CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Surveying
Lecturer: Engr. Ralph M. Romero, RMP
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, the student should be able:

• to determine the definition and types of surveying;

• to know the different instruments used in surveying;

• to learn the basic principles of measurement and

recording of data in surveying; and

• to consider significant errors in surveying.

1st Definition of Surveying
• Rayner and Schimdt
▫ Surveying is the art of determining the positions
of points on or near the earth's surface by means
of measurements in the three elements of space;
namely, distance, direction and elevation.
2nd Definition of Surveying
• Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail
▫ Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and
vertical distances between objects, of measuring
angles between lines, of determining the direction
of lines, and of establishing points by
predetermined angular and linear measurements.
3rd Definition of Surveying
• Clarke
▫ Surveying is the art of making such measurements
of the relative positions of points on the surface of
the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural
and artificial features may be exhibited in their
correct horizontal or vertical relationships.
4th Definition of Surveying
• Webster
▫ Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics
which teaches the art of determining the area of
any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and
directions of the boundary lines, the contour of the
surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on
paper.
5th Definition of Surveying
• Breed, Hosmer, and Bone
▫ Surveying is the science or art of making such
measurements as are necessary to determine the
relative position of points of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or to establish
such points.
6th Definition of Surveying
• Brinker and Wolf
▫ Surveying is the science and art of determining
relative positions of points above, on, or beneath
the surface of the earth, or establishing such
points.
7th Definition of Surveying
• La Putt
▫ Surveying is the art and science of determining
angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position of points, lines,
and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on
other extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized equipment
and techniques.
Classification of Surveying
1. Plane Surveying
- type of surveying in which the earth is
considered to be a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are of limited extent
that the exact shape of the earth is disregard.

2. Geodetic Surveying
- are surveys of wide extent which take into
account the spheroidal shape of the earth.
Difference Between Geodetic and
Plane Surveying
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying
The earth surface is considered as The earth surface is considered as
plane surface. curved surface.
The curvature of earth is taken into
The curvature of the earth is ignored.
account.
Line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight. considered as spherical.
The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three
points is considered as plain. points is considered as spherical.
The angles of triangle are considered The angles of the triangle are
as plain angles. considered as spherical.
Carried out for a small area < 250 Carried out for a larger area >250
km.sq. km.sq.
Types of Surveys
1. Cadastral Survey
- Closed survey that are usually done to determine
the property lines and boundaries in urban and
rural areas.

2. City Survey
- Surveys of the areas in and near a city for the
purpose of planning expansions or improvement,
locating property lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the physical features and
configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
3. Construction Survey
- Surveys that are undertaken at a construction site
including grades, dimensions, elevation, and location
of the structures which are concern to engineers,
architects and buildings.

4. Forestry Survey
- Survey executed in connection with forest
management, and the production and conservation
of forest lands.

5. Hydrographic Survey
- Refer to surveying bodies of water. These are made to
map shorelines, chart the shape of areas underlying
water surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
6. Industrial Survey
- A.k.a. optical tooling. (ex: ship building, construction
and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of
heavy and complex machinery, etc.)

7. Mine Survey
- Survey undertaken to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine
structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining
claims, determining geological formations, to
calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and
grades for other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Survey
- A type of survey which makes use of photographs
taken with specially designed cameras either from
airplanes or ground stations. Measurements are
obtained from the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.

9. Route Survey
- Involves the determination of alignment, grades,
earthwork quantities, location of natural and
artificial objects in connection with the planning,
design and construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear
project.
10. Topographic Survey
- Survey undertaken to determine the shape of
ground and the location and elevation of natural
and artificial features (such as hills, mountains,
rivers, lakes, roads, etc.) upon it.
Surveying Instruments
It is believed that the extensive use of surveying
instruments came during the early days of Roman
Empire.

1. Astrolabe
- Used to determine the
altitude of the stars on
ancient times.
- Developed by Hipparchus in
140 BC and further
improved by Ptolemy.
Surveying Instruments
2. Telescope
- Invented in 1607 in which generally
accredited to Lippershey.

3. Transit
- The invention of the transit is
credited to Young and Draper who
worked independently from each
other sometime in 1830.
Surveying Instruments
4. Semicircumferentor
- Used to measure and layout
angles.

5. Plane Table
- One of the oldest types of
surveying instruments used
in field mapping.
Surveying Instruments
6. Dioptra
- Instrument perfected by
Heron of Alexandria that was
used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal and
vertical angles.

7. Roman Groma
- Instrument used for aligning
or sighting points.
Surveying Instruments
8. Libella
- Instrument used to determine
the horizontal. First users are
the Assyrians and Egyptians.

9. Vernier
- Used to determine the
fractional parts of the
instrument.
Surveying Instruments
10. Diopter
- Greek instrument used for
leveling, laying off right angles,
and for measuring horizontal
and vertical angles.

11. Compass
- Used to determine the direction
of lines and the angles between
lines. It was first introduced for
used in navigation.
Surveying Instruments
12. Gunter’s Chain
- Instrument invented by Sir
Edmund Gunter in 1620
that was used for taping
distances. It is 66 ft long
with 100 links.

13. Chorobates
- Instrument used for
leveling work.
Other Instruments Used in Surveying
• Leveling Rod
• Range Pole
• Carpenter’s Level
• Chaining Pins
• Mallets and Hub/Peg
• Field Measuring Tape
Surveying Measurements
• It is the process of determining the extent, size or
dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to
a given standard.

• It was concentrated on angles, elevations, times,

lines, areas, and volumes.

Note:
– Measurements are never exact and they will always imperfect no
matter how carefully made.
– The physical measurements acquired are correct only within certain
limits because errors cannot be totally eliminated.
Types of Measurements
• Direct Measurements
- It is a comparison of measured quantity with a
standard measuring unit or units employed for
measuring a quantity of that kind. (ex: using a
tape, transit, protractor in measuring)

• Indirect Measurements
- The observed value is determined by the
relationship to some other known values.
The Meter
• Meter is the international unit of linear measure.

• Meter was defined as 1/10,000,000 of the

earth’s meridional quadrant.
International System of Units (SI)
• It was promulgated by the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures in 1960.

• Its goal is to modernize the metric system by

introducing a coherent and rational worldwide
system of units.
Units of Measurements
Giga - 1x10^9
Mega - 1x10^6 - 1 000 000
Kilo - 1x10^3 - 1 000
Hecto - 1x10^2 - 100
Deca - 1x10^1 - 10
Deci - 1x10^-1 - 0.1
Centi - 1x10^-2 - 0.01
Milli - 1x10^-3 - 0.001
Micro - 1x10^-6 - 0.000 001
Nano - 1x10^-9 - 0.000 000 001
Units of Measurements
1. Linear, Area, and Volume Measurements
Linear units:
1 kilometer (km) = 1 000 meters
1 meter (m) = 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) = 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer (um) = 1 000 millimicrometers
1 millimicrometer (mu) = 1000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) = 10 centimeters
1 centimeter (cm) = 1 0 millimeters
Units of Measurements
Other Linear Units:
1 mi = 1.60934 km
1 in = 2.54 cm

Area:
1 ha = 10 000 sq.m.
1 sq.km. = 100 ha
1 acre = 0.4047 ha

Volume:
1 cu.m = 1000 L
1 gal = 3.785 L
1 cu.ft = 7.48 gal
Units of Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
- The SI unit for plane angles is the radian.
- The Radian is defined as an angle subtended by an arc of a
circle having a length equal to the radius of the circle.

2π rad = 360°
1 rad = 57.2958°

a) Sexagesimal Units
- Expressed as degree, minute and second
- The unit of angle in surveying is the degree which is defined as
1/360th of a circle.

One degree, 1° = 60 minutes, 60’

One minute, 1’ = 60 seconds, 60”
Units of Measurements
2. Angular Measurements
2. Centesimal Units
- Units expressed as grad (usually expressed as
decimals)
- In this system, the circumference of a circle is
divided into 400 grads.

360° = 400 grads

1 grad = 0.9°
Significant Figures
It is the number of significant figures in any value
which includes the number of certain digits plus
one digit that is estimated, and therefore,
questionable or uncertain.

Example:
For a scale graduated in tenths of a meter, and
recorded 3.65 m, 3 and 6 are certain digits while
5 is estimated or uncertain.
General Rules Regarding S.F.
• RULE 1
▫ Numbers from 1 to 9 are significant.
• RULE 2
▫ Zeroes between other significant figures are
significant.
• RULE 3
▫ For values <1, zeroes immediately to the right of the
decimal point are not significant.
• RULE 4
▫ Zeroes at the end of the decimal numbers are
significant.
Rounding Off Numbers
It is the process of dropping one or more of the final
digit so that the values contains only the significant
figure required.

1. Digit is less than 5: When the digit to be dropped is

less than 5, the number is written without the digit.
2. Digit is equal to 5: When the digit to be dropped is
exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for
preceding digit.
3. Digit is greater than 5: When the digit to be
dropped is greater than 5, the number is written with
the preceding digit increased by one.
Quiz
Round off the following numbers into the nearest
thousandths and determine the number of significant
figures.

1. 120.035
2. 20.000
3. 3,024,00
4. 50.005
5. 0.0005010
6. 0.1056
7. 0.0295
8. 1.00125
9. 123.4
10. 456.95
Errors and Mistakes
• Errors
- the difference between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity

• Mistakes
- inaccuracies in measurements which occur
because some aspect of a surveying operation is
performed by the surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and improper
execution
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors
- aka cumulative error
- one which will always have the same sign and
magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant
and unchanged

Example:
In making a measurement with a 30-m tape which is 5
cm too short, the same error is made each time the
tape is used. If the tape is used 6 times, the error
accumulates and total 6 times the error for the total
measurement.
Types of Errors
2. Accidental Errors
- errors that are purely accidental in character
- the occurrence of such errors are matter of chance
as they are likely to be positive or negative
- there is no absolute way of determining or
eliminating them since the error for a quantity is
not likely to be the same for a second observation
Source of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors
- These errors are due to imperfections in the
instruments used either from faults in their
construction or from improper adjustments
between the different parts prior to their use.

Example:
a) Measuring a steel tape with an incorrect length.
b) Using a levelling rod with painted graduations
not perfectly spaced.
Source of Errors
2. Natural Errors
- These errors are caused by variations in the
phenomena of nature such as changes in magnetic
declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth.
- They are beyond the control of man.

Example:
a) Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being
blown sidewise by a strong wind.
b) Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Source of Errors
3. Personal Errors
- These errors arise principally from limitations of the
senses of sight, touch, and hearing of the human
observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate.

Example:
a) Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when
the crosshairs of the telescope are not positioned
correctly on the target.
b) Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to
be applied on a steel tape during measurement.
Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy
- It indicates how close a given measurement is to the
absolute or true value of the quantity measured.
- It implies the closeness between related measurements
and their expectations.
• Precision
- It refers to the degree of refinement and consistency
with which any physical measurement is made.
- It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set
of repeated measurementsof a quantity.
Accuracy and Precision
Good Precision Poor Precision
Poor Accuracy Good Accuracy
Accuracy and Precision
Good Precision Poor Precision
Good Accuracy Poor Accuracy
Theory of Probability
• Probability
- the number of times something will probably
occur over the range of possible occurrences

• Most Probable Value, MPV

- refers to the arithmetic mean or average of the
given samples or trials
Sample Problem 1
A surveying instructor sent out 6 groups of
students to measure a distance between two
points marked on the ground. The students
came up with six different values: 250.25,
250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50 and 251.22
meters. Assuming these values are equally
reliable and that variations result from
accidental errors, determine the most probable
value of the distance measured. (ans. 250.51|)
Sample Problem 2
The angles about a point Q have the following
observed values: 130°15’20”,142°37’30” and
87°07’40”. Determine the most probable value
of each angle.
Sample Problem 3
• Measurement of the three horizontal angles
about a point P are: APB = 12°31’50”, BPC =
37°29’20”, and CPD = 47°36’30”. If the
measurement of the single angle APD is
97°37’00”, determine the most probable values
of the angles.
Quiz
The observed interior angles of a triangle are
A=36° 14’ 37”, B= 95° 30’ 09”, and C= 48° 15’
05”. Determine the discrepancy for the given
observation and the most probable value of each
angle.
Residual
Residual is sometimes referred to as the deviation and
defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value.

v=x–x

where:
v = residual
x = the measurement made of a particular qty
x = the mpv of the qty measured
Probable Error
It is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from
the most probable value, defines a range within which
there is a 50 percent chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside ( or outside ) the limits
thus set.
Probable Error
where:
PEs = probable error of any single
measurement of a series
PEm = probable error of the mean
= summation of the squares of
the residual
n = is the number of observations
Relative (Error) Precision
It is expressed by a fraction having the magnitude
of the error in the numerator and the magnitude
of a measured quantity in the denominator.

RE = PE / MPV
where:
RE = relative error/precision
PE = probable error
MPV = most probable value
Example:
The following values were determined in a series
of tape measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40,
1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters.
Determine the following:

1. MPV of the measured length.

2. Probable error of a single measurement and
probable error of the mean
3. Final expression for the most probable length
4. Relative precision of the measurement
Weighted Observations
• In data analysis, such as getting MPV, it is
necessary to use weights since most surveying
measurements are made under different
circumstances and conditions and therefore
have different degrees of reliability.

• The assignment of relative weight to different

measurements is usually based upon the
judgment of the surveyor.
Example 1:
Four measurements of a distance were recorded
as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters
and given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively.
Determine the weighted mean.
Example 2:
It is desired to determine the most probable value
of an angle which has been measured at different
times by different observers with equal care. The
values observed were as follows:
▫ 74°39’45” (in two measurements);
▫ 74°39’27” (in four measurements); and
▫ 74°39’35” (in six measurements).
Example 3:
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point
are run over four different routes. The observed
elevations of the point with probable errors are
given below. Determine the most probable value
of the elevation of the point.
▫ 219.832 m ±0.006 m
▫ 219.930 m ±0.012 m
▫ 219.701 m ±0.018 m
▫ 220.021 m ±0.024 m
Example 4:
The length of a line was measured repeatedly on
three different occasions and the probable error
of each mean value was computed with the
following results:

▫ 1st set of measurements = 1201.50 ± 0.02 m

▫ 2nd set of measurements = 1201.45 ± 0.04 m
▫ 3rd set of measurements = 1201.62 ± 0.05 m
Summation of Errors
Find the perimeter of a triangular-shaped land
with the following dimensions:

▫ AB = 162.54 ± 0.03 m
▫ BC = 234.26 ± 0.05 m
▫ CA = 195.70 ± 0.04 m
Product of Errors
Find the area of a rectangular lot with a width and
length of 253.36 ± 0.06 m and 624.15 ± 0.08 m,
respectively.
END OF CHAPTER 1
Thank You for Listening!!!