Clay Minerals (1998) 33, 15-34

Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary

basins a key to the prediction of rock
properties. Examples from the North Sea
Basin
K. BJORLYKKE

Department of Geology, Box 1047 Blindern, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway

(Received 23 September 1996," revised 9 June 1997)

A B S T RA C T : Dissolution of feldspar and mica and precipitation of kaolinite require a through flow
of meteoric water to remove cations such as Na + and K § and silica. Compaction driven pore-water
flow is in most cases too slow to be significant in terms of transport of solids. The very low solubility
of A1 suggests that precipitation of new authigenic clay minerals requires unstable Al-bearing
precursor minerals. Chlorite may form diagenetically from smectite and from kaolinite when a source
of Fe and Mg is present. In the North Sea Basin, the main phase of illite precipitation reducing the
quality of Jurassic reservoirs occurs at depths close to 4 km (130-140~ but the amount of illite
depends on the presence of both kaolinite and K-feldspar. Clay mineral reactions in shales and
sandstones are very important factors determining mechanical and chemical compaction and are thus
critical for realistic basin modelling.

The presence of clay minerals and clastic sheet thermal history. If these principles can be agreed
silicates strongly influence the physical and upon, the main problem is making the right
chemical properties of both sandstones and shales. assumptions about variables such as provenance,
The primary sediment composition and the early facies, sedimentation rates and geothermal gradi-
diagenetic reactions determine the burial diagenetic ents. The same diagenetic reactions that we can
reactions and rock properties as a function of depth. study in sandstones probably also apply to
Clay minerals will also, in most cases, reduce their mudstones, even if the texture and mineralogy
shear strength and increase the surface area of the may be different. The North Sea Basin and
sediments and change chemical properties such as Haltenbanken (Mid-Norway) Basin are particularly
ion exchange capacity. The primary clastic compo- good 'laboratories' for studying clay mineral
sition of sedimentary rocks is related to source diagenesis. Both basins are extensively cored and
rocks, weathering and erosion in the source area, large amounts of geochemical and mineralogical
transport processes and to the depositional environ- data are available on the composition of the
ment. Each basin has a different basin subsidence sediments, as well as the pore-water (Egeberg &
and depositional history and clay diagenesis is Aagaard, 1989; Aagaard et al., 1992; Warren &
influenced by many different factors. Smalley, 1994; Bjorlykke et al., 1995). With the
Diagenetic reactions are driven towards higher exception of the marginal parts of the basins, there
t h e r m o d y n a m i c stability at a rate which is has been almost continuous subsidence and
controlled by the kinetics of the mineral reactions. sedimentation through the Cenozoic. An overview
The main principles for clay mineral diagenesis of the regional geology and stratigraphy of the
should therefore be the same for all basins even if North Sea Basin is provided by Glennie (1990) and
they have very different initial mineralogy and of Haltenbanken by Koch & Heum (1995).

9 1998 The Mineralogical Society

16 K. Bj~rlykke

The present-day geothermal gradients in the These minerals become unstable at greater burial
North Sea vary mostly between 30-40~ depth and higher temperatures and this reaction is
(Glennie, 1990; Hermanrud et al., 1991) and there often referred to as reversed weathering:
is no evidence to suggest that the geothermal
clay (kaolinite, smectite) + cations (K+) =
gradients were very much higher earlier in
aluminosilicate (illite) + quartz + water.
Cenozoic times. Even if the geothermal gradients
should have been considerably higher during the The above reactions are modified from Velde
Mesozoic or Lower Tertiary, it is not likely that the (1995).
temperature of a particular rock should have had a In the North Sea and Haltenbanken basins,
higher absolute temperature because of the Pliocene diagenetic studies have focused mostly on the
and Pleistocene subsidence. This is also supported reservoir sandstones of Jurassic age. The main
by the fact that fluid inclusions in quartz from the primary minerals such as feldspar and mica are
North Sea and Haltenbanken record temperatures up unstable when exposed to meteoric water of low
to the present-day bottom-hole temperature but not ionic strength near the surface (weathering), but
higher (Walderhaug, 1990, 1994; Saigal et al., comprise a stable mineral assemblage during burial
1992). Where there has been no hydrothermal diagenesis at higher temperatures and lower flow
activity or uplift, the present burial depths and rates. It is well known that arkoses have their
temperatures can, in most cases, be taken as feldspars well preserved after exposure to greens-
maximum values because of the rapid late chist facies or higher grades of metamorphism.
Cenozoic subsidence. It is reasonable to assume Only if kaolin, smectite or other potentially
that the North Sea Basin has experienced recent unstable clay minerals form at shallow depth will
progressive burial diagenetic processes with clay mineral reactions such as precipitation of illite
increasing temperatures, except in the uplifted take place at greater burial due to higher
marginal parts of the basins. temperatures. In such well-sorted reservoir sand-
The depth ranges of authigenic minerals such as stones, nearly all the clay minerals are authigenic
kaolinite, illite, chlorite and quartz provide very and the distribution of clay minerals then depends
important constraints on the interpretations derived on the diagenetic processes.
from petrographic analyses. This paper is an
attempt to present a summary of the main clay
Early (shallow) diagenesis
mineral reactions typical of the North Sea and
Hattenbanken basins and to discuss the principles of The term early diagenesis is used here to include
diagenetic processes involving clay minerals. processes near the surface where the diagenesis
However, a detailed discussion of the regional may be strongly influenced by meteoric water and
variations in clay mineralogy within these basins is sea-water. Early marine diagenesis is strongly
beyond the scope of this paper. For recent reviews influenced by the accumulation of biogenic
of elastic diagenesis see Wilson (1994). carbonate and silica on the sea floor and by
interaction with sea-water by diffusion near the
red/ox boundary. These changes in the primary
CLAY MINERALOGY AND
elastic sediment composition are related to marine
SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS
facies and may strongly influence diagenetic
Diagenetic reactions must have a thermodynamic reactions at greater burial. Meteoric water may
drive so that the minerals precipitated are more flow deep into sedimentary basins and many of the
stable than the minerals which are dissolving. At reservoirs in the northem North Sea have salinities
shallow depths and low temperatures, hydrous which are about 50% of that of normal sea-water
minerals such as gibsite, kaolinite and smectite (Warren & Smally, 1994 ). However, the flux of
form as a result of weathering or early diagenetic meteoric water is highest in the marginal and
processes during meteoric water flow. Such early shallow parts of the basin. It also depends on the
diagenetic processes may be considered a continua- climate, topography, water table and on aquifers
tion of the weathering process even if the pore- and aquitards in the basin. Fluvial and shallow
water is reducing. The overall reaction: marine sediments will be flushed by meteoric
water after deposition while more distal shelf
rock (feldspar, mica) + water = clay + cations.
facies and turbidites normally will be subjected
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 17

FIG. 1. Leached feldspar and authigenic kaolinite from the Brent Group (Ness Formation, Huldra Field, depth,
3722 m (Nedkvitne & Bjorlykke, 1992). Porosity is gained by feldspar dissolution (secondary porosity) but lost
through precipitation of kaolinite.

to much less meteoric water flushing. The fluvial and shallow marine environments if the
dissolution of feldspar and mica and precipitation climate is humid. Silica will normally not
of kaolinite (Fig. 1) is a weathering reaction and precipitate as quartz at such low temperatures and
this type of early diagenesis may be referred to as must be removed along with the alkali ions in order
subsurface weathering: for the pore-water to remain in the stability field for
kaolinite. Meteoric water may penetrate deeply into
2K(Na)A1Si3Os + 2 W + 9H~O = A12SiOs(OH)4
sedimentary basins in some cases, but meteoric
+ 2HaSiO4 + 2K(Na +)
water fluxes, significant in relation to dissolution of
It is clear that this reaction cannot take place in a feldspar and mica, probably occur mostly at depths
closed system because it requires the supply of shallower than I00 m - - in many cases shallower
protons and the removal of cations such as Na + and than 10 m (Bjorkum et al., 1990). The model
K + and silica by fluid flow. Most ground-waters are indicating mixing of meteoric water and compac-
in the stability field of kaolinite (Garrels & Christ, tion driven flow from opposite direction into the
1965). Calculations show that a total flow of Brent Gr. (Osborne et al., 1994), is hydrodynami-
103--104 m3/m2 through sandstones is required to cally very problematic. Meteoric water flowing into
dissolve significant quantities of feldspar and mica sedimentary basins will gradually approach equili-
and precipitate a few percentages of kaolinite brium with the mineral phases present, including
(Bjorlykke, 1994). This rate of flow is obtained in also K-feldspar and mica as the distance from the
18 K. Bjorlykke

area of recharge increases. High fluxes are required uncertainty of the isotopic composition of the pore-
for the pore-water to remain in the stability field of water but it is highly unlikely that it could be
kaolinite (low K+/H+), but only a few exchanges of formed at high (>100~ temperatures (Glasmann et
pore-water are required before the pore-water al., 1989a,b).
composition will be dominated by the isotopic Authigenic kaolinite is common in sandstones of
signature of meteoric water. Osborne et al. (1994) the Brent Group in the shallowest reservoirs at
suggested that authigenic kaolinite formed in the <1700 m in the Emerald Field (Osborne et al.,
Brent sandstones because of meteoric water flow 1994) and at c. 1.8 km depth in the Gullfaks Field
into the basin in the Late Cretaceous to Early (Bjorlykke et al., 1992; Giles et al., 1992) and in
Eocene. At that time, however, the Middle Jurassic Upper Jurassic sandstones of the Troll Field at
Brent Group was in most places covered by a 1.5-1.6 km indicating that kaolinite has precipi-
1 - 2 km thick sequence of mudstones, which tated at shallower depth. Osborne et al. (1994)
probably had low permeability, thereby reducing suggested that kaolinite precipitated from meteoric
the potential for large fluxes of meteoric water to water at temperatures between 25-80~ at a burial
flow into the Jurassic sediments and up to the depth between 571-2143 m at a time interval
surface again. In addition, the land areas adjacent to between 47-86 Ma. They assumed that kaolinite
the northern North Sea such as the Shetland was precipitated from a mixture of meteoric water
platform and western Norway were transgressed and compactional water with 81So values between
by the sea during Late Cretaceous and Early -6.5 to -3.5~ SMOW. The composition of
Tertiary times (Hancock, 1984; Jordt et al., 1995) Jurassic meteoric water is, however, poorly
providing little head for meteoric water flow into constrained and may vary locally depending on
the basin. Late Eocene and Oligocene smectitic various factors such as wind directions during
mudrocks with very low permeability probably rainfall. Assuming that the kaolinite precipitated
reduced the potential for fluid into the underlying from meteoric ground water with 8180 values
Mesozoic sequence as well as back up to the between - 7 to -9%0 SMOW, most of the kaolinite
surface. could have precipitated at low temperatures
In the North Sea Basin it has been shown that the (20-30~ which is also suggested by McAulay
distribution of kaolinite in sandstones can be related et al. (1990). Seventy six analyses of diagenetic
to facies and climate (Bjorlykke & Aagaard, 1992). kaolinite from the Brent Group (Osborne et al.,
The Permian and Triassic sandstones in the North 1994) showed that 5180 values decrease with
Sea Region, which were deposited in a dry climate, increasing present-day burial depth from an
generally contain little kaolinite compared to the average of 17.2%o at 1600-1700 m, 16.4%o
Jurassic fluvial and shallow marine sandstones between 2-3000 m and 14.2%o at >3300 m. This
deposited in a more humid climate. Practically all could indicate that some degree of re-equilibration
samples of sandstones from the Brent Group which had occurred during burial, but then the pore-water
are not carbonate cemented contain authigenic must have continued to have low 5180 at greater
kaolin and show evidence of feldspar dissolution depth. Possibly, some of the kaolinite now observed
(Morton e t al., 1992). Below ~4 km depth, in reservoir sandstones could have been recrystal-
however, much of the kaolinite has been dissolved lized from amorphous aluminium phases or from
and replaced by illite (Fig. 2). The Brent Group less crystalline kaolinite thus explaining somewhat
represents a deltaic facies where both the fluvial elevated temperatures. Some of the kaolinite in the
and shallow marine sediments would have been deeper reservoirs may be dickite and this may also
flushed by meteoric water shortly after deposition. change the oxygen isotopic composition. Although
The most effective leaching of feldspar and mica kaolinite is a pore-filling mineral, it is often partly
occurs at shallow depths (<10-20 m), even though enclosed in authigenic quartz at greater burial depth
meteoric water may extend much deeper into the (Fig. 3).
basin. The degree of dissolution of feldspar and Upper Jurassic sandstones from the North Sea
mica varies through the Brent Group as a function Basin representing more distal shelf facies and
of facies (Nedkvitne & Bjorlykke, 1992). turbidites contain very little or no authigenic
The 8180 values of authigenic kaolinite indicate kaolinite and much less evidence of feldspar
rather low formation temperatures. The exact leaching compared to the underlying Brent Group
temperatures cannot be calculated because of the of delta facies where these features are ubiquitous.
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 19
Biogenic
Detrital supply
carbonate and
s i Iic a Met..water

Carbonate cement
I Basin f i

~I
l l ~

N
Dissolution of feldspar
and mica, precipitation
BURIAL Verdine(Fe) of authigenic k a o l i n i t e
DEPTH Opal A-CT - quartz Facies
Little aut. kaolinite 2KAISi308+2H++ 9H20 =
o-3.s(4)
AI2Si205(OH) 4 +4H4SiO 4 +2K +
km

BURIAL Extensive Chlorite Quartz cement,

DEPTH > quartz cementation coatings? Illitization if
3.5(4) Little illite if Little kaolinite and
Km kaolinite and quartz K-feldsparare present
s m e c t i t e are absent cement
KAISi308+AI2Si2Os(OH)4 =
KAI3Si3010(0H)2+2Si02 +2H20

FI~. 2. Model for relationships between provenance, facies-related early diagenesis and diagenesis at greater
burial depth. Provenance and early diagenesis in meteoric or marine environments strongly influence the
diagenesis at deeper burial.

In the Claymore Field, a thin turbiditic sandstone This is clearly not the case. In Upper Jurassic
(Ten Foot Sand) within the Kimmeridge Clay sandstones, representing more proximal shallow
Formation shows no significant authigenic kaolinite marine facies such as in the Piper and Tartan
and feldspar dissolution (Spark & Trewin, 1986), formations, authigenic kaolinite is observed, prob-
while the Piper Formation, which is a paralic ably because they have been more extensively
deposit, contains authigenic kaolinite and inten- flushed by meteoric water (Burley, 1986). Near the
sively leached feldspar and mica. The Fulmar top of rotated fault blocks, when they were
Formation is an example of a distal shelf and submerged as islands, the Brent Group has been
turbidite facies which contain little diagentic exposed to meteoric water flushing (Bjorlykke &
kaolinite (Stewart, 1986). This may be because it Brendsdal, 1986). Because of uplift and erosion,
has received too little meteoric water flushing to relatively little of the section affected by meteoric
cause leaching of feldspar and mica (Saigal et al., flushing below the unconformity may be preserved
1992). If the leaching was related to the generation (Bjorkum et al., 1990).
of CO2 or organic acids as suggested by several Dissolution and precipitation of minerals due to
authors (Schmidt & McDonald, 1979; Surdam et fluid flow during deeper burial cannot be expected
al., 1984, 1989; Burley et al., 1985; Burley, 1986), to be facies selective as is the case with early
then the sandstones which were close to the source diagenetic reactions. Shallower sandstones are
rock would be expected to show the most leaching. rarely cored but authigenic kaolinite has been
20 K. Bjorlykke

FIG. 3. Authigenic kaolinite enclosed by quartz overgrowth. Rarmock Formation (Brent Group, Statfjord Field).
The scale bar represents 0.001 mm.

observed in cuttings from shallower sandstones, i.e. desert environments today (Weaver, 1989). In
from the Pliocene Nordland Group (36/1-2) at Upper Triassic sediments, i.e. the Lunde
500 m present burial depth (Singh, 1996). Most Formation at the Snorre Field, the kaolin content
Lower Tertiary sandstones in the North Sea contain is higher, probably due to a slightly less arid
little authigenic kaolinite, probably because they climate and it is clearly linked to increased ground
represent distal marine and turbidite facies which waterflow through fluvial sandstone.
have not been subjected to extensive flushing by The depth and temperature of formation of
meteoric water (Bjorlykke & Aagaard, 1992). kaolinite in the basins like the North Sea has
Minor amounts of authigenic kaolinite may, been the subject of considerable controversy. It was
however, be found in Paleocene sandstones a widely held view that the dissolution of feldspar
(Stewart et al., 1990). The Permian and Triassic and precipitation of kaolinite occurred in connec-
sandstones, which were deposited in a rather dry tion with release of acids from generation of oil
climate, contain little authigenic kaolinite and from kerogen (Burley, 1986; Surdam et al., 1984,
mostly smectite and illite, which is typical of 1989). As shown above, observations from cores
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 21

show that abundant kaolinite has already precipi- too high to be in the stability field of kaolinite. If
tated prior to deep (>1.5-2.0 km) burial. This is some K-feldspar or mica should dissolve, the K
also supported by isotopic data suggesting a concentration in the pore-water will increase until
relatively low temperature (Glasmann et al., the reaction stops, since there is normally no other
1989a). Precipitation from meteoric water at mechanism for removing K.
1 - 2 km depth as suggested by Osborne et aL At burial depths > 2 - 3 km, the kaolin mineral
(1994) cannot be disproved by data since there are present is commonly not kaolinite but dickite
no cores from depths <1.5 km. The interpretation (Ehrenberg et al., 1993). Much of what has
that kaolinite is formed by leaching at very shallow previously been described as kaolinite from North
depth is based on indirect reasoning about meteoric Sea reservoir sandstones should mineralogically be
water fluxes required to produce significant classified as dickite. The transition of kaolinite to
dissolution (weathering). dickite is still poorly understood. It is not known if
Authigenic clays change the pore-size distribu- there are factors other than temperature influencing
tion and therefore also oil saturation and the this transition and to what extent it involves total
production capability of reservoir sandstones dissolution of kaolinite and precipitation of dickite
(Pittman, 1978). Prediction of such rock properties so that the oxygen isotopic ratios are reset.
depends very much on the diagenetic model for Kaolinite in shales is probably mostly clastic
minerals like kaolinite which is important in although this is difficult to prove because the
shallow reservoirs and even more important as primary textures are usually difficult to observe
precursor for illite at greater depth. because they have been destroyed by compaction.
Mudstones are normally not subjected to much
meteoric water flow due to their low permeability.
Burial diagenesis
At least in the presence of K-feldspar, the pore-
Meteoric water flow may reach deep into water in the shales should be expected to be in the
sedimentary basins driven by the head of ground stability field of illite. Authigenic kaolinite,
water from nearby land areas. The rate of flow is however, may be observed in coarse-grained
highest near the surface and decreases with depth mudstones. It is often not quite clear to what
and distance from land areas, depending on the extent kaolinite in these cases has precipitated due
distribution of aquifers. At a certain depth, to leaching of feldspar and mica or has precipitated
however, the compaction process in subsiding from clastic gibbsite minerals or amorphous
basins will build up sufficient over-pressure and aluminous gels (Foscolos, 1984) reacting with
prevent penetration of meteoric water. This depth is biogenic silica. The stability of smectite is
very difficult to estimate but it follows from what reduced with higher temperatures and, as the rate
has been stated above, that meteoric water can flow of quartz precipitation increases, the pore-water will
more deeply into uplifted sediments which are not be less supersaturated with respect to quartz.
undergoing compaction. Illite. Authigenic illite often occurs as a fibrous
Weathering reactions like dissolution of feldspar pore-filling mineral which strongly reduces the
and precipitation of kaolinite require that K§ and permeability in reservoir sandstones (Fig. 5). The
silica are removed so that the pore-water can percentage of authigenic illite is difficult to
remain in the stability field of kaolinite (Fig. 4). quantify by XRD because of interference from
The pore-water need not be acidic but must have a clastic illite and mica. A strong increase in the
low K+/H+ ratio. In sandstones of the North Sea amount of illite relative to kaolinite in the clay
Basin, there is nearly always some carbonate fraction is observed below 3.7-4.0 km, both in the
present and the pore-water is in equilibrium with northern North Sea (Giles et al., 1992; Bjorlykke et
calcite and the pH is to a large extent determined al., 1992) and Haltenbanken (Bjorlykke et al.,
by the COz. At greater depth (>3-4 km), clay 1986; Ehrenberg & Nadeau, 1989). North Sea
mineral reactions have the highest pH buffering Jurassic reservoir sandstones which have been
capacity. Organic acids have much lower buffering buried to depths <3.5 km generally show little
capacities than both the silicate and the carbonate pore-filling illite in thin-section or by SEM. Even if
system and therefore do not influence the pH very the pore-water composition in the North Sea Basin
much (Hutcheon et al., 1992). In the presence of K- in most cases falls in the stability of illite, little
feldspar, the K+/H+ ratio of the pore-water will be precipitation occurs due to an extremely low kinetic
22 K. Bjorlykke

ol ""...
60 "".......... K-Feldspar
"%
, %~

80 ~E]~ o ~ ""''""" ................................

o•'•lOO
g ,
tll "\ Illite D Viking Graben, < 50,000 ppm CI
1~. o %o 9 Viking Graben, > 50,000 ppm CI
99 ,, Central Trough, < 50,000 ppm CI
140t~-111 9 Central Trough, > 50,000 ppm CI
I1~
~60 1 I.A~ o Haltenbanken, < 50,000 ppm CI
7~T 9 Haltenbanken, > 50,000 ppm CI
Kaolinite~\ ~ l
~8o, ,~ , ~ , . , ..... ...,, .... , .... , .... , .... I
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
K (ppm)

Equilibrium between kaolinite and illite at 0% salinity

Equilibrium between kaolinite and illite at 10% salinity
........................ Equilibrium between illite and K-feldspar at 0% salinity
...... Metastable equilibrium between kaolinite and K-feldspar
at 0% salinity

FIG. 4. Geochemical composition of formation water from North Sea and reservoirs in relation to the stability
field of kaolinite, illite and K-feldspar. All the pore-water analyses fall in the stability field of illite but
precipitation of illite depends on the available A1 from precursor minerals and on the kinetics which is very slow
below 120-140~ At higher temperatures, the pore-water composition falls close to the boundary between the
stability field of kaolinite and illite as should be expected when kaolinite is replaced by illite. From Bj~rlykke et
al. (1995).

precipitation rate at low temperature (< 120-140~ smectite + K § = illite + silica (via mixed-layer
(Bjgrlykke et al., 1995). minerals) (1)
High concentrations of authigenic illite are nearly A12SiOs(OH)4 + KAISi308 =
always associated with dissolution of an unstable Kaolinite K-feldspar
aluminous mineral phase which in North Sea KA13Si3Olo(OH)2 + 2SIO2 + H20 (2a)
Jurassic reservoirs is mostly kaolin. Another Illite Quartz
precursor mineral for illite is smectite but analyses
of shallow samples (<2 km) suggest that the 3A12Si2Os(OH)4 + 2KA1Si308 + 2Na + =
Jurassic sandstones had a low primary smectite Kaolinite K-feldspar
content. Tertiary sandstones, however, may have 2KA13Si301o(OH)2 + 2NaA1Si308 + 2H + +
had a high smectite content (Bjorlykke et al., 1995). 3H20 (2b)
Authigenic illite may form by different reactions Illite Albite
(Bjorlykke et al., 1995):
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 23

FIG. 5. Pore-filling authigenic illite from a Jurassic reservoir, Haltenbanken (4.2 km depth).

The distribution of smectite in the North Sea illitization is combined with albitization and there is
sediments suggest that smectite dissolves at no excess silica which can be precipitated as quartz.
temperatures of ~65-75~ and at 80-100~ the There are several pieces of evidence suggesting that
mixed-layer minerals contain >70% illitic layers illite requires relatively high temperatures to form.
(Dypvik, 1983). This reaction depends, however, on (1) Geochemical analyses of pore-water from the
several other factors including the supply of K and North Sea show that the pore-waters are mostly
the time factor (Boles & Franks, 1979). supersaturated with respect to illite (Fig. 4). (2) A
Reaction 2a is isochemical and does not require strong increase in the amount of diagenetic illite is
the supply or removal of ions by pore-water flow. It observed in reservoir sandstones at depths close to
does require, however, that K +, A13+ and silica are 3 . 8 - 4 . 0 km c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 1 2 0 - 1 4 0 ~
transported from the surface of the dissolving (Bjorlykke et al., 1986; Ehrenberg, 1990).
K-feldspars and kaolinite to the site of illite (3) Illite may also form from dissolving smectite
growth. The SEM pictures frequently show that at somewhat lower temperatures (80-100~
the authigenic illite growth is closely associated The stability of smectite is reduced as quartz
with or replacing dissolved kaolinite. The rate- starts to precipitate, reducing the supersaturation
limiting process for illite growth will then be the with respect to quartz (Aagaard & Helgeson, 1983;
kinetics of illite precipitation and the transport of Sass et al., 1987). The rate of illitization of smectite
K + from dissolving K-feldspar. At low temperature also depends on the supply of K (Hower et al.,
and slow precipitation rate, the pore-water will be 1976) and in sediments without zeolites and
highly supersaturated with respect to illite and less K-bearing evaporites, this will mainly be K-feldspar.
under-saturated with respect to K-feldspar, thus It is still not known how far K can be transported
reducing the dissolution rate of K-feldspar and the by diffusion within sandstones and between
diffusive transport of K. In the second reaction, sandstones and shales. Detailed petrographic and
24 K. Bjorlykke

XRD analyses from the Garn Formation at (Giles et al., 1992; Scotchman et aL, 1989). This is
Haltenbanken show, however, that samples with the same depth as Haltenbanken despite lower Late
relatively high kaolinite content at 4 km depth have Cenozoic subsidence suggesting that the illitization
little K-feldspar (Ehrenberg, 1991). Potassium is controlled by the present depth.
appears not to have been supplied by diffusion A lower degree of illitization and more unaltered
from K-feldspar 1 0 - 2 0 m away. Mudstones kaolinite have been observed in reservoir sand-
containing smectite may represent a sink for K stones like those of the Hild Field where the K-
from adjacent sandstones during illitization but if feldspar content is very low, suggesting that the
the mudstones contain K-feldspar there is no supply of K is the limiting factor for illitization
concentration gradient to drive such transport. (Lonoy et al., 1986; Bjorlykke et al., 1992;
Illite datings. A large number of K-Ar dates of Thyberg, 1993).
illite from the North Sea and Haltenbanken have The amount of kaolinite formed at shallow depth
been published. The ages obtained from Jurassic can be the limiting factor for the formation of illite
reservoir sandstones range from 100-30 Ma, often during deeper burial diagenesis, particularly in the
with a concentration of ages between 40-60 Ma distal shelf and ~n'bidite facies where meteoric
(Thomas, 1986; Liewig et al., 1987; Jourdan et al., water flushing is not usually very effective and
1987; Glasmann et al., 1989a,b). Analyses of Jurassic contains little authigenic kaolinite, thus reducing
sandstones from Haltenbanken gave ages from the potential for illitization (Fig. 2).
55-31 Ma, but Ehrenberg & Nadeau (1989) The illite datings suggest that authigenic illite
interpreted these ages to be much too old due to formed at 75~ at -2 km or less (Hamilton et al.,
contamination of old feldspar and illite and 1992). As documented above, a pronounced
interpreted the illite to have formed in the last few increase in the illite content is observed at
Ma at temperatures close to 140~ Also from other -3.7-4.0 km depth, both in the North Sea, although
basins, like the Paris Basin, the possible detrital the thickness of the Pliocene/Pleistocene is much
contamination of illite and the validity of K/Ar greater at Haltenbanken (1 km) than in the North
datings have been debated (SpiStl et aL, 1996; Clauer Sea, suggesting that the distribution of illite is
et al., 1996). If these illite dates represent the time of controlled by the present burial depth. Observations
the main phase of illite growth, this poses several both from the North Sea and Haltenbanken
problems. The problems of such datings have (Ehrenberg, 1991; Lonoy et al., 1986; Thyberg,
recently been discussed in detail by Clauer & 1983) show that kaolinite remains stable to higher
Chaudhuri (1995). If the Early Tertiary Jurassic temperatures than 140~ (4 km) when K-feldspar is
reservoir sandstones, presently at -4 km depth, were not locally available to supply the K. The reduced
buried to only about 2 km or less, the illite must then illitization and improved reservoir quality can then
have formed at rather low temperatures (50-80~ be related to the amount of clastic K-feldspar.
or the geothermal gradients must have been about Chlorite. Chlorite is common as a clastic mineral
twice that of the present day for a long time in the in the Pliocene-Pleistocene sequences of the North
Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary. However, the Sea Basin because of limited weathering in this
distribution of authigenic illite in reservoir rocks partly glacially-influenced cold climate. In the
seems to be strongly controlled by the present burial warmer climate of the Lower Tertiary and
depth. In the North Sea and the Haltenbanken basins, Mesozoic, the clastic sediments supplied to the
there is a strong increase in the amount of illite North Sea probably contained little chlorite. Most
below 3.7-4.0 km depth. Below this depth authi- of the chlorite minerals in the Lower Tertiary
genic kaolinite can commonly be observed to have sequence were probably formed diagenetically
been replaced by illite (Bjorlykke et aL, 1986,, 1992; during early diagenesis on the sea floor or by
Ehrenberg & Nadeau, 1989; Ehrenberg, 1990). burial diagenesis from smectite or volcanic detritus.
In the Brent Group, a marked decrease in the Similar smectite-rich mudstones of volcanic origin
K-feldspar content is commonly observed have been found in Upper Mesozoic and Lower
suggesting that it has been dissolved in the Tertiary sequences along the Atlantic margin
process of illitization of kaolinite and possibly (Chamley, 1992). Authigenic chlorite occurs as
also smectite (Bjorlykke et al., 1992). In the Brent grain-coating cement in some sandstones and is
Group, the illite content in sandstones commonly particularly common in the Jurassic Tilje Formation
increases at 3 . 7 - 4 k m (11000-12000 It) depth at Haltenbanken (Ehrenberg, 1993). Grain-coating
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 25

FIG. 6. Authigenic chlorite coating quartz grains retarding the growth of authigenic quartz thus preserving
abnormally high porosity. From Jurassic reservoirs buried to -5 km at Haltenbanken.

chlorite cement (Fig. 6) inh"bits quartz overgrowth, Sea, however, contain chlorite coatings (Ehrenberg,
thus preserving higher porosity than normal at 1993; Hillier, 1994).
depths of 4.0-5.5 km (Ehrenberg, 1993). Chlorite
crystals become more coarse grained with DIAGENESIS OF M U D S T O N E S AND
increasing burial depth as a result of grain SHALES
coarsening (Jahren & Aagaard, 1989).
Precipitation of chlorite requires a source of Fe Mechanical compaction is the reduction in volume
and Mg and possible sources are clastic biotite, basic due to reorientation and breakage of grains, a
rock fragments and volcanic rock fragments or early function of grain strength and effective stress.
diagenetic Fe minerals (verdine and glaucony) Chemical compaction involves mineral dissolution
formed in deltaic or estuarine environments by the and precipitation and is a function of mineral
supply of Fe from rivers as demonstrated from the stability and kinetics of precipitation of cements,
Niger Delta (Odin et al., 1988; Ehrenberg, 1993). It processes that are strongly influenced by tempera-
is possible that such early diagenetic Fe minerals ture. These two types of compaction have very
formed in tidal or estuarine environments could be different driving forces and must be treated
important precursors for chlorite coatings forming at separately. In basin modelling, however, compac-
greater depth. In sandstones of the Brent Group, the tion of mudstones is assumed to be a function of
North Sea chlorite cement is in most cases rare or effective stress (Hermanrud et al., 1991; Illiffe &
absent (Giles et al., 1992; Bjorlykke et al., 1992), Dawson, 1996). Hermanrud pointed out the great
possibly because it represents mostly a proximal variations in shale porosity in the published data,
marine and fluvial facies. i.e. from Rieke & Chillingarian (1974). Similar
Lower Jurassic Statfjord Formation and Intra variations are found in North Sea mudstones but
Dunlin sand in the Veslefrikk Field of the North these are functions of the initial grain size and
26 K. Bjgrlykke

mineralogy and can be predicted. As a general rule, contacts. Compaction causes reduction of pore-
it can be stated that with increasing burial depth, space and can only occur if the fluid (water) is able
the rate of compaction becomes more chemical and to escape. The coarse-grained glacial marine
more a function of temperature and less of the sediments are relatively permeable, allowing
effective stress. rapid dewatering, and thus avoiding overpressure.
The smectitic mudstunes have very high surface
area and low permeability and in such fine-grained
Mechanical compaction o f mudstones
sediments the rate of fluid expulsion may be the
The North Sea and Haltenbanken basins are rate-limiting process in compaction (Thyberg,
characterized by three main types of mudstones and personal communication). Fractures in mudstones
mixtures of them: (1) Glacial marine mudstones of can only remain open if the pore-pressure is equal
Pliocene and Pleistocene age. These are miner- to the least horizontal stress (~h), which in such
alogically immature mudstones with a high feldspar sediments is 80-90% of the vertical stress (Crv)
content, dominantly clastic chlorite and also, (Garenstroom et al., 1993). The effective stress
frequently, unstable rock fragments such as (~e) to drive compaction would then be very small
pyroxenes and amphiboles (Thyberg, personal and there would be low pressure gradients for
communication; Rundberg, 1989; Karlsson et al., water to flow into the fracture. In addition, the
1979). (2) Smectitic mudstones, mostly of Lower fracture must connect with high permeability
Tertiary age. In particular, Eocene and Oligocene pathways all the way to the surface. According to
mudstones representing a distal facies may have a Gaarenstrom (1993) the degree of overpressure in
very high smectite content (>50%) and almost no the Central graben may have been increasing
quartz or feldspar (Huggett, 1992; Thyberg, through the Tertiary reaching fracture pressures
personal communication). These mudstones are in the Late Tertiary. The effective stress would
derived from volcanic ash resulting from subaerial then have been reduced and the mechanical
volcanicity during the opening of the Norwegian- compaction must have stopped, but the chemical
Greenland Sea. It is also present onshore in compaction which is not so sensistive to stress has
Denmark (Nielsen & Heilman-Clausen, 1988). continued.
Mudstones of more proximal facies contain more
kaolinite and quartz (Rundberg, 1989; Thyberg et
Chemical compaction o f mudstones and shales
aL, 1998). (3) Mesozoic mudstones and shales
consisting mostly of illite and variable amounts of The onset of chemical compaction depends on the
kaolinite, smectite and mixed-layer I-S and chlorite. stability of the mineral phases. As discussed above,
Most of these sediments have been buried to smectite is replaced by mixed-layer minerals and illite
>2.0-3.0 km and the smectite and the mixed- in the temperature range of 70-100~ which, in
layer content may have been higher at shallower basins like the North Sea, corresponds to burial
depths of burial. These types of mudstones have depths of 2 - 3 km and this causes compaction which
very different properties, particularly during could not have been obtained mechanically.
mechanical compaction (Rieke & Chillingarian, Experimental data by Chillingarian & Knight (1960)
1974). Mudstones and shales should, therefore, not suggest that even at effective stresses corresponding
be treated as one category during basin modelling. to 15000 ft, the porosity of the montmorillonite clay
The difference between these types, with respect to is only reduced to ~45%, while kaolinite and illite are
compaction, is clearly seen on velocity and density compacted much more efficiently at the same
logs from the North Sea (i.e. 34/7-1) (Thyberg, overburden stress (Fig. 7). This suggests that smectitic
personal communication). mudstones can only compact mechanically to
The Pliocene and Pleistocene glacial marine -30-40%, depending on the smectite content. Both
mudstones are characterized by high velocities porosities derived from density logs (Fig. 7) and from
(2.5-2.7 kin/s) and densities (low porosity), analyses of core samples (Tyridal, 1994; Tyridal,
producing a strong velocity and density inversion personal communication) suggest that Lower Tertiary
compared to the underlying smectitic mudstones, smectitic mudstones have porosities in this range
which have typical velocities o f - 2 . 0 km/s. The down to ~2 km. Further compaction probably
driving force for mechanical compaction is the depends on the transformation of smectite to illite
effective stress (~e) transmitted at the grain via mixed-layer minerals, which increases the particle
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 27

Gulf C o a s t T e r t i a r y

1 It ~
- Venezuela Tertiary
2

-- - -- "- - C o m l S o s i t e - R e c e n t Mio
3 84

4 O k l a h o m a - Palaeozoic
o
0 .5 Experimental ..... Gulf C o a s t - T e r t i a r y
o
6 ....... JQpo~- Tertiary
7
Experimental
.o
L 8
n
g
0
--"
n 10

r~ 11

t-
12 o

13 o
E
14 " 0

1 t i
50 20 40 60 80
Porosity ('/.)

F~G. 7. Experimental and observed porosity depth curves from mudstones. Porosity depth data (points) for
Tertiary mudstone from the Central Graben based on density logs and estimates of mineral matrix composition
from six wells (Lauvrak, 1996). The mudstones are fine grained and smectite-rich and show little reduction in
porosity down to nearly 2 km depth. This may be due partly to moderate overpressure reducing the effective
stress. Experimental compaction curves (Chillingarian & Knight, 1960) show that pure clay minerals do not
compact readily even at stresses equivalent to 5 km. The much greater rates of compaction between 2 - 3 km
depth may reflect chemical compaction, mainly dissolution of smectite and precipitation of mixed-layered
minerals and illite.

size and therefore the permeability and the rate of supply K. Authigenic illite is more fine grained
compaction. than the dissolving kaolinite and this process may
Also in shales, K-feldspar reacts with kaolinite to contribute to the reduction in permeability.
form illite, but the reaction rate may be lower due Clastic kaolinite may be a part of the clastic
to slower diffusion of K from K-feldspar in the framework carrying effective stress. When dissolved,
shale m a t r i x w h i c h has low p o r o s i t y and illite may precipitate in the available pore-space and
permeability. allow for more efficient compaction. Both the
Kaolinite in shales, as in sandstones, is subject to reaction from smectite to illite and kaolinite to
dissolution and precipitation of illite at depths close illite release water, which may contribute to the
to 4 km (130-140~ if K-feldspar is present to build-up of pore-pressure. Dehydration of minerals
28 K. Bjorlykke

involves a partial phase change from solid to fluid tectonic stress (low strain rates) and will therefore
thus increasing the porosity and fluid/solid. reduce the potential to transmit plate tectonic stress
Dehydration of clay minerals can generate a in sedimentary basins during subsidence (Bjorlykke
significant percentage of the total compaction- & Hoeg, 1997).
driven flux. Shales containing 20% kaolinite may
generate water corresponding to ~4% of the rock
DISCUSSION
volume which could contribute to the build-up of
overpressure (Bjorlykke, 1996). Most North Sea Predictions of burial diagenetic reactions depend on
mudstones, however, will probably have had a lower whether or not the chemical composition of the
initial kaolinite content. Compaction and generation sediments can be assumed to be constant during
of petroleum are in most cases important contribu- burial. Changes in the bulk composition during
tors to overpressure (Buhrig, 1989). If a constant burial must be due to transport in pore-water by
porosity is assumed and the permeability/depth curve diffusion or by fluid flow (advection). With
is constant, the modelling of overpressure will increasing temperature, the pore-water approaches
necessarily be a function of the sedimentation rate. equilibrium with the constituent minerals and the
However, since both mechanical and chemical concentration gradients for driving diffusion will be
sediment compaction of mudstones are a function very small. Where there are important differences
of time, high sedimentation rates will imply that the in the primary lithology and mineral assemblage,
porosity and permeability at a certain depth is also there may locally be higher concentration gradients
higher. The higher permeability may partly or totally between pore-waters buffered by different minerals.
compensate for the increased flux due to the higher The presence or absence of minerals like calcite, K-
sedimentation rate. The observed porosity/depth feldspar and kaolinite may be critical for such
trends of mudstones vary greatly as a function of buffering producing concentration gradients near
grain size and mineralogy (Fig. 7). As shown above, lithological boundaries (Thyne et al., 1996). It is
there is a limit to how much mudstones will compact difficult to estimate how effective diffusion driven
mechanically and dissolution and precipitation of by mineral buffered pore-water is, but it is
minerals make it possible to form a mineral fabric significant probably to the order of a few metres.
with a much lower porosity (Fig. 8). Mudstones At temperatures >80-100~ the pore-water is
often have silt- or sand-sized quartz grains and probably close to quartz saturation and the K
dissolution and reprecipitation of quartz may be an concentration will normally be in the stability field
important factor in producing closer packing of illite and in some cases also chlorite. The K§ and
(Fig. 8). This process has been shown in sandstones Mg++ may be transported by diffusion locally but
to be mainly a function of temperature and textural the North Sea formation water does not have high
relationships and relatively insensitive to variations concentrations of these elements except near
in stress (Bjorkum, 1995; Walderhaug, 1996). The evaporites (Warren & Smalley, 1994). During
same processes probably also apply to mudrocks and early marine diagenesis near the sea floor there
shales but it is more difficult to study textural may be effective diffusion from sea water into the
relationships between quartz, mica and clay minerals sediments. Fluid flow rates are orders of magnitude
in such f i n e - g r a i n e d s e d i m e n t s (Fig. 9). greater during meteoric water flushing than during
Overpressures built up at depths where chemical burial diagenesis (Giles, 1987). The potential for
compaction is d o m i n a n t ( > 2 - 3 km depth, mass transport is also greater during early
70-100~ should not be expected to have diagenesis because at low temperatures the pore-
significantly higher porosity than normally pressured water may be highly over saturated or under
rocks. Chemical compaction cannot be modelled saturated with respect to mineral phases. During
based on effective stress because the temperature is burial diagenesis, when the temperature is greater
the most important factor (Fig. 9). The transition and the flow rates are much smaller, the pore-water
from mechanical to dominantly chemical compaction is closer to equilibrium with the minerals present.
is not fixed and will depend on the mineralogy and The volume of minerals dissolved or precipitated
the burial history. Smectite-rich mudstones will due to advective flow can then be calculated (Wood
compact chemically at shallower depth than & Hewett, 1984; Bjorlykke, 1994):
kaolinite-rich mudstones. Both mechanical and
Vc = F t sin[3(0T/~Z) ~v/p (3)
chemical compaction provide a ductile response to
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 29

Mechanical compaction-
IO'v (overburden a function of effective stress oe
, ....... lit _ stre_ ss) "
X ) f" . . . . . . . . . . 4

I i
t I

, I

I I'+
I

__J
Effective
stress at grain
OC -'Gv - P p contacts G e

Chemical compaction involving dissolution and precipitation

of minerals mainly as a function of temperature

Smectitic mudstones (30-60% porosity)

(partly bound water)
70~ / Via mixed-
layer minerals

I
lo0oc , Illite
to

M ~ : : ~ - , . ~ = Clastic kaolinite
b__~_:•
l L{ {7~ t7_:,:~ _;, - ~ _ ~l
#,'::7:" I Dissolution of clastic kaolinite
and precipitation of authigenic illite
in the avilable pores will
increase compaction.
FQrther compaction depends on the
dissolution and precipitation of quartz
FIG. 8. Schematic representation of mechanical and chemical compaction of mudstones.

Here, Vc is the volume of cement precipitated, F gradient, Ctr is the solubility-temperature function
is the total flux of pore-water (cm3/cm2 s--l), t = (transfer coefficient) and p is the density of the
time (s), ~ is the angle between the direction of mineral. In the case of clay minerals, the mobility
flow and the isotherm, ~T/~Z is the geothermal of A1 is particularly critical. Calculations using
30 K. Bj#rlykke

Porosity
IP

compaction me
.

/ Effective stress: / Compact,on

/ ~v=.(prgh-P)and /
2-3
compaction modulus t 70-1000C
km
D
E ~ " Chemical
P i compaction
T j dominant.
H / " Mainly a function
4kin of temperature
and mineralogy

FIG. 9. Relationships between compaction, effective stress and temperature in mudstones. The depth at which
chemical compaction becomes dominant over mechanical compaction depends on the mineralogy and textural
relationships.

SOLMINEQ 88 show that the solubility of A1 is but the processes cannot be inferred from petro-
<1 ppm at temperatures <140~ and that the graphic data alone. Changes in sediment composi-
solubility is not increased in the presence of tion and mineralogy with burial depth are often
o r g a n i c a c i d s ( B j o r l y k k e et al., 1995). inferred to be due to diagenetic processes. In a
Significantly higher A1 concentrations have not single well there are frequently very distinctive
been reported from North Sea reservoirs. Because stratigraphical variations in the lithology. To
of the low mobility of AI, growth of diagenetic clay observe changes in one stratigraphic interval with
minerals like illite and chlorite require a local depth, several wells where this unit is cored must
precursor aluminous mineral like smectite and be studied and it must be considered that the
kaolinite and the supply of K and Mg. The observed trend with depth may also be due to other
distribution of illite and chlorite at depth must be factors such as provenance and facies. Because of
linked to provenance and facies and the distribution lateral variations in facies and provenance, it is
of early diagenetic kaolinite due to meteoric water impossible to study the same rock at different burial
flushing (Fig. 5). Modelling of compaction driven depths. Sandstones may vary laterally with respect
flow indicates that flow rates are very low so that to facies and provenance but this is also the case
the system is characterized by low Peclet numbers with mudstones. An increase in illite and K content
and thus both heat transport and mass transport are with depth may be due to primary enrichment of
dominated by diffusion (Bethke, 1985; Ungerer et illite or smectite in the distal fine-grained facies.
al., 1990; Ludviksen et al., 1993; Bjorlykke, 1994). Because there may always be lateral changes in the
Diagenesis is still, to a large extent, based on what primary composition of sandstones and shales,
was traditionally called 'sedimentary petrology' and geochemical changes cannot be inferred from
careful mineralogical petrographic data and obser- sampling at different burial depths.
vations are always valuable. Diagenetic theories If the sediments undergo diagenesis in a
should be tested and calibrated against observations, geochemically closed system, the diagenetic reac-
 Clay mineral diagenesis in sedimentary basins 31

tions and the rock properties of the sediments are greater velocities than the underlying Eocene and
direct functions of the primary sediment composi- Oligocene smectitic mudstone and commonly
tion and the burial history. Predictions of burial develop overpressures. Dissolution of smectite and
diagenetic reactions must therefore be linked to kaolinite and precipitation of illite releases crystal-
facies and provenance. Rock properties like bound water which adds to the fluid flux and may
porosity, permeability, specific surface and potentially contribute to the build-up of over-
thermal conductivity all depend very much on the pressure. At burial depths >2.0-3.0 km, porosity
primary clay content and on the burial diagenetic loss by compaction is mainly chemical, involving
reactions. dissolution and precipitation of minerals and this
compaction can not be calculated as a function of
effective stress as is assumed in most basin
CONCLUSIONS
modelling programmes. Realistic prediction of
Clay minerals play a crucial role in both rock properties can only be made if the primary
mechanical and chemical compaction of sandstones sediment composition and burial diagenetic
and shales. The amount and type of clay mineral is processes are known. Mineralogy, temperature and
a function of the provenance of clastic minerals and time are the main factors controlling compaction
of diagenetic reactions at shallow and greater depth. both of reservoir sandstones and shales, and the
Early diagenetic reactions may be relatively open degree of overpressure plays a minor role at depths
(from a geochemical point of view), due to > 2 - 3 km (70-100~ During progressive burial,
diffusion from seawater or due to meteoric water sediments and mudstones in particular compact both
flow. Dissolution of feldspar and mica and mechanically and chemically and show a ductile
precipitation of authigenic kaolinite require that K response to stress at slow strain rates. This reduces
and silica are removed by fluid flow as is the case the transfer of tectonic stress in sedimentary basins.
during weathering. During burial diagenesis, the
pore-water flow is very much smaller and
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
calculations show that advective transport of
dissolved ions is in most cases relatively insignif- Financial support from the Norwegian Research
icant. Diffusion, however, may be significant over Council (NFR) and from Norwegian oil companies
shorter distances depending on differences in and useful discussions with Per Aagaard are gratefully
mineral composition controlling the concentration acknowledged. Two anonymous reviewers provided
useful comments to help improve the manuscript.
gradients of the dissolved ions. Clay mineral
reactions are therefore close to being isochemicaI
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