Block 2

Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5
© Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Module 2.5
SC-GCM-09 CM Issue 2

Heat Transfer

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.1

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Heat Transfer
In a steam heating system, the sole purpose of the generation and distribution of steam is to
provide heat at the process heat transfer surface. If the required heat input rate and steam
pressure are known, then the necessary steam consumption rate may be determined. This will
allow the size of the boiler and the steam distribution system to be established.

Modes of heat transfer

Whenever a temperature gradient exists, either within a medium or between media, the
transfer of heat will occur. This may take the form of either conduction, convection or radiation.
Conduction
When a temperature gradient exists in either a solid or stationary fluid medium, the heat transfer
which takes place is known as conduction. When neighbouring molecules in a fluid collide,
energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher
temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, conduction must occur in the
direction of decreasing temperature.
This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids the molecular
interactions are stronger and more frequent, as the molecules are closer together. In solids,
conduction is caused by the atomic activity of lattice vibrations as explained in Module 2.2.
The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fourier’s Law. Where
there is a linear temperature distribution under steady-state conditions, for a one-dimensional
plane wall it may be written as:

Equation 2.5.1

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W / m K or W / m°C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference across the material (K or °C)
 = Material thickness (m)
Example 2.5.1
Consider a plane wall constructed of solid iron with a thermal conductivity of 70 W / m°C, and
a thickness of 25 mm. It has a surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m, with a temperature of 150°C on
one side and 80°C on the other.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
(150 - 80)°C
Heat transfer rate = 70 W m °C x (0.3 x 0.5) m² x
0.025 m
Heat transfer rate = 29 400 W (29.4 kW)
The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the wall material and is dependent on temperature.
Table 2.5.1 shows the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various common
metals.

2.5.2 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Table 2.5.1 Thermal conductivity (W / m ° C)

Thermal conductivity (W / m°C)
Material
At 25°C At 125°C At 225°C
Iron 80 68 60
Low carbon steel 54 51 47
Stainless steel 16 17.5 19
Tungsten 180 160 150
Platinum 70 71 72
Aluminium 250 255 250
Gold 310 312 310
Silver 420 418 415
Copper 401 400 398

Considering the mechanism of heat transfer in conduction, in general the thermal conductivity
of a solid will be much greater than of a liquid, and the thermal conductivity of a liquid will be
greater than of a gas. Air has a particularly low thermal conductivity and this is why insulating
materials often have lots of air spaces.
Convection
The transfer of heat energy between a surface and a moving fluid at different temperatures is
known as convection. It is actually a combination of the mechanisms of diffusion and the bulk
motion of molecules.
Near the surface where the fluid velocity is low, diffusion (or random molecular motion)
dominates. However, moving away from the surface, bulk motion holds an increasing influence.
Convective heat transfer may take the form of either forced convection or natural convection.
Forced convection occurs when fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump or
an agitator. Conversely, natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces, due to the density
differences arising from the temperature variations in the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy caused by a phase change, such as boiling or condensing, is also
referred to as a convective heat transfer process.
The equation for convection is expressed by Equation 2.5.2 which is a derivation of Newton’s
Law of Cooling:

Equation 2.5.2

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W / m² K or W / m² °C)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or °C)
Example 2.5.2
Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m at a temperature of 20°C.
A fluid flows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50°C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 1 600 W / m² °C.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
Heat transfer rate = 1600 W m² °C x (0.4 x 0.9) m² x (50 - 20)°C
Heat transfer rate = 17 280 W (17.28 kW)
Radiation
The heat transfer due to the emission of energy from surfaces in the form of electromagnetic
waves is known as thermal radiation. In the absence of an intervening medium, there is a net
heat transfer between two surfaces of different temperatures. This form of heat transfer does
not rely on a material medium, and is actually most efficient in a vacuum.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.3

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

The general heat transfer equation

In most practical situations, it is very unusual for all energy to be transferred by one mode of
heat transfer alone. The overall heat transfer process will usually be a combination of two or
more different mechanisms.
The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface used in the design
procedure and forming a part of heat exchange theory is:

Equation 2.5.3

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W (J / s))
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W / m² K or W / m² °C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or °C)
Note:
will be a mean heat transfer rate ( M) if T is a mean temperature difference (TLM or TAM).
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
This takes into account both conductive and convective resistance between two fluids separated
by a solid wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to
heat transfer, which is the sum of the individual resistances.
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also take into account the degree of fouling in the heat
transfer process. The deposition of a film or scale on the heat transfer surface will greatly reduce
the rate of heat transfer. The fouling factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused
by fluid impurities, rust formation or other reactions between the fluid and the wall.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer
process, the physical properties of the fluids, the fluid flowrates and the physical layout of the
heat transfer surface.
As the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has been determined,
the design of a heat exchanger is by necessity, an iterative procedure. A starting point for this
procedure usually involves selecting typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of
various types of heat exchanger.
An accurate calculation for the individual heat transfer coefficients is a complicated procedure,
and in many cases it is not possible due to some of the parameters being unknown. Therefore,
the use of established typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient will be suitable for
practical purposes.
Temperature difference (T)
Newton’s law of cooling states that the heat transfer rate is related to the instantaneous
temperature difference between the hot and the cold media. In a heat transfer process, this
temperature difference will vary either with position or with time. The general heat transfer
equation was thus developed as an extension to Newton’s law of cooling, where the mean
temperature difference is used to establish the heat transfer area required for a given heat duty.
Mean temperature difference (TM)
The determination of the mean temperature difference in a flow type process like a heat exchanger
will be dependent upon the direction of flow. The primary and secondary fluids may flow in the
same direction (parallel flow / co-current flow), in the opposite direction (countercurrent flow),
or perpendicular to each other (crossflow). When saturated steam is used the primary fluid
temperature can be taken as a constant, because heat is transferred as a result of a change of
phase only. The result is that the temperature profile is no longer dependent on the direction
of flow.

2.5.4 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the highest rate of heat
transfer occurs at the inlet and progressively decays along its travel to the outlet. This is simply
because the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the
rise in secondary temperature.
The resulting temperature profile of the steam and secondary fluid is typically as shown
in Figure 2.5.1.

Steam temperature

t2
Temperature ° C

Product temperature rise

t1

Inlet Outlet

Fluid passing through a heat exchanger

Fig. 2.5.1 Product temperature rise (LMTD)

The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and is best represented by a logarithmic

calculation. For this purpose the mean temperature difference chosen is termed the Logarithmic
Mean Temperature Difference or LMTD or TLM.
An easier (but less accurate) way to calculate the mean temperature difference is to consider the
Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD or TAM. This considers a linear increase in
the secondary fluid temperature and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory
approximation of the mean temperature difference to be used in Equation 2.5.3. The AMTD
temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2.

Steam temperature

t2

t1
Product temperature rise
Temperature ° C

Inlet Outlet

Fluid passing through a heat exchanger

Fig. 2.5.2 Product temperature rise (AMTD)

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

The arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD):

Tp1 + Tp2   Ts1 + Ts2 
∆TAM =   -  
 2   2 
Where:
Tp1 = Primary fluid in temperature
Tp2 = Primary fluid out temperature
Ts1 = Secondary fluid in temperature
Ts2 = Secondary fluid out temperature
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:

T1 + T2 
∆TAM = Ts -   Equation 2.5.4
 2 

Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (°C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (°C)
Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD normally provides
a satisfactory analysis of the heat transfer process, which is easy to manipulate in manual
calculations.
However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which accounts for the
non-linear change in temperature of the secondary fluid.
The log mean temperature difference (LMTD):

( Ts - T1 ) - ( Ts - T2 )
∆TLM =
 Ts - T1 
In  
 Ts - T2 
For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:

T2 - T1
∆TLM =
 Ts - T1  Equation 2.5.5
In  
 Ts - T2 

Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (°C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (°C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (°C)
ln = A mathematical function known as ‘natural logarithm’
Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 assume that there is no change in the specific heat capacity or
the overall heat transfer coefficient, and that there are no heat losses.
In reality the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature variations. The overall
heat transfer coefficient may also change because of variations in fluid properties and flow
conditions. However, in most applications the deviations will be almost negligible and the use
of mean values will be perfectly acceptable.
In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its surroundings, but the
insulation will not be 100% efficient. Therefore, the energy transferred between the steam and
the secondary fluid may not represent all of the heat lost from the primary fluid.

2.5.6 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Example 2.5.3
Steam at 2 bar g is used to heat water from 20°C to 50°C.
The saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 134°C.
Determine the arithmetic and the log mean temperature differences:
20 + 50
∆TAM = 134 -
2
∆TAM = 99°C
50 - 20 30 30 30
∆TLM = = = =
134 - 20  114  In ( 1.3571) 0.3053
In   In  
 134 - 50   84 
∆TLM = 98.24°C
In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is because the secondary fluid
temperature rise is small in comparison with the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Example 2.5.4
Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10°C to 120°C using steam at
4.0 bar g. The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0 bar g is 152°C.
Determine the arithmetic and log mean temperature differences:

10 + 120
∆TAM = 152 -
2
∆TAM = 87°C
120 - 10 110 110 110
∆TLM = = = =
152 - 10  142  In ( 4.4375 ) 1.49
In   In  
 152 - 120   32 
∆TLM = 73.8°C
Because the secondary fluid temperature rise is large in comparison with the temperature
difference between the two fluids, the discrepancy between the two results is more significant.
By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area would be almost
15% smaller than that required.

Barriers to heat transfer

The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a
film of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the product side there may also be
baked-on product or scale, and a stagnant film of product.
Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst regular cleaning
on the product side should reduce the scale.
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat transfer
by reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be possible.
This layer may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation of the boiler, and
the removal of water droplets carrying impurities from the boiler.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.7

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Metal heating surface

Condensate film

Product film
Air film
Heat

Scale

Scale
flow Steam Product

Fig. 2.5.3 Heat transfer layers

Filmwise condensation
The elimination of the condensate film, is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give
up its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These
may then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may
be between 100 and 150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and
500 to 600 times more resistant than copper.
Dropwise condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous
condensate film is formed, ‘dropwise’ condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can
be achieved during dropwise condensation, are generally much higher than those achieved
during filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation,
heat transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal
resistance it produces is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However,
maintaining the appropriate conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very
difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain
dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as
Silicones, PTFE and an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in a
heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings will gradually
lose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film condensation
will eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000
more resistant than copper. This means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much
heat transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.

2.5.8 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Figure 2.5.4 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process.
These barriers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer,
but also greatly reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be. This
means that to achieve the same desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need to
be significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or space
heating applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations, a
high heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films on the
condensing surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer
efficiency, and its removal from the supply steam will increase heating performance.

Air film
Condensate film
Scale

Metal heating surface

Scale
Product film
Steam
temperature
121°C

Steam at 1 bar g Product

99°C
Product
temperature

Fig. 2.5.4 Temperature gradients across heat transfer layers

Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient (U value)

The five main most commonly related terms associated with the subject of heat transfer are:
1. Heat flowrate (W)
2. Thermal conductivity k (W / m°C)
3. Thermal resistivity r (m°C / W)
4. Thermal resistance R (m² °C / W)
5. Thermal transmittance U (W / m² °C)
The following text in this Module describes them and how they are related to each other.
The traditional method for calculating heat transfer across a plane wall considers the use of an
overall heat transfer coefficient ‘U’, or more correctly, the overall thermal transmittance between
one side of the wall and the other.
U values are quoted for a wide range and combination of materials and fluids and are usually
influenced by empirical data and operating experience. The previously mentioned films of
condensate, air, scale, and product either side of the metal wall can have a significant effect on
the overall thermal transmittance and because of this, it is worth considering the whole issue
of heat transfer across a simple plane wall and then a multi-layer barrier.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.9

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Heat transfer by conduction through a simple plane wall

A good way to start is by looking at the simplest possible case, a metal wall with uniform thermal
properties and specified surface temperatures.

Steam side
surface temperature T1

T
Metal wall
Width L
Product side
surface temperature T2

Fig. 2.5.5 Conductive heat transfer through a plane wall

T1 and T2 are the surface temperatures either side of the metal wall, of thickness L; and the
temperature difference between the two surfaces is T.
Ignoring the possible resistance to heat flow at the two surfaces, the process of heat flow
through the wall can be derived from Fourier’s law of conduction as shown in Equation 2.5.1.
The term ‘barrier’ refers to a heat resistive film or the metal wall of a heat exchanger.

Equation 2.5.1

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the barrier (W / m K or W / m°C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference across the barrier (K or °C)
 = Barrier thickness (m)
It is possible to rearrange Equation 2.5.1 into Equation 2.5.6.

Equation 2.5.6

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W )
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference across the barrier (°C)
 /  = Barrier thickness  / material thermal conductivity  m °C 
2
k  
 W 
It can be seen from their definitions in Equation 2.5.6 that  / k is the thickness of the barrier
divided by its inherent property of thermal conductivity. Simple arithmetic dictates that if
the length () of the barrier increases, the value  / k will increase, and if the value of the barrier
conductivity (k) increases, then the value of  / k will decrease. A characteristic that would behave
in this fashion is that of thermal resistance. If the length of the barrier increases, the resistance
to heat flow increases; and if the conductivity of the barrier material increases the resistance
to heat flow decreases. It can be concluded that the term  / k in Equation 2.5.6 relates to
the thermal resistance of a barrier of known length.

2.5.10 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

The results of simple electrical theory parallel the equations appertaining to heat flow. In particular,
the concept of adding resistances in series is possible, and is a useful tool when analysing heat
transfer through a multi-layer barrier, as will be seen in a later section of this module.
Equation 2.5.6 can now be restated in terms of thermal resistance, where:
Thickness
Re sis tan ce R =
Conductivity
m
R =  k  
 W / m° C 
m2 °C 
R =  k 
 W 
as shown in Equation 2.5.7

Equation 2.5.7

Where:
= Heat transferred per unit time (W )
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
∆T = Temperature difference across the barrier (°C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 °C / W)
Thermal resistance denotes a characteristic of a particular barrier, and will change in accordance
to its thickness and conductivity.
In contrast, the barrier’s ability to resist heat flow does not change, as this is a physical property
of the barrier material. This property is called ‘thermal resistivity’; it is the inverse of thermal
conductivity and is shown in Equation 2.5.8.

1
r= Equation 2.5.8
k

Where:
r = Thermal resistivity (m°C / W)
k = Thermal conductivity (W / m°C)
1
Equally, thermal conductivity k =
r
 1
nce is
If the thermal resistan (from Equation 2.5.6), and k =
k r

Then thermal resistance is = x r = thickness x thermal resistivity
1
r

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.11

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Relating the overall resistance to the overall U value

The usual problem that has to be solved in heat transfer applications is the rate of heat transfer,
and this can be seen from the general heat transfer formula, Equation 2.5.3.

Equation 2.5.3

Where:
U = The overall thermal transmittance (W / m2 °C)
By comparing Equations 2.5.3 and 2.5.7, it must be true that:
∆T
Q = U A ∆T = A
R
and therefore,

1
U= Equation 2.5.9
R

Therefore, U value (thermal transmittance) is the inverse of resistance.

Heat flow through a multi-layer barrier
As seen in Figure 2.5.4, a practical application would be the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube
or plate which uses steam on one side to heat water on its other. It can also be seen that various
other barriers are present slowing down the heat flow, such as an air film, a condensate film, a
scale film, and a stationary film of secondary water immediately adjacent to the heating surface.
These films can be thought of as ‘fouling’ the flow of heat through the barrier, and consequently
these resistances are considered by heat exchanger designers as ‘fouling factors’.
All of these films, in addition to the resistance of the metal wall, constitute a resistance to heat
flow and, as in an electrical circuit, these resistances can be added to form an overall resistance.
Therefore:
1
As : U = the overall U is the inverse of the sum of the resistance as shown in Equation 2.5.10.
R

1
U= Equation 2.5.10
R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 + R 5 + R 6

Where:
R1 = Resistance of the air film
R 2 = Resistance of the condensate film
R 3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side
R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall
R 5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side
R6 = Resistance of the product film

2.5.12 The Steam and Condensate Loop

 Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

As resistance is  / k as shown in Equation 2.5.6, then Equation 2.5.10 can be rewritten as
Equation 2.5.11:

1
U= Equation 2.5.11
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 k + 6 k
k1 k2 k3 k4 5 6

Where:

1 Thickness of air film

=
k1 Thermal conductivity of air

2 Thickness of condensate film

=
k2 Thermal conductivity of condensate

3 Thickness of scale film on steam side

=
k3 Thermal conductivity of scale

4 Thickness of metal wall

=
k4 Thermal conductivity of metal

5 Thickness of scale film on water side

=
k5 Thermal conductivity of scale

6 Thickness of water film

=
k6 Thermal conductivity of water
Table 2.5.2 Typical thermal conductivities of various materials
Material Thermal conductivity W / m° C
Air 0.025
Condensate 0.4
Scale 0.1 to 1
Water 0.6
Steel 50
Copper 400

The thermal conductivities will alter depending on the film material (and temperature). For
instance, air roughly has thirty times greater resistance to heat flow than water. For this reason,
it is relatively more important to remove air from the steam supply before it reaches the heat
exchanger, than to remove water in the form of wet steam. Of course, it is still sensible to remove
wet steam at the same time.
The resistance of air to steel is roughly two thousand times more, and the resistance of air
to copper is roughly twenty thousand times more. Because of the high resistances of air and
water to that of steel and copper, the effect of small thicknesses of air and water on the overall
resistance to heat flow can be relatively large.
There is no point in changing a steel heat transfer system to copper if air and water films are still
present; there will be little improvement in performance, as will be proven in Example 2.5.5.
Air and water films on the steam side can be eradicated by good engineering practice simply by
installing a separator and float trap set in the steam supply prior the control valve. Scale films
on the steam side can also be reduced by fitting strainers in the same line.
Scale on the product side is a little more difficult to treat, but regular cleaning of heat exchangers
is sometimes one solution to this problem. Another way to reduce scaling is to run heat exchangers
at lower steam pressures; this reduces the steam temperature and the tendency for scale to form
from the product, especially if the product is a solution like milk.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.13

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Example 2.5.5
Consider a steam to water heat exchanger where the air film, condensate film and scale on
the steam side is 0.2 mm thick; on the water side, the water and scale films are 0.05 mm and
0.1 mm thick respectively.
The thickness of the steel walled heating surface is 6 mm.
Table 2.5.3 The resistance of the barriers including steel tube
Conductivity ‘k’ Resistance R= / k
Material Thickness ‘’ mm
(W / m° C) (m2 ° C / W)
Air 0.2 0.025 0.008
Condensate 0.2 0.4 0.000 5
Scale steam side 0.2 0.5 0.000 4
Steel tube 6.0 50.0 0.000 12
Water 0.05 0.6 0.000 08
Scale water side 0.1 0.5 0.000 2

From Equation 2.5.6:

1. Calculate the overall U value (U1) from the conditions shown in Table 2.5.3

1
U= Equation 2.5.11
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 5 6
k1 k2 k3 k4 + k5 + k6

Where :
1
k 1 = 0.008
2
k 2 = 0.000 5
3
k 3 = 0.000 4
4
k 4 = 0.000 12
5 = 0.000 08
k5
6
k 6 = 0.000 2
1
U1 =
0.008 + 0.000 5 + 0.000 4 + 0.000 12 + 0.000 08 + 0.000 2
1
U1 =
0.009 3
U1 = 108 W/m2 ° C

2.5.14 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

2. Remove the air and the condensate from the steam supply
Now consider the same heat exchanger where the air and condensate have been removed by
a separator in the steam supply.
Calculate U2
1
U2 =
0.000 4 + 0.000 12 + 0.000 08 + 0.000 2
1
U2 =
0.000 8
U2 = 1 250 W/m2 °C
It can be seen from U2 that by fitting a separator in the steam supply to this heat exchanger, and
assuming that all air and condensate has been removed from the steam, the thermal transmittance
is more than 11 times greater than the original value.

3. Remove the scale on the steam and water sides

Now consider reducing the scale on the steam side by fitting a strainer in the steam line, and
reducing the scale on the water side by operating at a lower steam pressure.
Calculate U3
1
U3 =
0.000 12 + 0.000 08
1
U3 =
0.000 2
U3 = 5 000 W/m2 °C

The thermal transmittance has increased another fourfold by eradicating the scale.

4. Revert to the original conditions but change from steel tube to copper tube of the same
thickness.
Table 2.5.4 The resistance of the barriers including copper tube
Material Resistance R= / k
Thickness ‘’ mm Conductivity ‘k’
(W / m° C) (m2 ° C / W)
Air 0.2 0.025 0.00 8
Condensate 0.2 0.4 0.000 5
Scale steam side 0.2 0.5 0.000 4
Copper tube 6.0 400.0 0.000 015
Water 0.05 0.6 0.000 08
Scale water side 0.1 0.5 0.000 2

Calculate U4
1
U4 =
0.008 + 0.000 5 + 0.000 4 + 0.000 12 + 0.000 08 + 0.000 2
1
U4 =
0.009 2
U4 = 108.7 W/m2 °C

It can be seen that the greater conductivity offered by the copper over the steel has made very
little difference to the overall thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger, due to the dominating
effect of the air and other fouling factors.

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.15

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Please note that, in practice, other factors will influence the overall U value, such as the velocities
of the steam and water passing through the heat exchanger tubes or plates, and the combination
of heat transfer by convection and radiation.
Also, it is unlikely that the fitting of a separator and strainer will completely eradicate the presence
of air, wet steam, and scale from inside a heat exchanger. The above calculations are only being
shown to highlight the effects of these on heat transfer. However, any attempt to remove such
barriers from the system will generally prove successful, and is virtually guaranteed to increase
heat transfer in steam heating plant and equipment as soon as this is done.
Rather than having to calculate individual resistances of film barriers, Tables exist showing overall
U values for different types of heat exchange application such as steam coil heating of water
or oil. These are documented in Module 2.10, ‘Heating with coils and jackets’.
U values for heat exchangers vary considerably due to factors such as design (‘shell and tube’
or ‘plate and frame’ construction), material of construction, and the type of fluids involved in
the heat transfer function.

2.5.16 The Steam and Condensate Loop

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Questions

1. What is the conductive heat transfer rate per unit area across a copper wall 5 mm thick,
if the temperature on one side is 100°C and the temperature on the other is 40°C?
a| 21 000 W / m² 
b| 120 kW 
c| 4 800 kW / m² 
d| 33.3 W / mm² 

2. The rate of convective heat transfer from a plane surface with an area of 1.5 m² to a
fluid in motion is 40 kW. If the surface temperature is 15°C and the fluid temperature
is 40°C, what is the convective heat transfer coefficient?
a| 1 067 W / m² °C 
b| 667 kW °C / m² 
c| 1 500 kW m² °C 
d| 2 400 kW / m² °C 

3. According to the heat transfer equation, the heat transfer rate varies with:
a| The flowrate of the secondary fluid 
b| The mass flowrate of steam 
c| The temperature rise of the secondary fluid 
d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids 

4. Steam at 3 bar g is used to heat water from 10°C to 80°C. What is the difference between
the AMTD and the LMTD in this case?
a| 70°C 
b| 4.3°C 
c| 99°C 
d| 10°C 

5. The temperature gradient across a heat transfer layer is an indication of:

a| The thickness of the heat transfer layer 
b| The steam pressure 
c| The thermal conductivity of the heat transfer layer 
d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids 

6. One side of a plane surface is at 25°C. A fluid at 70°C flows across the other surface. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is 1 600 W / m² °C. What surface area is required to
transfer 68 kW?
a| 0.944 m² 
b| 0.447 m² 
c| 0.894 m² 
d| 1.888 m² 

The Steam and Condensate Loop 2.5.17

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer Heat Transfer Module 2.5

2.5.18 The Steam and Condensate Loop