goods sector. More specifically, it can be used in the case of product development and rapid
prototyping in a wide range of commercial industries, as well as limited-run manufacturing of
end-use parts. In the aerospace industry, for example, SLS is involved to build prototypes for
aircraft components. This represents a great advantage for companies because airplanes are
produced in small quantities since airlines companies, for example, use them for quite a long
time. Therefore, it is not cost-effective for production companies to build physical moulds for
airplane parts. In fact, these moulds would be too expensive to make and would then need to
be stored for long periods of time without being damaged or corroded. [21] Therefore, SLS is
perfect for small batches production.
Even more interesting is the fact that SLS has been slowly introduced in the sector of consumer
goods, specifically for production of shoes.
According the producers, the use of nylon
sintered by SLS can produce a shoe with not
only reduced weight, but also
customizations, while being able to adapt
the shoe to the needs and the requirements
of the customer. [22]
Figure 10: Shoe silhouette created using SLS. [23]
16
Success with titanium would be one example of huge future opportunities with the military,
aerospace, medical and other industries looking to utilize titanium’s light weight, strength and
corrosion resistance. Much of the ground-breaking activity in 3D printing has utilized plastics
and moving from plastics into metals of all types is the next step.
17
2.3. STEREOLITHOGRAPHY (SLA)
18
polymer, which hardens. As the model is then lowered, the next layer is drawn directly on top
of the previous one and repeated until the model is finished. When the model is complete, it
is raised out of the tank and the excess liquid flows away. The supports are removed manually
after the model is taken from the machine.
Transparent resin and prime grey are two other kinds of resin material that can be used as
well. From a simple magnifier glass to waveguide to a see-through mechanism or virtually
unlimited decorative objects, transparent resin can deliver amazing results. Just as with
translucent resins, if one adds some lights to their project printed with this material one will
definitely grab people’s attention.
This material can be mixed with pigments before printing resulting in an attractive looking
transparent colour object. The transparency varies from translucent to water-clear. The water
clear transparency can be achieved in special cases and upon request. Transparent resin has
a great surface quality. The surface is smooth, and the stair-stepping look of 3D printing can
be reduced by sandpapering. Transparent resin models are painted with a shiny varnish to
prevent discolouration from UV light.
The natural surface of your transparent resin model is known as basic finish. Resin based
models will always be smoother than powder-based models. The technology used for your
transparent resin model requires extra material to support your model during the printing
process, but these supports are removed before your model is cured.
The surface of the 3D printed model is defined by the material and technology. With basic
finish, some building layers will still be visible. The natural surface option is always the
cheapest. The number of post-finishing steps also determines the cost and quality of your
transparent resin model.
The material is transparent, but not 100% water clear. When a model is solid with a thickness
greater than 2 cm, the printed part presents a bluish tint. For the transparent finish, the model
is painted with colourless varnish. For transparent colour finishes, pigment is added to the
varnish.
Grey Resin instead, formerly known as Prime Grey, is suitable for A-side visual models with
limited functionality. The surface of the material is very smooth, much smoother in fact than
almost all other 3D printing materials. The colour is Air Force Grey and the material feels
almost “luxurious” to the touch. The material has a medium mechanical resistance. Freedom
of design is limited because of the structure necessary to support your models during printing.
19
Models made in Grey Resin are typically used as high-quality show models. Design and
engineering departments use the models as visual prototypes or for presentations, but we
have noticed that it works really well for character and toy models.
The difference between transparent resin and prime grey stays in the result that one wants to
accomplish. For example, Prime Grey is excellent when it comes to its impact strength and the
accuracy in the details. At the same time, paintable resin allows to choose a colour at one’s
choice, but it still needs support structure, therefore limiting the freedom of design. This can
be avoided using prime grey. A summary table for all three kinds of resins is available below.
Stereolithography can be used in many areas. Nowadays, the automotive, aerospace, medical
and consumer goods fields are the most popular ones. It can, in fact, be applied to the
domestic field: one can easily make 3D prints starting from their own model. At the same time,
this technology allows to print medical models of anatomic human parts, which can be very
much useful in class, for example, in order to give a proper overview on the functionality of
the human body to a group of scholars. It therefore changes the way subjects are taught and
it can be applied in technical subjects like science, engineering, but also arts and math.
20
The latter are, in fact, liquid materials which are cured and hardened; they also allow a certain
freedom when it comes to colours, opacity and rigidity, while offering an excellent surface
quality. At the same time, although there are faster and more recent technologies out there,
Stereolithography can perform correctly in a reasonable period of time, while also allowing to
save time on highly precise parts. In this way, prototypes, which is a common use for
Stereolithography, can be made easily and faithfully to the initial design. Complexity is,
therefore, not a problem.
Moreover, the positive side of using Stereolithography and resins material is customization,
especially in the form of which colour one wants. Spray print in this case is one of the methods
used to achieve this result. Four kinds of paints are available: dead matt, matt, satin, and high
gloss, each with a different gloss factor. The higher the gloss factor, the shinier the model will
look. Paint sprayed on larger areas will exhibit bigger visual differences between the different
paint options. We can spray paint, your model to match your needs or you could also do this
at home yourself.
However, costs are one of the major weaknesses in the case of Stereolithography. While 3D
printing machines can be more or less affordable, photopolymer materials can be very
expensive, making the ordinary use of this technology not affordable to everyone. Besides,
although they come in different colours, there is still a limited choice of photopolymers.
Cons when it comes to Stereolithography involve also the fact that liquid resins are generally
irritating and toxic, therefore some precautions are to be taken in order to work with them
using the appropriate tools and equipment. Moreover, prints usually require cleaning, which
can in some cases take time and a lot of effort. Post-processing is generally needed if one
wants to achieve the highest quality possible. This will also depend on the material chosen,
which will consequently lead to more or less steps to be taken care of.
Not to be forgotten is the fact that
Stereolithography, contrary to its similar
technology which is Selective Laser Sintering,
requires support structures, which makes the
price more expensive, as more material is
required. The distinction and the consequent
choice between these two technologies Figure 13: Photocentric 3D prints. [26]
21
mainly depends on the material one wants to use and the result one wants to achieve.
Hereunder, in this chapter, all the necessary processes and steps for, starting with a digital
design, obtaining a real printed piece, are going to be described.
It is important to mention that there is not just a single valid process for printing three
dimensional pieces. What is explained in this guide are a certain number of steps that should
be adapted to the type of piece, selected technology, type of machine, and even to the used
software. Furthermore, the process that is described hereunder is mostly intended for fused
deposition modelling (FDM) 3D printers.
The production process, in general, is the following:
1. 2. 3.
Obtaining the Exporting and repairing Testing, orientation,
digital model the STL file distribution and G-Code
4. 5. 6.
3D printing Extracting pieces Post-processing
22
It is important that the tips given in each of the steps of the process are indicative and they
have general term. This means that the tips should not be followed very closely. In the
production process for 3D printing, experience, piece features, used machine, etc. have a lot
of weight. It is for sure that someone with little or without experience will 3D print a lot of
piece with failures, before he finds the key.
Now, each of these steps of the production process are explained in more detail and deeper.
23
The process is normally the following: firstly, the geometry is captured by a 3D scanner.
Then, this geometry is treated or modified, so that it is adequate for 3D printing. That
is to say, if it is obtained a point cloud from the 3D scanning, this cloud has to be
"sewed" and converted to a polygonal mesh (sometimes the 3D scanner software does
it) and finally exported (converted) to a solid body. Finally, the process of 3D printing
will be implemented.
Treatment and
3D geometry
modification of 3D printing
adquisition
the geometry
• Downloading the model from repositories or asking someone to design it for you: If
you do not have knowledge in computer-aided 3D design, or you do not have the
necessary equipment (or software, or even knowledge) for applying a process of
reverse engineering, to download the model from a repository or to ask somebody to
design it for you is the best option. Depending on whether the repository is a 3D
printing model repository (e.g.: Thingiverse) or a more general digital model repository
(e.g.: GrabCAD), the downloaded model will be ready for 3D printing or it will be not.
24
Figure 16: Examples of pieces from Thingiverse repository. [30]
No matter how the digital model is obtained, what it is important is to get a robust 3D model,
thought for 3D printing. That is to say that any designed and modelled piece, or scanned piece,
or downloaded from the internet, could not be adequate for being 3D printed. This means
that some issues such as internal gaps, the precision to achieve, the detail level, the size of the
piece, if the piece has overhangs, make it a closed solid (watertight), etc. should be taken into
account.
In the next tutorial it can be seen a range of CAD design tips for 3D printing, depending on the
material selected: https://www.sculpteo.com/en/materials/materials-design-guidelines/
And in the next link it can be found more information and more tutorials about how modelling
and preparing a piece for being 3D printed by different CAD software:
https://www.sculpteo.com/en/tutorial/
25
triangles (and with more or less size) will be necessary for recreating it, and the greater or the
less big the size of the file also will be. In the file, each triangle is defined by a set of
parameters, such us the normal vector to the triangle face, and the coordinates (x, y, z) of
each triangle vertex.
Normally, exporting a CAD design to STL format is as simple as going to the used software
menu and clicking on "Save as..." or in "Export" and choosing STL. Also, depending on the
software, some characteristics such as precision or tolerance must be chosen. Hereunder the
steps to follow in some CAD programs are shown:
Sometimes, there are problems during conversion to STL, either because the model is not
thought for 3D printing, either because the design in the CAD software has not being made
correctly, or either other causes. So, the exported model may have some errors.
26
These errors are of various kinds: holes or gaps, reversed triangles (it means, with the normal
vectors in opposite direction), duplicated faces or triangles, faces or triangles that intersect,
singular points or faces (out of the model), etc.
The digital model reparation is explained in the next step of the production process in 3D
printing, because it is very linked to the implementation of analysis to the pieces.
27
Figure 19: Thickness analysis (1 millimetre) implemented with Meshmixer. [33]
- Holes or gaps: The model want to be printed must be perfectly closed, or best said: it
must be watertight. This means that the triangular mesh must not have holes or gaps,
or what is the same, it must not have vertex or triangle points not joined; every of
them must be connected to other triangles. It is highly recommended to perform this
test always, before printing, because it can be errors or failures hard to be seen.
- Angles and overhang: By this analysis it can be found, depending on the selected
technology and machine, if the model or piece will need of support structures for being
printed. Generally, for FDM printers the minimum allowed inclination angle is 45
degrees. Parts with greater angles will require of support structures. This analysis
sometimes is not needed, because lots of pre-printing programs directly calculate the
needed supports for the pieces.
28
Figure 20: Angle analysis. [34]
- Others: Depending on the used software, more or less analysis will be able to be done.
Also, by certain programs, standard analysis can be done, by them, different kinds of
problems may arise.
Finally, it is noticeable that many of the used programs for analysing the piece allows, not just
to detect errors or problems, but also allow to repair, or what is best, auto repair the model.
Support structures are usually done by the same material as the piece, although there are 3D
printers that print two materials: piece's one and support structures one. With these printers
soluble support materials in certain liquids can be used.
29
As support structures are thought just for holding the first layers of the model that are
cantilevered or "floating", support structures are built lightly and using less material than for
the piece itself. In addition, they will not mark so much the piece, when they are removed.
Most of the available software, either analysis software or either the own software of the
printer machine, allow two options: making a design of the support structures, or
automatically calculating and inserting these structures. If you do not have enough experience
in 3D printing it is recommended let the program automatically calculates the supports.
Although it has to be taken into account that it may not optimize the used material. In
addition, a single software may have several different designs for support structures.
A good guide for designing, using and calculate how and when using supports can be found in
the following link: https://www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/supports-3d-printing-
technology-overview. In addition, this guide is adapted to different technologies (FDM, SLA,
PolyJet, SLS...).
Figure 23: Differences between a piece with optimized support structures (left) and non-optimized (right).
Differences between printing times can also be seen. [37]
30
3.3.3. Model infill
This step can be implemented before inserting the support structures.
When we talk about the infill it is about the structure printed inside the object. It means, if we
think in the example of a cube, the six external walls will be printed in a solid way, with a
certain thickness, but the internal part of the cube will not be solid; you will have to choose
the infill percentage, and even the geometrical shape of the infill. With some visual examples
it can be better understood:
In the figure above are seen two examples of pieces with different infill percentages.
Percentage will be chosen (in the pre-printing software) depending on if the piece must have
more or less resistance, according to weight.
The geometrical pattern of the infill can be also chosen. Some of them are more resistant than
others, but generally, the default pattern of the software can be selected.
Percentage and pattern shape will be chosen according to several aspects: total weight of the
piece, used material, resistance to be achieved, printing time and sometimes decorative
features. In general, the greater the infill percentage, the stronger the printed piece will be,
but the longer will take to be printed. A percentage about 15% usually is enough.
Hereunder some examples can be seen (on software and on printed pieces):
31
Figure 25: Different infill patterns. [39]
32
• If there are curved or sloped surfaces, and these parts of the piece are desired to be
printed with quality, piece should be positioned so that these surfaces are positioned
on XY plane (horizontal plane), or as parallel as possible to this plane. So "stair-
stepping" effect will be avoided, in which curved or sloped surfaces are not smooth.
Figure 26: Quality differences in the same piece, according orientation. [40]
• Watching the previous picture, if the piece has an inner hole, or a through hole, it
would be adequate to put this hole with its axis perpendicular to the printing bed, if a
great quality is required in the hole surface.
• A very long and plane section printed on the horizontal plane or XY plane may suffer
deformation, which means that its outer borders get cold and shrink very quick,
causing the piece to warp upwards. Sometimes, to print these pieces so their longest
section is perpendicular to the building plate is convenient.
• In a general way, the top surface of a printed piece will have the best finishing.
• If we are printing functional pieces, that have to withstand forces and loads, it is much
more likely for them to de-laminate and to break when the forces or loads are
perpendicular to the layers direction. This can graphically be seen in the next picture:
33
Figure 27: Tension load. [41]
It is quite important to understand what is more important: aesthetics or a quick and cheap
printing. Sometimes, differences between two identical pieces, but with layers height of 100
microns and 200 microns are hard to distinguish. But the 100 microns piece will take the
double to print and will cost more. Therefore, it is very important to know what the final use
34
of a piece is. It is also crucial to know the number of curves and angles of the piece, because
the layers height is more visible on these parts than on straight walls.
To sum up with the layer height matter, it is noticeable that for each machine and technology
a certain range of layer height values is available to be chosen. For example, for FDM, a very
common range is from 50 to 300 microns (0.05 to 0.3 millimeters).
So, at this point the G-Code must be generated, and this can be done by various software.
Probably, some of the programs to be used may have already be used in a previous step. The
program cuts the model into horizontal "slices" or layers, generating the path that the
machine head will follow. It also calculates the amount of material (weight and meters) and
the estimated printing time.
35
Figure 31: Layers and path. [45]
With the chosen program, the G-Code is exported and saved, in a SD card or in a pen drive. Or
it can be also directly sent to the machine, depending on the software and machine.
To sum up this part, it should be taken into account that there are a lot of parameters that can
be changed: wall thickness, printing speeds, printing temperatures and bed temperature,
flow, etc. But these are parameters to edit by users with experience, and it is advisable to let
them default.
3.4. 3D printing
Now the G-Code has being obtained the process of 3D printing can be implemented. There
are a few things to consider and to check before printing.
For FDM printers, the temperatures of the bed or printing platform and of the extruder must
to be checked (the software or the printer do that automatically when you start to print). To
use some kind of lacquer or varnish is also recommendable in order to ease the extraction of
the piece. It is advisable to read the instructions to also know how to load the filament on the
printer for example, and for further information.
Therefore, the G-Code is sent to the machine, and the machine starts to work.
36
3.5. Extracting pieces
When the printer has already finished, it is the moment to implement the process of extracting
the piece/s. Once again, depending on the machine and mainly, on the technology and used
materials, the extraction processes will vary.
For fused deposition modelling machines (FDM), pieces often are removed by hand, or with
some tool like a blade. It is also possible to have flexible platforms that ease a lot the
extraction. There are even other methods such as using a solvent or applying cold or with
dental floss.
For further information about extraction processes for FDM printers, the following link is
given: https://all3dp.com/1/remove-3d-print-from-bed-stuck-glass/
For other technologies, extraction processes changes. Those technologies that use liquid
plastic buckets and lasers (for example), or those that use powder materials, have different
extraction processes:
37
Figure 34: SLS extraction process. [48]
3.6. Post-processing
For a lot of pieces, a finishing process is needed, that once again varies along the kind of
technology and kind of machine. For some technologies and machines this process is
necessary.
Since there are a lot of technologies and machines, here there will exposed the most common
processes, and also the most used for FDM printers.
First of all, it is important to note that some of the printed pieces may not need a post-
processing step. Or maybe some of them will need just to remove mechanically the support
structures.
38
There are a lot of finishing processes and post-processes:
• Remove support structures: This can be done mechanically, as it has been said, or by
the use of a solvent bath (even water), if the printing material is the adequate one.
• Sanding: It is a process to apply when the support structures have been already
removed. Several sanding grades can be chosen.
• Polishing: If the piece is wanted to have a "mirror-like" surface it is necessary to polish
the piece. It is needed to sand the piece with a sandpaper of number 2000, previously.
Then, the powder should be cleaned, and the piece will be polished with a microfiber
cloth and a special enamel, which will produce a lasting shine. There are also rotary
sanders and polishers.
39
• Coatings: All the pieces are capable of applying a coating. In the case of paints, it is
advisable to apply first a coat layer and then to paint with aerosol, acrylics or
airbrushes. Epoxy gels, metal coatings, etc. are also available.
There are more finishing processes: shot blasting, smoothing with acetone vapor... For
knowing more post-processes for FDM technology the following link is provided:
https://www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/post-processing-fdm-printed-parts
• Curing oven: For other technologies, such as stereolithography, sometimes it is
necessary some curing post-process in an ultraviolet rays oven. This process is
implemented in order to improve the properties of the piece's material, among others.
For more post-processes or finishing processes for other technologies, the following links are
provided:
- For SLS: https://www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/post-processing-sls-printed-parts
- For SLA: https://www.3dhubs.com/knowledge-base/post-processing-sla-printed-
parts
- For FDM and PolyJet: https://www.stratasysdirect.com/wp-
content/uploads/2016/10/finishing-for-fdm-and-polyjet-Rebrandeds-2.pdf
40
The whole process can be collected in the next scheme:
There are different software for each form of creation of the 3D object, as well as for each
phase of the process. To know which software you have the most affinity and meets your
needs, you have to study and evaluate which one is most appropriate for your workflow and
your technical level.
The process for obtaining the 3D object is composed of 3 phases: Designing the 3D object,
Repairing/Generating of the G-Code and Printing.
41
Some software are capable of doing the whole process, which means they have tools for 3D
object creation, verification and repair, until the generation of G-Code.
Below we explain the software available for creation of 3D object; they are divided into 3
groups.
Modelling
Many programmes can be used to create or draw a 3D Model since the beginning. They have
different levels of complexity, also different licenses. To choose which of them meets your
work needs and fits to your abilities, we list them below, with a brief description and links,
that you can you to know more about them.
42
Free software
Its powerful yet easy to use interface make it ideal for beginners in 3D modeling. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pv7Tr
Open source and free software for 3D design. It is also used for animation, rendering,
https://www.blender.org/support/tutorials
video editing
Parametric 3D modeler. It is easy to modify designs using the model history and changing
the parameters. The program is a multi-platform (Windows, Mac OS, and Linux) tool, and https://www.freecadweb.org/wiki/Draft_tu
reads and writes various open file formats
Advanced subdivision modeler that is powerful and easy to use. It is open source and http://www.wings3d.com/?page_id=252
completely free.
Professional 3D CAD software offers an easy-to-use set of tools for 3D mechanical design, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEheF
documentation, and product simulation and digital prototyping
Revit is specifically built for Building Information Modeling (BIM), empowering design and
construction professionals to bring ideas from concept to construction with a coordinated https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR08V
and consistent model-based approach
Comercial software
It is a 3D design solution for rapid creation of parts, assemblies, and 2D drawings.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAadn
Application-specific tools for sheet metal, weldments, surfacing, and mold tool and the
pW_KMa
make it easy to deliver best-in-class designs
Leading software solution used to design, simulate, analyze, and manufacture products in https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gGbq
a variety of industries
3D modeling, animation, motion graphic and rendering application capable of procedural
and polygonal/subdivision modeling, animating, lighting, texturing, rendering, and common https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLQzB
features found in 3D modelling applications
Table 1: Software to Designing a 3D Model. [55]
Scanning:
By using 3D scanning you will be able to capture a digital copy of a physical real-world object.
Different technologies are able to scan an object to create a 3D Model, as example: time-of-
flight, structured / modulated light, volumetric scanning etc. Some scanners are listed here:
https://structure.io/
https://www.3dsystems.com/3d-scanners/sense-scanner
http://eu.xyzprinting.com/eu_en/Product/da-Vinci-1.0-AiO#view
https://developer.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/hardware/3d-
print/scanning-with-kinect
Table 2: Software to Scanning a 3D Model. [56]
Downloading
The third possibility to have your 3D Model is downloading it from websites of repositories,
read to print or that needs a small correction. By clicking in the link below, you can find many
websites, where different examples of Models are available.
http://3dprintingforbeginners.com/3d-model-repositories/
https://www.thingiverse.com/
44
https://knowledge.autodesk.com/support/netfabb?p=NETF&skill=Beginner
&sort=score&page=1&v=2017
http://www.meshlab.net/#support
https://www.mmmanual.com/
Table 3: Software to Testing, Orientating and Repair a 3D Model. [57]
Here we use as an example the software Nettfabb, to explain how you can prepare your 3D
Model and generate the STL file.
NETFABB - PROCESS
DESIGN ->3D MODEL OPEN THE MODEL NEW ANALYSIS SCALE; MOVE OR
DOWNLOAD -> 3D REDUCE TRIANGLES PART REPAIR
WITH NETFABB STANDARD ANALYSIS
MODEL
Below you will find a link with an explanation of how to do the process, as well as the
appearance of the program's interface:
Repair it with Netfabb in under 3 Minutes Tutorial:
https://www.netfabb.com/blog/repair-it-netfabb-under-3-minutes
45
MENU
BAR TOOLBAR
R
PROJECT CONTEXT
TREE AREA PLATFOR
M
PROJECT
TREE
QUICK ACCESS
ICON
RULER
46
4.3. Programs for generating the G-code
G-code is a language in which people tell computerized machine tools how to make
something. The "how" is defined by instructions on where to move, how fast to move, and
what path to follow. The G-Code can be generated with many different software like
Skeinforge, Cura, Slic3r... One of the more used software is Slic3r. It is a necessary tool
to convert a 3D model into printing instructions (G-code) for the 3D printer. It cuts the model
into horizontal slices (layers), generates toolpaths to fill them and calculates the amount of
material to be extruded. It is possible to scale, rotate, split or cut the object, and also to add
support.
• Creating the G-Code with Slic3r:
47
2. Then the G-Code
of the 3D model can
be copied in a SD
card and inserted in
the 3D printer
48
4.4. 3D Printing Workflow
REPETIER - HOST
G-CO
TESTING
CREATING
DESIGN STL TESTING,
ORIENTATION
ORIENTATION G-CODE
REPAIRING
AND REPAIR
G-C
DOWNLOADIN
MODELING SCANNING NETFABB SLIC3R
G
MESHLAB SKENFORGE
WEB REPOSITORIES: 3D SCANNER:
• THINGIVERSE • KINET
FREE PROGRAMS:
• SKETCHUP • 3D MODEL FREE (MICROSOFT)
• SENSE 3D
MESHMIXER KISSLICER
• WINGS3D • PONOKO
• NASA 3D MODEL SCANNER
• 123D
• I.MATERIALISE • STRUCTURE
• OPENSCAD
• BLENDER • SHAPEWAYS SENSOR CURA
• FREECAD
• OPENSCAD
SUPERSKEIN
COMERCIAL
PROGRAMS /STUDENT
VERSION: MATTERCONTROL
• AUTOCAD
• INVENTOR
• REVIT
COMERCIAL
• 3D STUDIO MAX
PROGRAMS:
• CATIA We have to export our 3D model to the file format more suitable for us,. stl,
• SOLIDWORKS .obj, etc.
• 3D STUDIO
• RHINOCEROS
• CINEMA4D
Figure 44: Diagram 3D Printing Workflow. [62]
• ZBRUSH
5. 3D PRINTING MATERIALS
5.1. Overview
When it comes to 3D printing, materials are often one of the most important choice. Earlier
AM technologies were making use of certain materials which proved to be non-resistant
enough and were degrading quickly. With time, the knowledge about 3D printing has been
extending and has been spreading all over the world. With more people interested and the
idea that this technology has the right potential to lead to new innovative ways of
manufacturing, further studies and analysis has been conducted and new materials have
been created.
Today, the 3D printing market offers a variety of choice for what concerns materials. From
polymers and metals, to ceramics and composites, many are the materials that have been
created, each of them with its own advantage and disadvantages. Some examples are visible
on 3dhubs.com, a portal which provides 3D printing services on a global level. [63]:
• Prototyping Plastic, suitable for fast and cost-effective prototyping;
• High Detail Resin, suitable for intricate designs and sculptures;
• SLS Nylon, for functional prototypes and end-use parts;
• Fiber-Reinforced Nylon, for engineering strong parts;
• Rigid Opaque Plastic, for realistic prototypes with high accuracy;
• Rubber-Like Plastic, simulating rubber;
• Transparent Plastic, to create see-through parts and prototypes;
• Simulated ABS, with high precision and functional molds;
• Full Color Sandstone, for photo-realistic models;
• Industrial Metals, for prototypes and end-use parts.
The industry’s offer is, of course, much wider than what is reported here. For what concerns
the demand instead, here the use of a certain material is strongly influenced by not just the
type of technology adopted, but also the popularity of 3D printing machines.
According to the global 3D printing report for 2016 which collected information from
companies using a variety of 3D printing technologies, the demand for materials in this case
50
shows that metal is leading the competition. Metals are currently being in areas like
aerospace and automotive for many reasons. Apart from the high quantity that companies
need in this case, 3D printing technology using metals allows to create lightweight
components. Weight is, in fact, extremely fundamental for those companies which produce
aircraft components, for example. It impacts the quantity of fuel that is used by the aircraft
with very important cuts for what concerns the costs of the airlines. [64]
The graph above shows, instead, the percentage demand of 3D printing materials, as of
2016. Here, the leaders are the polymer materials followed shortly after by metals. This is
due to the fact that companies have a lot of experience for what concerns the use of both
categories, but much less use is registered for ceramics. Here, instead, the use is much lower.
Only 10% of the companies make use of it and this is probably due, in the first place, to its
durability and flexibility. Ceramics don´t allow a certain kind of item to be created like plastics
or filaments do. Meanwhile, metals allow them make use of materials like titanium, which
has a very strong resistance, steel and aluminium. [66]
Today’s trends confirm the path that has been undertaken already. As of late 2017, it has
been reported that PLA materials are currently at the top of the chart with a 32% of the total
share. It is shortly after followed by ABS filaments, with 14% of the share. Standard Resins
are reported to be the third most used material, with an 8% of the share. At the same time,
what the trends are showing is that some materials have been used more than before due
to the increase of use of a particular machine and therefore of a specific technology. In this
case, for example, PA 12 material has been increasing in its use thanks to the new machines
51
for SLS technology that the market offers currently, alongside with HP’s Multi Jet Fusion
Technology. [67]
The following are instead some of the indicators regarding the current offer of 3D printing
materials, including the amount of bio-based materials used, as well as the colours and the
diameters available, alongside with many other characteristics.
52
5.2. FDM, SLS and SLA 3D Printing Materials
According to the latest trends as of late November 2017, and based on the study conducted
in chapter 2, the three most used 3D printing technologies are currently:
1. Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM);
2. Selective Laser Sintering (SLS);
3. Stereolithography (SLA).
For what concerns Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), some of the most popular materials
are:
• Thermoplastic Filament
• PLA: Easy to print, very accurate, low melting point, rigid. Good for most things, not
for warm/hot regions.
• ABS: Tends to warp, strong and slightly flexible. Used for many mechanical parts.
• PETG: Easy to print & accurate, tends to string, good layer adhesion.
• TPU: Flexible polymer; ok to print, kind of like stiff rubber. Best used with direct-drive
machines.
• Nylon: Strong and flexible; special filament for printers exist. Polycarbonate:
Obnoxiously strong, high warp, high temp, bad fumes [Paul Chase, 3D Printing 101.
2016.]
Concerning ABS and PLA, there is no limit that one can do of them, for example they can be
mixed together. They represent a much better solution to using pure plastic material; this is,
in fact, relatively expensive, with a low strength and durability. Final products can usually be
distorted easily. Therefore, plastics do not make FDM cost-effective, nor it allows the
technology to be applied in functional and load-bearing applications, especially in a large-
scale production.
53
ABS filaments, instead, can take a variety of forms and
can be engineered to have many properties. Therefore,
they are strong, but also very flexible; they can be
sanded and machined, plus acetone can be used to
gloss the parts through brushing or dipping them in it.
A first comparison between ABS and PLA is that the
former filaments are much easier to be recycled,
another reason why most of engineers would rather Figure 47: Lego bricks from ABS. [69]
prefer using this kind of material.
For what concerns Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), the most
popular materials are represented by the category of
polyamides. A very clear example is nylon.
Objects, in this case, are created through an extruded filament
or through sintered fine powder. The material is, in fact, rigid,
strong, but it also flexes under high loads. Polyamides are also
considered to be among the cheapest materials.
Post-processing prints created with this kind of material allows
any kind of polish, dye or paint activities, and giving therefore
extended freedom. The negative side of polyamides is that they Figure 48: Polyamide. A strong
absorb humidity quickly and need to be properly stored. and flexible material with a high
level of detail. [70]
As for Stereolithography, plastics and resins are widely used. The
market offers a variety of different resins which consist of different backbones and side
groups—different combinations of long and short monomers, oligomers, photo initiators,
and additives. This provides unique freedom to create various formulations with a wide
range of optical, mechanical, and thermal properties, from clear to opaque and colored,
flexible to rigid, and tough to heat resistant.
Resins can come in the form of liquid photopolymer materials, which are cured and
hardened through ultraviolet (UV) energy. Resins are today one of the best materials in
terms of possibility. The technologies that evolved around resins are the ones that offer the
54
highest quality, and this make it a great choice for professional applications, important
product presentations, small objects, and so on.
Advantages in the use of resins include suitability for high resolution prints, smooth textures
without the need of post-processing them, a wide variety of colours and properties,
including transparency and translucency.
Disadvantages, instead, include the fact that resins can be irritating and toxic, leading to the
need of the correct equipment in order to treat them. Cleaning is also required. Although
the material offers a lot of freedom, the printing will require a support structure leading to
an increase of material purchase and therefore it might become costly. This last matter is
also influenced by the amount of post-processing steps that are undertaken.
In this section we aim to show the limitations of both additive manufacturing and 3D printing
in general, as well as the particular limitations of each technology, focusing on the
technology Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM).
55
Technologies in development: Many of the technologies are in continuous development.
Some of them are still in early stages of development. In a few years, a machine may be
outdated or outmoded.
Availability and cost of the raw material: Getting the supply of materials at some points can
be complicated. Also, some materials are quite expensive, if you are looking for very specific
properties. The most basic and cheap material is usually plastic.
Initial investment: Desktop FDM printers are usually cheap, but for other technologies,
especially if larger machine sizes are sought, the initial investment can be very high.
Size of the pieces: The size of the pieces to produce depends on the printing bed. While it is
true that many large pieces can be chopped and then joined.
Non-profitable mass production: Additive manufacturing and 3D printing are designed for
very short series of pieces (around 1 - 10 units). For longer series, production with these
technologies is not profitable.
Finishes and precision: In general, getting very good finish and very good precision will be
expensive. That is to say, it will be necessary to resort to more expensive technologies and
machines. In addition, the parts may require post-processes, other machines and special
sub-processes.
Obtaining digital files: If specific and highly customized pieces are desired, it is necessary to
possess advanced CAD design knowledge. Most of the time, the repositories of CAD files are
not enough. The same goes for the 3D scanner; they are expensive and using it requires
certain knowledge.
56
for supports. In general, holes smaller than 2 mm in diameter can not be printed. To ensure
that a part of a piece does not fail when it is printed, the size of this part must be greater
than 2 mm. When it comes to printing connection pins, the recommended minimum
diameter is 3 mm. The tolerance (dimensional accuracy) expected is ± 0.5% (± 0.5 mm
approximately).
• Limitations of selective laser sintering (SLS).
The average build volume is around 30x30x30 cm. The finish is slightly granulated to the
touch and matt, so if a glossy and smooth finish is desired, post-processing is recommended.
The walls must have a minimum of 0.7 mm thickness. Embossed or engraved details should
be at least 1mm (width and height). In general, holes with a smaller diameter than 1.5 mm
can not be printed. To remove the support material (un-sintered dust), there must be leak
holes in the parts. These must have a minimum diameter of 5 mm. The minimum size of a
part of a piece so that the impression does not fail is about 0.8 mm, same for the connection
pins. The expected tolerance is approximately ± 0.3% (± 0.3 mm).
• Limitations of stereolithography (SLA).
SLA printers generally have a much smaller build volume than most FDM printers, with the
exception of industrial machines, which can have a print size of 14.5x14.5x14.5 cm. When
the piece is larger, it is better to print it in smaller sections and then assemble them. The cost
of the resins is very high (from € 150 / liter). Most parts printed by SLA need a post-curing
process in a UV oven. The minimum recommended width of the walls is 0.5 mm (if the wall
in question is connected to another element) or 1 mm (if it is not). Support structures are
always required for cantilevered parts (this also makes printing more expensive). The
engraved or embossed details should be 0.4 mm (width and height). The smallest holes that
can be printed will be approximately 0.5 mm in diameter. To allow the material to come out
in hollow pieces, escape holes should be left, which should be approximately 4 mm in
diameter. So that an impression does not fail, the minimum size of the parts of the piece will
be 0.2 mm. For connection pins, a diameter of 0.5 mm is recommended. The expected
tolerance or dimensional accuracy is around ± 0.5% (± 0.15 mm).
57
COMPARATIVE TABLE
LIMITATION TECHNOLOGIE
NAME DESCRIPTION SKETCH FDM SLA SLS
Features on the
Embossed & model that are 0.4 mm
0.6 mm wide 1 mm wide &
Engraved raised or recessed wide &
&2 mm high high
Details below the model high
surface.
The span a
Horizontal technology can print
10 mm
Bridges without the need
for support.
The minimum
diameter a
Holes technology can 2 mm 5 mm 1.5 mm
successfully print a
hole.
58
The minimum
diameter of escape
Escape Holes holes to allow for 4 mm 5 mm
the removal of build
material.
The recommended
Minimum minimum size of a
2 mm 0.2 mm 0.8 mm
Features feature to ensure it
will not fail to print.
The minimum
Pin Diameter diameter a pin can 3 mm 0.5 mm 0.8 mm
be printed at.
The expected
± 0.5% (lower ± 0.5% ± 0.3% (lower
tolerance (diameter
Tolerance limit ± 0.5 (lower limit limit ± 0.3
accuracy) of a
mm) ± 0.15 mm) mm)
specific technology.
Table 4: Comparative table. [72]
BRIDGING
Bridging in FDM occurs when the printer is required to print between two supports or anchor
points. Because there is no support offered for the initial layer being printed (there is nothing
to build upon) and it is required to “bridge” a gap, the material will tend to sag. Bridges occur
most often in horizontal axis holes found in the walls of objects or in the top layer (or roof)
of hollow parts.
59
One solution to reduce the impact of bridging is to reduce the distance of the bridge, but this
will depend upon the design constraints of the part. Another solution to avoid sagging is to
include support. Support offers a temporary build platform for the bridging layer to be built
upon. The support material is then removed once the print has been completed. This can
leave marks or damage upon the surface where the support was connected to the final part.
Key design consideration: Due to the nature of FDM, sagging or marks from support material
will always be present to some extent unless the bridge is less than 5mm.
An advanced solution is to split the design into separate parts or consider some form of post
processing if a level and smooth surface is required.
60
This can be of particular issue when printing small diameter holes where the effect is greater
due to the ratio of hole diameter to nozzle diameter.
Figure 50: The variation in slicer program vs. actual diameter of vertical
holes is due to compression of the extruded profile. [74]
The amount of undersize will depend on the printer, the slicing software, the size of the hole,
and the material. Often, the reduction in diameter of vertical axis holes is accounted for in
the slicing program, but accuracy can vary, and several test prints may be needed to achieve
the desired accuracy. If a high level of accuracy is required, drilling the hole after printing
may be required.
Key design consideration: If the diameter of your vertical axis hole is critical, printing it
undersized and then drilling the hole to the correct diameter is recommended.
OVERHANGS
Issues with overhang are one of the most common print quality problems relating to FDM.
Overhangs occur when the printed layer of material is only partially supported by the layer
below. Similar to bridging, the inadequate support provided by the surface below the build
layer can result in poor layer adhesion, bulging or curling.
61
Figure 51: The effect of increasing overhang angle (in increments of 5
degrees) on print quality. Max. angle shown is 70 degrees. [75]
CORNERS
Because the printing nozzle in FDM is circular, corners and edges will have a radius that is
equal to the size of the nozzle. This means that these features will never be perfectly square.
For sharp edges and corners, the first layers of a print are particularly important. As discussed
above for vertical holes, as the nozzle prints each layer, it compresses the print material
down to improve adhesion. For the initial print layer, this creates a flare often called an
62
“elephant's foot”. This can impact the ability to assemble FDM parts as this flare protrudes
outside the specified dimensions.
Figure 52: Side view of elephant's foot feature that can occur on
the base layers of an FDM print. [76]
Another issue that is often present relating to the first print layer of an FDM print is warping.
ABS is more vulnerable to warping due to its high printing temperature when compared to
PLA. The base layer is the first layer to be printed and cools as the other hot layers are printed
on top. This causes differential cooling and can result in the base layer curling up and away
from the build plate as it shrinks and contracts.
The addition of a chamfer or radius along the edges of the part that are in contact with the
build plate will reduce the impact of these problems. This will also assist in removal of the
component from the build plate once the print has been completed.
Key design consideration: If assembly or overall dimensions are critical to the function of an
FDM part, include a 45-degree chamfer or radius on all edges touching the build plate. For
high precision form & fit testing, other technologies such as SLA or Polyjet are
recommended.
VERTICAL PINS
Vertical pins are often printed in FDM when assembly of parts or alignment is required.
Considering that these features are often functional, it is important to understand the size
of vertical pins that FDM can print accurately.
Large pins (greater than 5mm diameter) are printed with a perimeter and infill, affording a
strong connection to the rest of the print. Smaller diameter pins (less than 5mm diameter)
can be made up of only perimeter prints with no infill. This creates discontinuity between
the rest of the print and the pin, resulting in a weak connection that is susceptible to
63
breaking. In a worst-case scenario, small pins may not print at all as there is not enough print
material for the newly printed layers to adhere to.
Often correct printer calibration (optimal layer height, print speed, nozzle temperature etc.)
can reduce the likelihood of small pins failing. The addition of a radius at the base of the pin
will eliminate that point as a stress concentration and add strength. For critical pins smaller
than 5mm diameter, an off the shelf pin inserted into a printed hole may be the optimal
solution.
Key design consideration: If your design contains pins smaller than 5 mm diameter, add a
small fillet at the base of the pin. If function is critical, consider including a hole in your design
in the location of the pin, drill the hole to the correct size and insert an off the shelf pin.
Figure 53: Print of vertical pins with decreasing diameter (from 25 to 5mm) illustrating the upper
diameter of the print becoming too small to print accurately. [77]
ADVANCED DESIGN
Several key aspects to consider when printing with FDM are how to reduce the amount of
support required, part orientation and the direction the part is built on the build platform.
64
Figure 54: Splitting a model in order to eliminate the need for support. [78]
HOLE ORIENTATION
Support for holes is best avoided by changing the print orientation. Removal of support in
horizontal axis holes can often be difficult, but by rotating the build direction 90 degrees, the
need for support is eliminated. For components with multiple holes in different directions,
prioritize blind holes, then holes with the smallest to largest diameter, then criticality of hole
size.
Figure 55: Re-orientation of horizontal axis holes can eliminate the need for support. [79]
65
BUILD DIRECTION
Due to the anisotropic nature of FDM printing, understanding the application of a
component and how it is built are critical to the success of a design. FDM components are
inherently weaker in one direction due to layer orientation.
The lack of continuous material paths and the stress concentration created by each layer
joint contribute to this weakness. Since the layers are printed as a round-ended rectangle,
the joints between each layer are actually small valleys. This creates a stress concentration
where a crack will want to form.
66
RULES OF THUMB
• If a bridge exceeds 5mm, sagging or marks from support material can occur. Splitting the
design or post processing can eliminate this issue.
• For critical vertical hole diameters, drilling after printing is recommended if high accuracy
is desirable.
• The addition of support will allow FDM printers to print wall angles greater than 45
degrees.
• Include a 45-degree chamfer or radius on all edges of an FDM part touching the build
plate.
• For applications with small vertical pins, add a small fillet at the base or consider inserting
an off the shelf pin into a printed hole instead.
• Splitting a model, re-orientating holes and specifying build direction are all factors that
can lower cost, speed up the printing process, and improve the strength and print quality
of a design. [82]
7. EXAMPLE
In this chapter it is intended to show, by a real example, all the steps to follow for, starting
from a model or digital file, getting a real printed piece.
The example shown hereunder is about a heritage reproduction project. It arises from the
need to make certain pieces of the Museum of Natural History of Valencia accessible to blind
people. Specifically, the project is about the lower part of a tiger jaw. The project begins with
the 3D scanning of the original jaw, getting a digital model then. This example will begin from
this point.
67
Figure 58: Digital model, result of the 3D scanning. [83]
Whatever it is the file format, it has to be exported to STL, as it has been shown in other
chapters of this guide.
As it can be seen almost simple sight in the previous Figure, the model has several errors
that need to be repaired, like the teeth part, for example.
For that, several software can be used. The process of analysis and repairing will be explained
here with free-access software. For example: Meshmixer, from Autodesk.
Before seeing the process of analysis and reparation of a STL model, it is noted that, this
model under consideration was processed by a certain software (Meshlab, specifically) in
order to reduce the file size. The model mesh had a very high and excessive number of
triangles, so this number was lowed and hence, the file size. This is a step that just a few
times is necessary to implement, so it is just mentioned. For further information about how
to reduce the number of triangles of a mesh, and hence the size file, the following link is
provided:
https://www.shapeways.com/tutorials/polygon_reduction_with_meshlab
So, as it was said before, the STL model will be opened with Meshmixer, by clicking on
Import. The first thing that can be seen is that the model orientation could not be the
adequate one. There is no need to be worry about that. Meshmixer allows you to change it
68
by clicking on Edit > Transform. In addition, we will not print by Meshmixer, so orientation
has been adjusted approximately, as can be seen here:
Thereupon, a general analysis of the defects of the piece is made. For that, Inspector option
is used, in Analysis section. Meshmixer detects and shows all the errors in the model or file.
The different mistakes are shown in different colours, and they are shown by balls and
arrows. Holes in the mesh are displayed in blue, non-manifold points or edges are displayed
in red, and disconnected components or elements with a very little area are displayed in
magenta. There are two options now, either repairing the errors one by one by clicking on
the "ball", or either clicking on Auto Repair All and repairing everything at once.
69
Figure 60: General analysis in Meshmixer. [85]
In this case, the software repairs all the found defects automatically. If not, it is possible to
use other software and implement other analysis and reparation process.
With Meshmixer it is also possible to perform other kind of analysis such as: thickness,
stability, orientation and positioning on the printing base, etc.
So, at this point, the STL model is completely repaired and it is ready for the next step. As it
can be seen, the program has closed every hole in the mesh, and it has repaired all the
defects. It is noted that the software does this reparation automatically, trying to get close,
more or less, to the geometry around the defect. If holes or gaps in the mesh are intended
to be repaired with a certain geometry it is needed to use a digital sculpture software. It is
true that Meshmixer has a digital sculpture option, but it will not be explained in this
example, because it is not an objective of this guide.
70
Figure 61: Jaw with repaired holes and defects- [86]
So now, in Meshmixer, the repaired and fixed model must be exported or saved again in STL
format.
The next step is to load the file in a software that allows to do, at least, the following things:
- Choosing an orientation in the printing bed. Rotating and moving the model.
- Scaling the model.
- Choosing the quality or layer height.
- Choosing the infill. Density among other issue.
- Generating the needed support structures.
In addition, with this software the G-Code or machine code will be also generated. There is
different free software for doing this. For example, Ultimaker Cura or Slic3r. In this example
Cura is used.
So, in Cura the repaired model is imported. To configure the software in order to show the
printing bed of the machine now is convenient. Cura has a very big data base of commercial
3D printers. If the used machine is not in that data base, it is also possible to create it from
scratch.
71
Figure 62: Model loaded in Cura. [87]
This model is going to be scaled to 60%. 0.2 mm. is the chosen layer quality. A grid infill of
15% density is also chosen. Automatically support structures will be generated everywhere,
and in order to get a good adhesion for the first layer, "first layer speed" will be set to 20
mm/s. working material is also chosen: PLA. Finally, the G-Code is saved in the device to
insert in the printer by clicking on "Save to File".
72
At this point, it is possible to go to the next step of the process: 3D printing itself. It is needed
to go to the machine and, by the appropriated means, to launch the print job. The machine
will be left working, and it is recommended to see it from time to time in order to see if
everything goes correctly. It is important to say that it is highly recommended to check if the
first printed layer is correctly stick to the bed or platform. If not, the following guide is
provided: https://www.simplify3d.com/support/print-quality-troubleshooting/#print-not-
sticking-to-the-bed
In the next picture the printing sequence is shown, for the given example:
The next step is, obviously, to extract the printed piece. A spatula with rounded edges is
used, in order not to scratch and not to damage the printing platform.
73
Once the piece has been extracted of the platform, it is time for the post-processing step,
consisting on manually and mechanically removing the support structures, and sanding
those parts of the piece that have marks (from support structures, for example). The printing
bed should be correctly cleaned for the next print job.
As mentioned, to sand the marks of the support structures, among others, is very
convenient.
At the end, the final result of the piece is the following one:
74
Figure 68: Final result. [93]
If the result at any point of the printing process, or at the end of the printing process is not
good, or some errors and shrinkages are seen, the following guide can be very helpful, in
order to configure some printing parameters or parameters of the printer:
https://www.simplify3d.com/support/print-quality-troubleshooting/
75
SOURCES
[8] Rapid prototyping technology for the development of new products. 2016. Source:
http://ijiset.com/vol3/v3s1/IJISET_V3_I1_39.pdf
[9] Figure 5: Prototypes of a ski goggles' frame printed with FDM, SLA and SLS technology (from
left to right). Source: https://formlabs.com/de/blog/fdm-vs-sla-vs-sls-how-to-choose-the-
right-3d-printing-technology/
76
[17]FDM Technology 3D print durable parts with real thermoplastic. 2017. Source:
http://www.stratasys.com/3d-printers/technologies/fdm-technology
[33]Figure 19: Thickness analysis (1 millimetre) implemented with Meshmixer. Source: CETEM
77
[34]Figure 20: Angle analysis. Source: CETEM
[37]Figure 23: Differences between a piece with optimized support structures (left) and non-
optimized (right). Differences between printing times can also be seen. Source:
https://www.3ders.org/images/skin-frame-structure-3d-printing-material-6.png
[40]Figure 26: Quality differences in the same piece, according orientation. Source: https://s3-
eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/3dhubs-knowledgebase/print-orientation/photo2.jpg
78
[48]Figure 34: SLS extraction process. Source: https://3dprint.com/wp-
content/uploads/2016/04/Untitled48.png
http://www.oceanz.eu/files/original/640/sls-professional-3d-printing-oceanz.jpg
[51]Figure 37: Bath for removing the support structures. Source: https://3dprint.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/07/rinse3.png
[64]How will 3D printing make your company the strongest in the value chain?. 2006. Source:
http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-global-3d-printing-report-2016-
fullreport/$FILE/ey-global-3d-printing-report-2016-full-report.pdf
79
[66]Explanation of the graphic. Source: http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/ey-global-
3d-printing-report-2016-fullreport/$FILE/ey-global-3d-printing-report-2016-full-report.pdf
[70]Figure 48: Polyamide. A strong and flexible material with a high level of detail. Source:
http://3dprintedinstruments.wikidot.com/materials#toc24
80
[84]Figure 69: Positioning the model in Meshmixer. Source: CETEM
[86]Figure 61: Jaw with repaired holes and defects- Source: CETEM
[88]Figure 63: Configuration and parameters of the model in Cura. Source: CETEM
81