Pakistan Studies Lecture Notes 1 30

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Pakistan Studies - Lecture notes 1-30
Pakistan Studies (COMSATS University Islamabad)
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HUM111 Pakistan Studies
Lecture 01 Handouts
Ideology of Pakistan
Ideology
Ideology is the basis of nationalism which is the fundamental belief of the nation-state system.
It can be defined in some of the following ways. “Science of ideas, visionary speculations, the
manner of thinking, characteristics of a class or individual ideas based on some economic,
social or political theory or system.” Or “Body of ideas concerning economic, social and
political values with positive action program for attaining these goals.”
Ideology constitutes a system of human life which includes a certain set of theories, objectives
and assertions of life. The importance of Ideology in human life cannot be defied on the
grounds that individuals should ideally share a common ideology in society look homogenous.
It is also important to have an ideology because it offers an interpretation of the past, an

explanation of the present and a vision of the future. It tells you that where you come from,
where you are and where you suppose to reach afterwards. Some people detach themselves
from the past and does not connect themselves with the ideology or past.
Ideology of Pakistan
Ideologies take firm roots in society only when people feel that they are being mistreated under
an existing order or when their status is threatened by fundamental changes occurring in the
society. There were some fundamental political changes which occurred in the subcontinent.
The Muslims came as invaders (conquerors). The Muslims were being checked thoroughly and
Hindus were given leverage over the Muslims and that was the fundamental change occurring
in the society. In the war of 1957 the whole blame was put on Muslims in that war. The British
government tried to suppress Muslims and to crush that rebellion. Then Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
played a role to impress the British and to impress the Muslims. He told that Muslims were not
sole responsible for their reward. Moreover, new ideology in any given society emerges when
the prevailing ideology no longer satisfies the people living in a society. That is why, they didnt
prefer to live in India rather they prefer to ask for a independent state for themselves.
Pakistan is one of the few countries which have been formed based on ideology. Therefore,
when the Muslims in the subcontinent felt that the prevailing ideology in the Indian
subcontinent is not catering for their spiritual and material needs, then the ideology of a separate
nation began to evolve. The ideals for which the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent started to
strive for many decades were drawn from the Islamic system of beliefs. Moreover, the idea of
a separate homeland for Muslims of the subcontinent was conceived and matured as a reaction
to the Hindu and British exploitation of the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. It was a revolt
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against the prevailing system in order to save it from annihilation. The foundation of that
ideology was built and later sustained by Muslim nationalism.
Ideology of Pakistan Based on Muslim Nationalism

What is Nationalism? Nationalism is quite a broad term, and it is a toilsome effort to define
this term without going into detail. However, it suffices to say that nationalism is essentially a
European Concept. During the medieval times, a group of students from one country studying
in a European university was called “nation”. If someone threatens their unity or oneness, then
they fight them with power, but they try to go living as one they would try to protect their way
of life. They will try to live together that aspect is being threatened and nationalism created
havoc. We have seen nationalism in the earlier twentieth century in the shape of world war 1
and in world war 2. That is purely the outcome of narrow nationalism. Nationalism is paving
its way towards good society to live in harmony and consider themselves as a part of one
society. Nationalism can be called consciousness, a sentiment or sympathy which binds a group
of people together. We may call it the desire of a group of individuals, who are already united
by certain ties, to live together and, if necessary, to die together. It is the wish of people who
feel that they are one, to go on living as one.
Economic Ideology
The nation whose ideology is based on economies or their ideology has gotten roots in
economies. Soviet Union had the ideology of economic equality. Every ideology has the
commonality that if people follow it then they will remain happy and there will be harmony
and prosperity in the whole world. Moreover, the Islamic ideology creates the sense of oneness
in Islamic ideology.
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HUM 111 and Pakistan Studies
Lecture 02 Handouts
Nationalism and Two Nation Theory

Nationalism
The term “nationalism” is generally used to describe two phenomena:
(1) the attitude that the members of a nation have when they care about their national identity,
and
(2) the actions that the members of a nation take when seeking to achieve (or sustain) self-
determination.
(Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2018)
Modern Nationalism is made up of thirteen conditions or beliefs; following are its subgroups.
Emotional Basis
• Common group feelings
• Love for the fellow nationals
• Common hostility to other similar groups
Political and Social Apparatus
• Common territory possessed
• The existence of common sovereign government or the desire for it
• The existence of common moral, social or economic institutions or ideas
Spiritual Equipment
• Possession of some common cultural characteristics i.e., language, customs,
manners, literature, art, music and folk-lore
• Common religion
• Common history or common origin
• Common character shared by the national group
Nationalism on the Three Time Levels (Past, Present and Future)

Since nationalism itself is an emotion or a combination of different emotions, therefore,
feelings of common pride in national achievements and common sorrow in national tragedies.
Simple devotion to the nation such as “My country, right or wrong”. Future level for
nationalism is like hoping that the nation will one day become a great nation. And if it is already
a great nation then hope for it to be the greatest in the world are quite helpful for the furtherance.
Nationalism is always drawn from ideology.
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Views of Prominent Personalities about Religion and Nationalism

Mahatma Gandhi said:
“The politician in me has never dominated a single decision of mine, and if I seem to take
part in politics, it is only because politics encircle us today like the coil of a snake from which
one cannot get out, no matter how much one tries. In order to wrestle with the snake………., I
have been experimenting with myself and my friends by introducing religion into politics.”
He was in favor of introducing religion in politics as he thought that the politics is very
complicated matter and any issues cannot be resolved without logic of religion.
Allama Iqbal said:

“One lesson I have learnt from the history of Muslims. At critical moments in their history, it
is Islam that has saved Muslims and not vice versa.”
Two Nation theory

Evolution of the Concept
During the struggle for political independence in India, the Two-Nation Theory emerged,
which meant that two nations - Hindus and Muslims - inhabited the subcontinent. It further
emphasized that there were sharp discrepancies in culture, language, religious practices of both
communities.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was not the first to call the Muslims of India a nation divergent from
the Hindus, previously, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, had also addressed them as ‘QAUM’.
Moreover, the Agha Khan, Amir Ali and others referred to their community as a ‘nation’. Later
on, Allama Iqbal provided the philosophical explanation for the uniqueness of the Indian
Muslims. However, Jinnah was the first to conclude that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct
nations, which could not live together.
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan gave it a legal sanction by passing objectives Resolution in

March 1949.
Jinnah in Lahore Resolution

Muhammad Ali Jinnah said:
“Notwithstanding [a] thousand years of close contact, nationalities which are as divergent
today as ever, cannot at any time be expected to transform themselves into one nation merely
by means of subjecting them to a democratic constitution and holding them forcibly together
by unnatural and artificial methods of British Parliamentary statutes.”
Stance of Quaid-e-Azam was “Muslims are a Nation according to any definition of nation and
they must have their homeland, their territory and their state.”
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There were many other people who supported the stance of Quaid-e-Azam. As B. K. Krishna
quoted in 1939, “India is the land of nations”. Another external evidence who does not support
the claim of All India Congress that there is only one nation in subcontinent, “The reality is
that Muslim Population in India go millions, with its own system of law and social
organization, its own distinct language, its own historical traditions proves to be separate
nation”.
Mandate of Two Nation Theory

The demand for Separate electorate (SE) was a manifestation of Muslim feelings of
separateness. Six years before his death, Sir Syed for the first time demanded for a separate
electorate in 1892. Because of the minority status in British India, it was difficult for Muslim
candidates to be elected in general elections. If the two communities were not kept apart at
polls, every election would result in riots. Wherever S.E had been introduced, it secured peace.
Congress attitude towards Separate electorate was irritating. It could, by no means, compromise
with this formula. Congress attitude further pushed the Muslims towards Separatism.
Factors Responsible for the Creation of Muslim Nationhood

Following are the factors that were responsible for the creation of the Muslim Nationhood.
• Historical
• Political
• Religious
• Cultural
• Education
• Literature
• Philosophy
• Art
• Psychological
• National Consciousness
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Lecture 03 Handouts
Historical Background of Pakistan
Pakistan did not come into being overnight. Struggle for equal rights for the Muslims vis-a-
vis Hindus in British India is spanned over about 90 years which gradually evolved, shaped
and reshaped depending on the circumstances. However, the final product of that long
historical struggle came out in the shape of Pakistan.
The Basis of the historical movement for the creation of Pakistan started to form with the
outbreak of the War of Independence in 1857. The War of Independence started on 10th of
May 1857 in Meerut, a remote and small city of the United Provinces of the subcontinent.
Though unsuccessful, it brought many changes, particularly in the political strategies of three
parties: The British, the Hindus and the Muslims. The causes of the War of Independence
can be broadly divided into six categories, i.e., economic, administrative, political, religious,
social and military.
Economic Causes
Before the East India Company’s (EIC) rule, India’s agriculture Industry and trade were
flourishing. However, the British tried to exploit India for their economic gains and fulfil the
demands of their industry after the industrial revolution. Moreover, the Indian exports to
Britain, i.e. cotton, tea, spices ended up in India as finished goods or were further exported to
other countries.
After gaining the right to collect revenue at Bengal in 1765, EIC used the money raised
through revenue in Bengal for fighting wars in other parts of India. The Policies of EIC
badly affected by Zamindars, Talookdars, middle-income groups, traders and labourers etc.
Administrative Causes
The EIC administrative machinery in India was inefficient and insufficient which created
discontent with the locals. The EIC started annexation of Indian States as part of their
expansionist policies under the Doctrine of Lapse. All high posts; civil or military were given
to Europeans rather than to the locals. Moreover, unjust and exploitative revenue policies
were introduced in India which further fueled belligerence against the EIC.
Political Causes
Among the political causes for the War of Independence 1857, the British expansionist
policies in the Indian subcontinent takes a fundamental place. Order of Lord Canning to the
Mughal Emperor to leave Red Fort Delhi and stay at Qutab Minar further added an insult to
the injury for both the Muslims and Hindus alike, as the Mughal Emperor was the legitimate
ruler of India. Moreover, a wave of unrest struck the socio-politico fabric of the Indian
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society following the Lord canning’s order that after the demise of Bahadur Shah Zafar the
Mughal rule will come to an end and all the property of Mughal rulers will be snatched away.
Social/Religious Causes
The EIC started to extended support to the Christian missionaries after 1813. It is noteworthy
that the Christian missionaries were not allowed to come India before that year. Also, the
Religious Disability Act was enacted which announced many incentives for those Indians
who would convert to Christianity.A law made reforms in Hindu customs. However, they
were considered as a distortion of the teaching of Hinduism. It was widely believed after
1813 that the actual mandate of EIC was to convert Indians especially Hindus to Christianity.
Military Causes
The EIC had recruited many Indian locals in its military. However, there was a great disparity
in the salaries between Indian and European soldiers. Besides, sepoys were sent to distant-
overseas- parts of the Empire but they were not given by extra salaries. The Indian sepoys
were treated with contempt by their English officers as the English thought they were a
superior race and were more advanced than Indian. The Indian sepoys were refused
promotion in services as like their English counterparts.
The General Service Enlistment Act, 1856 by Lord Canning, was introduced. The act asked
for the soldiers from Bengal to be recruited and posted wherever the Empire needed them. It
was greatly resented by the Hindus, as travelling via sea for some Hindus meant leaving the
fold of Hinduism. Consequently, out of such discontent, the Indian sepoys revolted.
Immediate Cause
EIC introduced Enfield rifles in the military. Papers with grease like substance covered the
bullets of these rifles. The sepoys were to cut the cover with teeth before using it. Rumour
spread that the grease substance was made up of the fat of pigs and cows. Therefore, both
Muslims and Hindu sepoys refused to cut the cover. They protested against the introduction
of this new munition and were arrested. It ultimately ignited the fire of mutiny all over India.
However, the Mutiny was, ultimately, suppressed, and the British government officially took
over the rule of India from EIC.
Causes for the Failure of War of Independence

For a war to be won, one needs a definite aim and a military discipline apparatus; however,
the Indian mutineers lacked clear aim. Every group and faction fought for personal reasons
without a central Indian command. Some had a problem with job insecurity, while others had
a problem with high taxes, while others were concerned with preserving their rule in their
states etc.
Moreover, there was a visible lack of unity among those who were fighting against their
oppressors. The revolt was not pre-decided and spontaneous incidents sparked it. It could not
start at one time in the whole of India. Therefore, the EIC effectively crushed it.
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Moreover, the lack of public support also played a role in the failure of the war. The
Educated groups (mainly converted into Christianity), many traders, and lots of peasants did
not participate in it because they were blossoming in the rule of the EIC.
Another factor which can be attributed to the failure of the War of Independence 1857 is the
lack of national spirit among the Indians. Lucknow, Jhansi and Bihar just revolted to
safeguard their rulers’ narrow interests rather than safeguarding the larger interest of India.
The Mughal ruler and other local rulers had quite weak armies which had no match for the
English officers and their war tactics. Therefore, the efficient English officials were able to
suppress the revolt in 1857.
Nature of the War of Independence

The War of Independence was not a religious war. It was fought by both religious
communities, i.e., Hindus and Muslims alike to reclaim their independence in India. War of
independence was fought because of economic and socio-cultural reasons rather than
religious reasons.
After the defeat at the hands of EIC, the Hindus blamed that the Muslims were alone
responsible for it. They blamed a religious conspiracy against the British by the Muslims.
Hindi/Urdu Controversy
Language is a fundamental means of social-cultural interaction. It may lead to disintegration
in societies with cultural diversities. The Urdu language was born in India. India was used to
be considered as a golden sparrow regarding its fertile land and workforce. That’s why many
of invaders, including the Muslims, came to occupy it for different purposes. It happened
because when these different people from different regions of the world came to India, they
brought with them, over number of other things, their language as well. People like Arabs,
Persians and Turks, etc. when mingled with the native people, they exchanged words of their
languages and thus with this mingling, a new language emerged which was termed as Urdu,
meaning the “language of the troops”.
Since the invaders of the Muslim world formed it and emerged during the rule of the Mughals
in India, it was termed as the language of the Muslims, and that is why initially it was called
“Musalmani”. However, there were not only Muslims that spoke or used Urdu, but all the
communities in India joined hands for the promulgation and development of that new
language. It was not only used as an everyday language, but a large number of literary works
appeared in Urdu in all the regions of the sub-continent primarily Deccan, Lucknow, Maisur,
Dehli etc. Thus, almost the whole of India contributed to the flourishing of Urdu.
In 1837, Persian was replaced by Urdu as the court and state language, no one objected to
that. With the fall of the Mughal Empire, Hindus, however, started looking at Urdu as the
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language of the invaders. The British on the other hand, in their disregard for Muslims,
adopted the same attitude. Thus, both intentionally started their efforts to get rid of the
language of the Muslims. In this regard names of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Raja Shiv Parshad,
Lakshman Singh, Haresh Chandra and Binkam Chatterji, etc., among many others are well
known. The first effort was made at the start of the nineteenth century when a new language
was formed with the name Hindi in which words of pure Arabic, Persian and Turkish were
removed and replaced by Sanskrit words. In that regard in 1809, a Hindu wrote a novel in
that very Hindi with the title “Prem Sagar”,but since it was not a full-fledged effort, soon that
language went into oblivion.
However, after the War of Independence in 1857 when the British Crown’s wrath fell upon
the Muslims, the Hindus considered it to be a ripe moment to get rid of Urdu and replace it
with their language – Hindi. The combined, organised effort started in the second half of the
nineteenth century. In 1867, the Hindus of Banaras presented a request to their government
regarding the replacement of Urdu with Hindi and its Persian script with that of Devnagri
script. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, at that demand remarked that when even the language of a
nation is not safe at the hands of other nations in a region, it would be unwise to continue
living with them.
Sir Syed, who was, in fact, a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity before that incident,
started focusing on the cause of Muslims alone. His Scientific Society Gazette presented
articles on the importance of Urdu. Similarly, some Muslim newspapers like Noor-ul-
Absar and Banaras Gazette also took the responsibility to safeguard their language.
The anti-Urdu process continued when, in 1871, the Governor of Bengal, G. Cambell, banned
Urdu in the province at all levels, courts, administration and even schools. The ban on Urdu
boosted the Hindus in other regions like NWFP, Punjab, Behar, Sindh, Oudh, etc. to counter
Urdu there. Meetings were held of the Hindus in which thousands of them signed memorials
supporting the cause of elimination of Urdu. The circumstances became even more hard for
the Muslims and their language when Anthony MacDonnel became the governor of UP in
1900. He was a pro-Hindu and thus anti-Muslim. Thus, he dismissed Urdu as the official
language of UP, which was in fact considered to be the home of Urdu language. He issued
orders and declared Hindi the official language of the province.
Sir Syed’s successors at Aligarh, mainly Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, the Secretary of the
Aligarh Trust, took action against MacDonnel’s act. He called for a popular gathering of the
supporters of Urdu at Aligarh and openly condemned governor’s work. He also founded Urdu
Defense Association, and it was decided that the association would take actions against the
doings of the governor. The result of this Muslim response was that Urdu too- along with
Hindi- was declared the official language of the province. However, Mohsin-ul-Mulk was not
satisfied with this outcome and continued his struggle. When UP got rid of MacDonnel, he
founded another association called Anjuman-e-Tarraqi-e-Urdu to counter all future attempts
of the Hindus and the English against Urdu.
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Formation of Indian National Congress

Amid agitations over many diverse issues against the British Raj by the local Indians, the
Indian National Congress was founded on December 28, 1885. Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee
was selected as the leader of the Congress. Among its main objectives was the fusion into one
national whole of all the different, and till now discordant, elements that constitute the
population of India. It also aimed for the gradual regeneration of Indians along all lines,
mental, moral, social and political. And the consolidation of the union between England and
India, by securing the modification of such of its condition as may be unjust or injurious to
the latter country.
An Englishman A.O. Hume founded the Indian National Congress. He was a retired
government official with the blessings of Lord Dufferin, the Governor-General of India.
When Hume took the scheme to the Governor-General, the latter amended it and gave his
blessing on the condition that“His name in this connection with the scheme of the Congress
should not be divulged so long as he remained in the country.” His condition was faithfully
maintained, and none but the men consulted by Mr Hume knew anything about the matter.
Sir Syed was quite critical about the Congress; he asked the Muslims not to join it. A vast
majority of people followed his advice. He was of the opinion that if he were told that even
the Viceroy, the Secretary of State and the whole House of Commons had openly supported
Congress, he would remain firmly opposed to it. The times quoted Sir Syed on 12th
November 1888, “It is my deliberate belief that should the resolution of the native congress
be carried into effect; it would be impossible for the British Government to preserve peace,
or control in any degree the violence and civil wars which would ensue.”
The contemporary Muslim Press was also full of criticisms about the Congress. Mohammad
an Observer, The Victoria Paper, The Muslim Herald, the Rafiq-i-Hind and Imperial Paper
spoke with one voice against it. Moreover, Muslim Organizations and Institutions like
Central National Muhammadan Association, Muhammadan Literary Society of Bengal, the
Anjuman-i-Islam of Madaras, the Dindigal Anjuman and the Muhammadan Central
Association of Punjab asked the Muslims of Indian not to join Congress as they thought it
would never serve the interests of the Muslims of India.
Partition of Bengal
In 1905, the provinces of Bengal and Assam were reconstituted to form two provinces of
manageable size. The scheme was sent to London in February 1905. The Province of East
Bengal and Assam officially came into being on 16 October 1905.
The whole plan was nothing but a readjustment of administrative boundaries. However, the
Hindus resented it.The partition resulted in the creation of Muslim majority province, East
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Bengal, which was distasteful to the Hindus. Hindus regarded the partition as an attempt to
strangle nationalism in Bengal, where it was more developed than elsewhere. Agitation
against the partition included mass meetings, rural unrest, and a “swadeshi” (native)
movement to boycott the import of British goods.
Since this partition favoured the Muslims therefore, they embraced it and seven days after the
partition, on 22 October 1905, a large Muslim meeting at Dacca appreciated the boon
conferred on the people by the change. Two days later, another huge gathering of Muslims
offered thanks to the God for the partition and declared that under the new scheme, written by
the Manchester Guardian on 23rd and 27th October 1905 that“…the Muslims would be spared
many oppressions which they hitherto had to endure from the Hindus.”, the Hindu agitation
against the partition was condemned.
However, even though the partition of Bengal was beneficial for the majority of the Muslims
of Bengal, the British India government succumbed to the Hindu and Congress agitation
against the partition. In 1911, East and West Bengal were reunited. The aim was to combine
appeasement of Bengali sentiment with administrative convenience. This end was achieved
for a brief time but the Bengali Muslims, having benefitted from the partition, were angry and
disappointed. This resentment remained throughout the rest of the British period. The final
division of Bengal was done at the partitioning of the subcontinent in 1947, which divided
Bengal into India in the West and East Pakistan (later Bangladesh) in the East, intense
violence also accompanied it.
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Lecture 04 Handouts
Simla Deputation and All India Muslim League

Simla Deputation
Lord Minto was appointed as the Viceroy of India in 1905. He announced new reforms in
which it was said that the British government would extend the elected principle. The anti-
partition agitation had convinced the Muslims of the futility of expecting any fair-play from
the Hindu majority. Therefore, to safeguard their interests, the Muslim leaders drew up a plan
for separate electorates for their community, and presented it to the Viceroy Lord Minto at
Simla, on October 1, 1906. The Simla Deputation consisted of 70 representatives,
representing all opinions of the Muslim community, and headed by Sir Aga Khan.
The demands of the deputation were accepted. The acceptance of the demands proved to be a
turning point in the history of the subcontinent. For the first time, the Hindu-Muslim conflict
was raised to the constitutional plane. The Muslims made it clear that they had no confidence
in the Hindu majority and that they were not prepared to put their future in the hands of an
assembly elected on the assumed basis of a homogenous Indian nation. It is in this sense that
the beginning of separate electorate may be seen as the beginning of the realization of the
Two-Nation Theory, its final and inevitable consequence being the partition of British India
in 1947.
The Simla Deputation was successful because the Muslims were strongly urged to protect
their separate identity, whereas the British responded to their demands, as Lord Minto was
anxious to pull them out of their political discontent. Separate electorates were given
statutory recognition in the Indian Councils Act of 1909. The Muslims were accorded not
only the right to elect their representatives by separate electorates but also the right to vote in
general constituencies. Also, they were also given weightage in representation.
All India Muslim League (1906)

The Simla Deputation made the Muslim confident of the fact that united effort would be
fruitful for the Muslim community. Therefore, to further capitalise on the deputation’s
success, a meeting was convened at Dacca in Dec. 1906 presided over by Nawab Waqar ul
Mulk which passed the resolution moved by Nawab of Dacca to established separate Muslim
organisation name as the All India Muslim League.
The most important factor of the establishment of All India Muslim League was that a
representative government be introduced in India. Moreover, the Hindu agitation on the
partition of Bengal (1905) had confirmed the Hindu prejudice towards the Muslim interest.
Therefore, the Muslims felt the need for a political platform for themselves. And the
acceptance of the principle of separate representation by Viceroy in Simla Deputation
encouraged the Muslims to establish one for them.
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Lecture 05 Handouts
Minto-Morley Reforms and Lucknow Pact

Pakistan Movement (Historical Effects of 1909-1940)
Indian Councils Act 19091 (Minto Morley Reforms)

The Indian Councils Act 1909, commonly known as the Morley-Minto Reforms or
Minto-Morley Reforms, was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that
brought about a limited increase in the involvement of Indians in the governance of
British India. The number of members of the legislative council of Governor General and
the Governors of various provinces was increased. Moreover, the powers of Members of
Legislature were increased. They could now, criticize the actions of the executive, ask
questions and even supplementary questions, and express their views by moving
resolutions. Besides, matters of public interest were also discussed in the Legislative
Council.
The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:
▪ The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was
increased from 16 to 60.
▪ The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It
was fixed as 50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest
of the provinces it was 30.
▪ The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the provinces,
were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio members (Governor General and the
members of their Executive Councils), nominated official members (those
nominated by the Governor General and were government officials), nominated
non-official members (nominated by the Governor General but were not
government officials) and elected members (elected by different categories of
Indian people).
▪ Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.
▪ At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-
official members would be in majority.
▪ The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets,
suggest the amendments and even to vote on them; excluding those items that
were included as non-vote items. They were also entitled to ask supplementary
questions during the legislative proceedings.
▪ The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the
Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to four.
▪ Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian
Affairs.
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▪ The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his
Executive Council.
The Indians were included in the councils, where ultimate decisions were made, of the
India Secretary and Viceroy. Before these reforms, they were excluded from such
assemblies. In fact, a type of consultative body was formed. For the first time, the demand
for a separate electorate was accepted. Constitutional recognition of Separate Electorate
was an excellent achievement for the Muslims. Muslims could now have their
representative members at the Legislative Councils. They were to be elected by Muslims
alone.
The Indians were not satisfied with these reforms. Strict qualifications of property and
education were imposed on the franchise. Consequently, the number of voters was
restricted. Moreover, the system of election was indirect. The members of local bodies
were elected by the people who, in turn, were to elect members of electoral colleges. The
members of electoral colleges were to elect members of Provincial Legislature who, in
turn, were to elect members of Imperial Legislature. To win the support of maximum
factions of the society, the Government wanted to give special representation to the
loyalist classes. In this context, a unique representation was given to landlords, chambers
of commerce and other influential groups. Further, S.P. Sinha, an Indian, was included in
the Viceroy’s Executive Council. However, this act was bitterly criticized by the
Muslims, for they had previously demanded that two Indian members including one
Muslim should be included in the Council. The Government promised to appoint Muslim
the next time. After Sinha’s resignation, Sayed Ali Imam was appointed as a Member of
the Executive council.
Criticism
Demand of responsible government was rejected.
Importance of landlords and industrialists increased which was represented by the
common Indians.
Restricted franchise (Women were not given the right to vote).
Hindu Reaction
The Hindus organized a demonstrative campaign against this act as they were against
separate electorate given to the Muslims. The Congress condemned it and demanded the
withdrawal of separate electorate. However, benefitted as result of the act, the Muslims
warmly welcomed this act mainly due to the provision of separateelectorate for them.
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Lucknow Pact2
The Lucknow pact is considered as a significant event in the political & constitutional
history of India. It is regarded as an excellent example of Hindu Muslim unity. It was the
first and last pact signed between the Congress and the Muslim league.
Factors Behind the Pact

The relations between the British government and Muslims were tense due to aggressive
and unilateral policies of the British Indian government. The annulment of the partition of
Bengal in 1911 and the British policies in the international system had caused deep
anguish among the Muslims. Thus, the Muslims leaderships decided to change the
strategy of the Muslim league after the annulment of Bengal in 1911.
In December 1912, the Muslim league changed its aim from loyalty to form self-
government suitable to India. However, the League retained the right to modify self-rule
by their needs and requirements. Jinnah arose as a devoted champion of Hindu Muslim
unity; he convinced All India Muslim league to change their policies for the betterment of
India. Muhammad Ali Jinnah in his early career was a member of both the Congress and
the Muslim League and was well known as a man free of any religious prejudice, as well
as a brilliant advocate and debater. In 1915, mainly due to his efforts, both the Muslim
League and the Congress party had their annual meeting in Bombay. At the end of this
meeting, a committee was formed with the intention to sort the shared understanding
between the two communities. The committee prepared a scheme in November 1916.
The planwas approved by both the parties in December 1916 at the respective sessions at
Lucknow.
Jinnah and the Pact

Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam), in his presidential speech at Lucknow, said: “India’s real
progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious relations between
the two great communities. About our affairs, we can depend upon nobody but
ourselves.”
The Congress agreed to the right to separate electorate for the Muslims for the first and
last time in the history of the subcontinent. The Hindus conceded that the Muslims would
have one-third representation in the imperial legislative council. A weightage formula
was proposed under which the Muslims would get less representation than their
population in the legislative council in those provinces where they were in the majority
but more in provinces where they were in the minority. Provinces should be given
maximum administrative and financial autonomy. Elections should be conducted by the
general adult franchise. The secretary of the state for India should be given the same
powers as are given to the secretary of state for other colonies. The executive and
Judiciary should remain separate from each other.
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The Muslim League and the Congress should jointly demand the establishment of
complete self-government in India. The Muslims should be given separate reserved seats
in the legislature with the right of separate electorate. Any resolution affecting a particular
community should require ¾ (75%) majority of the members of that community for its
advancement in any council. All India Muslim League withdrew from the demand that
Muslims were in the majority in the Punjab and Bengal.
Significance (Importance of the Pact)

The Lucknow pact was a great achievement of Hindu and Muslim leaders, who were
successful in offering for the first and last time. It was a mutually acceptable solution of
the Hindu Muslim problem. It appeared to be of particular significance in the history of
India. It was the Quaid-e-Azam, who had always been a staunch supporter of Hindu-
Muslim unity. The scheme provided for a substantial step taken halfway towards the
establishment of self-rule in India which was the central core of the jointly sponsored
scheme of Lucknow Pact. The Congress for the first time accepted the demand of
separate electorate for Muslims. The pact ensured the protection of political rights of
Muslims. Muslim league’s separate status was also accepted. Through this pact, both
parties were able to put a joint demand before the British. It was a give and take a sort of
agreement between both the parties. The Muslims had to pay a big price of losing the
majority in Bengal and Punjab to obtain some concessions. Similarly, it carried great
constitutional significance in the future for many developments. The scheme of
representation of Muslim community in the central and provincial legislatures as
embodied in the Lucknow pact was generally followed in the Montague Chelmsford
reforms 1919.
Khilafat Movement
The Khilafat movement (1919-1924) was an agitation by Indian Muslims allied with
Indian nationalism in the years following World War I. Its purpose was to pressurize the
British government to preserve the authority of the Ottoman Sultan as Caliph of Islam
following the breakup of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the war.
1
http://storyofpakistan.com/minto-morley-reforms
2
https://www.britannica.com/event/Lucknow-Pact
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Lecture 06 Handouts
Khilafat Movement, Nehru Report and Jinnah’s 14 Points

(Pakistan Movement - Historical Events of 1909-1940)
Khilafat Movementi
The Khilafat movement was a very important event in the political history of India. The
Muslims of India had a great regard for the Khilafat (Caliphate) which was held by the
Ottoman Empire. During World War I, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) joined the war in favor
of Germany. But Turkey and Germany lost the war and a pact commonly known as Istanbul
Accord was concluded between the Allied Forces on 3rd November 1918. According to this
Pact the territories of Turkey were to be divided among France, Greece and Britain.
During the war, the Indian Muslims were in a very awkward position, because they had a
deep-rooted devotion to the caliphate. They had profound respect for this holy institution.
Therefore, their support to the British Government was subject to the safeguard and
protection of the holy places of Turkey and on the condition that Turkey will not to be
deprived of its territories. The British Government could not fulfill both of these promises.
The Treaty of Savers 1920 was imposed on Turkey and its territories like Samarna, Thrace
and Anatolia were wrested from it and distributed among European countries. A wave of
anger swept across the Muslin World and the Indian Muslims rose against the British
Government. Muslim leaders like Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Moulana Muhammad Ali
Johar, Moulana Shoukat Ali and others reacted against the British Government policy and
were put behind the bars.
Thus, Muslims organized a mass movement, which came to be known as the Khilafat
Movement. The aims of this movement were
(a) To protect the Holy place of Turkey
(b) To restore the Territories of Turkey
(c) To restore the Ottoman Empire.
The Failure of the Khilafat Movement

The abolition of Khilafat by Kamal Ataturk was a severe blow to Khilafat movement in the
sub-continent, and he exiled Sultan Abdul Majeed, a helpless Caliph and abolished Khilafat
as an institution, due to this all agitational activities came to an end in the Sub-continent. The
Hijrat Movement made the Muslims disillusioned with the Khilafat Movement due to the
declaration of India as Darul-Harab. A large number of Muslims, migrated from Sindh and
N.W.F.P to Afghanistan. The Afghan authorities did not allow them to cross the border. After
this tragic event, those who had advocated the Hijrat movement come to realize their mistake
which failed the movement. When the Khilafat movement became mature and was reaching
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its climax a tragic incident took place in the village of Chora Churi in which the police
opened fire on the procession of residents. The agitated mob in counteraction set the police
station on flames. Resultantly, twenty-one police constables were burnt alive. Due to this
incident, the Ali brother and other Muslim leader were arrested, and Mr. Gandhi put off the
movement. As a consequence, the movement lost its intensity. The Khilafat movement
proved that Hindus and Muslims were two different nations as they could not continue the
unity and could not live together. It also created political consciousness among the Indian
Muslims about their separate identity, which ultimately paved the way for Pakistan
movement.
Montague Chelmsford Reforms 1919

Minto-Morley reforms, introduced in 1909, proved unsatisfactory for Indian people. Indians
demanded more representation and called for greater self-government. This could not be
achieved without a formal rapprochement between Congress and Muslim League. The
Lucknow Pact of 1916 asked for self-rule.
Meanwhile, the World War I had started and Indians despite their grievances and
discontentment with the British joined the war with over one million soldiers with the hope
that after the war British would be obliged to concede to self-rule in recognition of their loyal
services. However, as the war dragged on, Indians became disillusioned as the British did not
make any promises regarding self-government. Thus, Indians pressed for immediate reforms
and it was felt that a civil disobedience movement might be launched jointly by congress and
Muslim league to compel the British to accelerate the reforms.
In view of these circumstances the British felt that something must be done to pacify the
Indians. At that time, Edwin Montague was the Secretary of State for India. In his famous
August Declaration presented before the House of Commons on 20th August 1917,
Montague said that in order to satisfy the local demands, his government was interested in
giving more representation to the natives in India. Lord Chelmsford was sent to India as the
new Governor General. He stayed for six months and held numerous meetings with different
government and non-governmental people. Edwin Montague in collaboration with Lord
Chelmsford collected data and made a report about constitutional reforms in 1918. The report
was discussed in the House of Common and later it was approved by the parliament. The Bill
was introduced in India in 1919 and became Act of 1919.
Main Features of 1919 Act

The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of
them should be Indian, and at least half of them should have spent at least ten years in India.
The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses, Upper House (Council of the State),
and the Lower House (Legislative Assembly). Council of the State was to consist of 60
members, out of those, 35 members would be elected, andthe Governor General would
nominate rest of them. The Legislative Assembly was to consist of 144 members, out of those
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103 were to be elected and 41 to be nominated by the Governor General. The duration of the
Upper House was five and of the Lower House was three years. Powers were divided
between the center and the provinces. The important subjects were vested with the center,and
unimportant remained with provinces. The important central subjects were defense, foreign
affairs, custom, and relations with Indian states, currency, and railway. On the contrary,
unworthy provincial subjects were local self-government, public health, education, etc.
The salary of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid from British exchequer;
previously, his salary was paid by Indian treasury. The system of ‘Diarchy’ or a kind of
double government in the Provinces was introduced. Provincial subjects were divided into
two categories “Transferred and Reserved.” Transferred subjects which were public health,
education, local self-government, and agriculture were under the control of Minister;
likewise, all transferred subjects were unimportant. Reserved subjects included
administration, police, land revenue, etc. which were under the control of Governor with the
help of his secretaries.
Congress Reaction
The Congress did not participate in the elections of 1920 under the 1919 Act. It was against
these reforms. In 1923, it was decided to participate in elections with a view to destroy the
1919 Act from within.
Muslim League Reaction

The Muslim League did not reject the act as Congress did. Though it was not completely
satisfied with the reforms, the initial response was favorable. It too did not participate in the
election because of understanding with Congress. Thus, some benefits which the Act could
yield were reaped by the Hindus alone.
Simon Commission
Simon Commission, a group, appointed in November 1927 by the British government
under Stanley Baldwin to report on the working of the Indian constitution established by
the Government of India Act of 1919. The commission consisted of seven members under the
joint chairmanship of the distinguished Liberal lawyer, Sir John Simon, and Clement Attlee,
the future prime minister. Its composition met with a storm of criticism in India because
Indians were excluded. The commission was boycotted by the Indian National Congress and
most other Indian political parties. It, nevertheless, published a two-volume report, mainly the
work of Simon. Regarded as one of the classic state documents, the Simon Commission
report proposed provincial autonomy in India but rejected parliamentary responsibility at the
center. It accepted the idea of federalism and sought to retain direct contact between the
British crown and the Indian states.
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Nehru Report
Most of the Indian political parties decided to boycott the Simon Commission on the plea that
it lacked Indian representation. The British decided to throw the ball in the court of Indian
Politicians. Lord Birkenhead, Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, challenged the Indians, “If
they have any political capability and competence then they should form a unanimous
constitution and present it to us, and we will implement it.” Indian political parties accepted
the challenge and called an All Parties Conference at Delhi in January 1928. The conference
was attended by around hundred delegates from all the important parties including Indian
National Congress, All India Muslim League, National Liberal Federation, Hindu
Mahasabha, Central Sikh League etc. The conference failed to conclude the issue of the rights
of minorities. The second round of the All Parties Conference was held in March the same
year. Two sub-committees were formed, but the result was not different from the first
session. It was during the third session of the All Parties Conference held at Bombay in May
1928 that a seven members committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru was formed
to determine the essential features of the future constitution of India. Despite many hurdles,
the Nehru Committee completed its task and its report, commonly known as Nehru Report
was presented in the fourth session of the All Parties Conference held in August 1928.
Nehru Report demanded that India should be given Dominion Status with the Parliamentary
form of Government. There should be a bicameral legislature consisting of Senate and House
of Representatives. The Senate will comprise of two hundred members elected for seven
years, while the House of Representatives should consist of five hundred members elected for
five years. Governor-General will act on the advice of executive council. It was to be
collectively responsible to the parliament. There should be a Federal form of Government in
India with Residuary powers to be vested in Centre, Nehru report demanded. There will be no
separate electorate for minorities. It claimed, “Since a separate electorate awakens communal
sentiments, therefore, it should be scrapped, and the joint electorate should be introduced.”
The system of weightage should not be adopted for any province. There will be no reserved
seats for communities in Punjab and Bengal. However, reservation of Muslim seats could be
possible in the provinces where Muslim population should be at least ten percent. Judiciary
should be independent of the Executive. There should be 1/4th Muslim Representation at
Centre. Sind should be separated from Bombay provided it proves to be financially self-
sufficient. Reforms should be introduced in NWFP. The report was not acceptable to
Muslims. In the fourth session of the All Parties Conference convened in December to review
the Nehru Report, Jinnah representing the Muslim League presented four amendments in the
report.
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Jinnah’s 14 Points
In order to counter the proposals made in the Nehru Report, Jinnah presented his proposal in
the form of Fourteen Points, insisting that no scheme for the future constitution of the
government of India will be satisfactory to the Muslims until and unless stipulations were
made to safe guard their interests. The following points were presented by the Quaid to
defend the rights of the Muslims of the sub-continent:
1. The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary powers to be
vested in the provinces.
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the
definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every
province without reducing the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third.
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates:
provided that it shall be open to any community, at any time, to abandon its separate
electorate in favour of joint electorate.
6. Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in anyway
affect the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the NWFP.
7. Full religious liberty, i.e. liberty of belief, worship, and observance, propaganda,
association, and education, shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other
elected body if three fourths of the members of any community in that particular body
oppose such a bill, resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious
to that community or in the alternative, such other method is devised as may be found
feasible practicable to deal with such cases.
9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
10. Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Balochistan on the same footing as in
other provinces.
11. Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along
with the other Indians in all the services of the State and local self-governing bodies,
having due regard to the requirements of efficiency.
12. The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim
culture and the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion and
personal laws and Muslim charitable institutions and their due share in the grants-in-
aid given by the State and by local self-governing bodies.
13. No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should be formed without there being a
proportion of at least one-third Muslim ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the Constitution by the Central Legislature except with
the concurrence of the States constituting the Indian Federation.
Muslim League made it clear that no constitutional solution will be acceptable to them unless
and until it incorporates the fourteen points.
i
https://historypak.com/khilafat-movement-1919-1922/
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Lecture 07 Handouts
India Act 1935 and Lahore Resolution

The Government of India Act 1935
The Round Table Conferences could not achieve their objective and thus failed. However, on
the suggestions of Round Table Conferences white paper was issued in 1933 and efforts were
started to make the constitution of India. A committee was set up under the chairmanship of
Lord Linlithgow, the viceroy of India, to consider the recommendations of the white paper.
The report of the committee was published in 1934 that was contained in a bill of law. The
report along with the bill was passed in the British Parliament. After the Royal assent, the Act
was enforced in the country as Government of India Act 1935.
The Government of India Act 1935 consisted of two parts. One part was central, and the other
part was provincial. The Act proclaimed a bicameral legislature. One house of the Assembly
was called the Indian Legislature Assembly, and the other house of the Assembly was The
Council of State. The Council of State was the upper house that was a permanent body, i.e.,
that it could not be dissolved like the lower house of the Parliament. One-third members of the
upper house had to retire after every three years. The lower house of the Assembly, the Indian
Legislature Assembly, was not an independent body. Governor-General could veto the laws
passed by the Assembly. The legislature had no control over the legislation under this Act. As
regards the Federal Budget it consisted of two parts. One part consisted of a non-votable portion
of the budget that was 80 % of the whole budget. This part of the budget could not be discussed
or amended in the legislature. The other part of the budget that consisted of 20% of the whole
budget could be discussed or amended in the Federal Assembly. The provinces were given
more authority and powers, and for the first time, the provinces were made separate entities.
Under the Act, there were three lists of subjects. One was federal, 2nd was provincial, and the
3rd was a concurrent list. The whole country was divided into 11 provinces. The Governor-
General in the center and the Governors in the provinces were given special rights and
privileges. In case of the emergency situation, both Governor-General and Governors enjoyed
unlimited powers, and their authority could not be challenged in any institution. Under the Act,
a Federal Court was established. The court consisted of Chief Justice and six other judges.
After the age of 65, the judges of the Federal court had to vacant the seat however any judge
of the court could leave his seat before the age of 65. The court could interpret the constitution
and if Governor-General needed any help regarding the constitution matters the court was
bound to give advice but it was totally depended upon him to accept or reject the advice. Under
the Act, the Secretary of State for India enjoyed the same powers that the other ministers
enjoyed under the Act.
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The Act of 1935 failed to win appreciation from various sectors. Both the Muslim League and
the Indian National Congress expressed their dissatisfaction over the Act. Hindu leader Madan
Mohan greatly criticized this Act, and Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru said on the emergency rights
of Governor-General and Governors that this Act was like a machine that had strong brakes
and no engine. Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah termed this scheme thoroughly rotten,
fundamentally wrong and unacceptable.
The General Elections 1936
The Government of India Act of 1935 was practically implemented in 1937. The provincial
elections were held in the winter of 1936-37. There were two major political parties in the Sub-
continent at that time, the Congress, and the Muslim League. Both parties did their best to
persuade the masses before these elections and put before them their manifestos. The political
manifestos of both parties were almost identical, although there were two significant
differences. Congress stood for the joint electorate and the League for separate electorates;
Congress wanted Hindi as official language with Devanagari script of writing while the League
wanted Urdu with Persian script.
According to the results of the elections, Congress, as the oldest, most vibrant and best-
organized political party, emerged as the single largest representative in the Legislative
Assemblies. It failed to secure even 40 percent of the total number of seats. The Congress rule
was oppressive towards the minorities especially Muslims. They started the ‘Muslim Mass
Contact’ movement to defame the ML in their favor. They were making cultural and
educational policies that promoted the Hindu culture and symbols in the name of Indian culture.
They introduced Bande-Mataram anthem in the institutions and offices etc. The Hindi language
was given first importance in their policies. Wardha Educational Scheme was to convert
Muslims into Hindus through primary educational literature Projection of Hindu heroes like
Gandhi and distortion of Muslim history became their moral creed. They followed the policy
of discrimination in services or new recruitment for jobs. The Congress ministries adopted
overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the Muslim activists. This unjust
treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere of life.
The Muslims were well aware of the theocratic inclination of the Hindu people. They arranged
close monitoring of the government. They publicized their policies and raised the issues. The
mobilization of Muslims on these matters required a keen probe to collect the original facts of
the Hindu atrocities. The Muslim League highlighted the problems and mobilized the Muslims
to counter them adequately. It reorganized the Muslim community to cope with the situation.
The Muslim leaders shed a sharp criticism on the Congress policies. They protested against the
reduction of the status of Urdu and other Muslim related issues. They created realization,
amongst the Muslims, of what can happen under the Congress rule and urged for serious
thinking about the future political and constitutional arrangements. They unearthed the real
objectives of the Congress and urged the need for unity among the Muslims under the banner
of the Muslim League.
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The Congress rule was oppressive towards the minorities especially Muslims. Congress
resigned in October and November 1939, in protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow's action
of declaring India to be a belligerent in the Second World War without consulting the Indian
people.
The Lahore Resolution
With the clarity of mind and backing of the Muslim community behind him, Quaid-i-Azam
called for the 27th annual session of All India Muslim League to be held from March 22 to 24,
1940 at Lahore. The Lahore Resolution of 1940 is a significant document. It’s a document of
primary importance in the history of Pakistan. The resolution signified a change of direction
of the Muslim Movement. It identified a new destination; it was a change of strategy.
Previously, the talks were for Federalism, provincial autonomy, constitutional safeguards, and
guarantees. In Lahore Resolution Muslim League officially talked about separatism, a separate
state or the partition of India. This was something which they thought was needed for achieving
the primary goal and that was the protection and promotion of Muslim identity and Muslim
interests in the Indo-Pak Sub Continent.
Hindu Reaction towards Lahore Resolution
The Hindu reaction was, of course, quick, bitter and malicious. They called the “Pakistan”
demand “anti-national.” They characterized it as “vivisection; above all, they denounced it as
imperialist – inspired to obstruct India’s march to freedom.” In denouncing the demand
outright, they, however, missed the central fact of the Indian political situation; the
astonishingly tremendous response of the Pakistan demand had elicited from the Muslim
masses.
The British Reaction towards Lahore Resolution
The British were equally hostile to the Muslim demands for at least two critical reasons. First,
they had long considered themselves as the architects of the unity of India and an Indian nation.
Second, they had long regarded the super-imposed unity under Pax Britannica as their most
significant achievement and lasting contribution in history. The Pakistan demand threatened
to undo these presumed achievements on which the British had long prided.
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Lecture 08 Handouts
Historical Events 1940-1947
Cripps Mission
Causes of Cripps Mission: Japan Attack
Japan had already attacked Pearl Harbour on 7th December 1941 and the American Naval
Base and destroyed it. It had taken over Philippines, Malaysia and come to the borders of
Assam. Japan could easily attack India. To check the situation, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member
of the war cabinet, was sent to India in March 1942 to get India’s cooperation to fight the
war.
Cripps Proposal
The main proposals of the mission were
• Give India dominion status after war like that enjoyed by Canada and Australia.
• Promise of the formation of a constituent assembly to finalize the constitution.
• Princely states to be free to join India or remain independent.
• Provinces could decide to be separate from India and frame their own constitution.
• Till further notice, the defense would be handled by the British government.
Rejection Cripps Proposal

The Cripps proposal failed to satisfy the parties. The main objections were
➢ Division of the nation
• The proposal put up the point of division of India into several independent
states which was against its unity.
➢ No time limit for the dominion status
• British did not declare when the dominion status would be given. The
declaration was vague.
➢ Representatives of princely states nominated
• The people of the Princely States were denied the right to elect a
representative of their own. They would be nominated by the rulers of those
states.
• Gandhiji criticized Cripps Proposal as ‘postdated cheque on a failing bank’.
The Muslim League reject the Cripps Proposal as it did not clearly state the
decision of partition and the formation of a Muslim State.
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Causes of the Quit India Movement 1942
➢ Failure of Cripps mission

The dominion status promised by Cripps was rejected by both Congress and Muslim
League. Now there was no other option left but to go for something stronger.
➢ Communal flare up in India

Muslim League’s declaration of Pakistan in 1940 had spread communal disharmony
between the Muslims and Hindus. The British were deliberately playing up the Muslim
community which was smoldering as the Muslims disliked the idea of a Hindu majority
party headed by the Congress. Their minority disliked being ruled over by a Hindu
majority party.
➢ Japanese threat
The Japanese had come up to Burma. They would attack India anytime till the time it was
under British occupation. It would be better if India was independent before the Japanese
decided to attack India. British would not be able to stop the Japanese from attacking
India. This would be the best time to strike for total independence.
Quit India Movement 1942

Impact of the Quit India Movement 1942
➢ Mass movement
With large number of people participating in it coming from all sections and backgrounds
made it the biggest mass movement after 1930. The people’s reaction demanding British
withdrawal from India was astounding.
➢ British made to feel unwelcome

British felt unwelcome and unwanted due to this mass uprising. The participation was
breath taking with even some the princely states joining on board the movement.
➢ British repression
British used severe repression measures by lathi charging, jailing and shooting down
people to no avail. The rising tide of people protesting could not be checked despite
brutal repression.
➢ Second rung leadership

With the arrest of the leaders like Gandhi and Nehru, there appeared a second rung
leadership in the underground with leaders, who led from the front, like Ram Manohar
Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, Jaiprakash Narayan, Achyutrao Patwardhan and Nana Patil. They
kept on the fight alive against the British setting up parallel government in the states like
UP, Maharashtra, West Bengal.
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Muslim League Response to Quit India

• Muslim did not blindly plunge into the “Quit India”
• Jinnah asked for “Divide and Quit India”
Simla Conference
The Viceroy, Lord Wavell, to have a dialogue with the major political parties in 1945, called
Simla Conference. The following politicians were invited to participate in the Conference at
Simla, a summer resort, and capital of the Federal government in the summer season.
Congress: Pandit Nehru, Baldev Singh and Azad
Muslim League: Quaid-e-Azam, Liaquat Ali Khan and Abdu Rub Nishter
Chief Ministers: All provinces
Unionist and other parties’ representatives
Wavell Plan
• In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, went to London and discussed his
ideas about the future of India with the British administration.
• To discuss these proposals with the leadership of major Indian parties, Wavell called
for a conference at Simla on June 25, 1945.
• In May 1945, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, went to London and discussed his
ideas about the future of India with the British administration.
• To discuss these proposals with the leadership of major Indian parties, Wavell called
for a conference at Simla on June 25, 1945.
• If all the Indian political parties would help the British in the war then the British
Government would introduce Constitutional Reforms in India after the war.
• Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted,and the number of
its members would be increased.
• In that Council there would be equal representation of high class Hindus and the
Muslims.
• Other minorities including low-caste Hindus, Shudders and Sikhs would be given
representation in the Council.
• All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief
would be Indians.
• An Indian would be appointed as the member of Foreign Affairs in the Council.
However, a British Commissioner would be appointed to look after the matters
relating to the trade.
• Defense of India was to be in the hands of a British authority till Power was
transferred to the Indian hands
• Viceroy would convene a meeting of the Indian politician including the leaders of
Congress and the Muslim League so that they could nominate the names of the
members of the new Council.
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• If this plan is approved for the Central Government, then same type of popular
ministries comprising of the political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.
• None of the changes suggested will in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential
form of the future permanent Constitution of India
• Leaders of both the Congress and the Muslim League attended the conference, which
is known as the Simla Conference.
• Differences between the leadership of the two parties on the issue of representation of
the Muslim community. The Muslim League claimed that it was the only
representative party of the Muslims in India.
• Congress, which had sent Maulana Azad as the leader of their delegation, tried to
prove that it represented all the communities living in India.
Failure of the Conference

The conference had to decide the political infrastructure, the formation of assemblies and
governments at central as well as provincial level. The move was encouraging for Congress.
What so ever was the situation, the Congress was going to form the government by its
majority. Congress joined the conference proceedings with high hopes. It had also declared
before holding a conference that it would not accept partition in any case.
The meeting started to discuss the first point on the agenda. The point related to the
nomination of five Muslim ministers of the Viceroy'sExecutive Council. The Quaid-e-Azam
vehemently argued that all the five would be nominatedon the recommendations of All India
Muslim League. No other party had a right to send even a sin member. The Viceroy and
Indian National Congress wished to nominate Maulana Azad as, Muslim minister. The Quaid
did not agree to this proposal. Now Victoryasked the Quaid to accept Malik Khizar Hayat
Tiwana, the leader of Unionist party. The Quaid-e-Azam rejected this name as well and
insisted that all the five ministries should be given to All India Muslim League. The very first
point created a fuss and further discussion was futile, therefore, the Simla Conference failed
in getting any objective.
General Election 1945-46
• The deadlock made Wavell to announce the failure of his efforts on July 14.
• No hopes to proceed further.
• Provincial and General Elections [1945-46].
• With the failure of the Simla Conference, Lord Wavell announced that the Central and
Provincial Legislature elections would be held in the winter of 1945, after which a
constitution-making body would be set up.
• He also announced that after the elections, the Viceroy would set up an Executive
Council that would have the support of the main Indian political parties. Both the
Muslim League and the Congress opposed the proposal.
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• Quaid-i-Azam declared that Muslims were not ready to accept any settlement less
than a separate homeland.
• The elections were held in two stages. In December 1945, the central legislative
assembly was elected, and provincial elections were held in early 1946.
• Congress won a total of 930 seats, gaining an absolute majority in eight provinces.
• The Muslim League captured 428 out of the possible 492 Muslim seats.
• The elections of 1945-1946 proved that Muslim League (ML) alone represented the
Muslims of India. The sweeping majority of ML increased Congress hostility towards
the ML.
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946

The results of the general elections held in 1945-46 served to underline the urgency to find a
solution to the political deadlock which was the result of non-cooperation between the two
major parties. To end this, the British government sent a special mission of cabinet ministers
to India. Members of the mission were Lord Pethic Lawrence, the Secretary of State for
India, Sir Stafford Cripps, President of the Board of Trade, and A. V. Alexander, the First
Lord of the Admiralty.
The purpose of the mission was:

• It was to devise a machinery to draw up the constitution of independent India.
• Setting up of a constitution body.
• Thus, the mission was like a declaration of the independence of India.
• The cabinet plan proposed that there shall be a Union of India which was to be
empowered to deal with the defense, foreign affairs and communication.
• It recommended an undivided India and turned down the ML’s demand for a separate
state.
• It restricted the Communal representation and provided that all the members of the
Interim cabinet would be Indians and there would be minimum interference by the
Viceroy.
• It also provided for formation of constituent assembly on democratic principle of

population.
• It recognized Indian right to cede from the Commonwealth.
• The Union government and its legislatures were to have limited powers, dealing with
Defense, Foreign Affairs, and Communications. The Union would have powers
necessary to raise finances to manage subjects. Thus, the mission proposed a weak
center.
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• All the subjects other than the Union subjects and all the residuary powers would be
vested in the provinces.
• The princely states would retain all the subjects and all residuary powers
• A constituent assembly would consist of 389 members to draft the constitution out of
whom 292 would be from provinces. Out of these 292, 93 members would be from
Princely States.
• India would be divided into three groups.
• Group “A” was to consist of Bihar, Bombay, U.P. Madras, Orissa and C.P.
• Group “B” comprised of Punjab, Sindh, NWFP and British Baluchistan.
• While group “C “included Asam and Bengal. These groups were given the authority
to frame their constitution jointly with the other provinces of their respective groups
• Meanwhile Jawaharlal Nehru, addressing a press conference on July 10, said that the
Congress had agreed to join the constituent assembly, but saying it would be free to
make changes in the Cabinet Mission Plan.
• Under these circumstances, the Muslim League disassociated itself from the Cabinet
Plan and resorted to “Direct Action” to achieve Pakistan. As a result, Viceroy Wavell
invited the Congress to join the interim government, although it had practically
rejected the plan.
• However, the Viceroy soon realized the ineffectiveness of the scheme without the
participation of the League. Therefore, on October 14, 1946, he extended an invitation
to them as well.
• On March 22, 1947, Lord Mountbatten arrived as the last Viceroy. It was announced
that power would be transferred from British to Indian hands by June 1948.
Towards Partition
• Lord Mountbatten entered into a series of talks with the Congress and the Muslim
League leaders.
• Quaid-e-Azam made it clear that the demand for Pakistan had the support of all the
Muslims of India and that he could not withdraw from it.
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3rd June 1947 Plan

• When all of Mountbatten’s efforts to keep India united failed, he asked to chalk out a
plan for the transfer of power and the division of the country. It was decided that none
of the Indian parties would view it before the plan was finalized.
• The plan was finalized in the Governor’s Conference in April 1947, and was then sent
to Britain in May where the British Government approved it.
• The plan was made public on June 3 and is thus known as the June 3rd Plan.
• It was comprised of the following points on the basis of which Britain, after dividing
it, was to quit India:
o Two separate states will be established in India.
o The present constitution assembly will to act but its constitution will not be
applicable on the areas which will not accept it.
o The power will be transferred the same year (1947) to the representatives of
India.
o The Muslim majority areas and the Hindu majority distinct of Bengal and
Punjab will decide in separate meeting to accept or not to accept the division
of the provinces. If anyone of the two groups will opt division, the province
will be divided.
o The Muslim majority areas which will not opt to join present constituent
assembly, will create their separate constituent assembly.
Radcliffe Award/ Boundary Commissions

• It was provided in the June 3 plan that as soon as the legislatures of Punjab and
Bengal decided in favor of partition, a boundary commission should be set up to
demarcate the boundaries.
• The legislatures of Bengal and Punjab voted in favor of partition. Boundary
commissions were set up for Punjab and Bengal under the chairmanship of Sir
Radcliffe. Each commission was to consist of an equal number of representatives of
India and Pakistan and one or more impartial members.
• The final award was announced on 17thAugust 1947. The Radcliffe Award was unfair
to Pakistan because it awarded many Muslim majority areas in Punjab and Bengal to
India. Calcutta was given to India.
• Muslim majority tehsils of Gurdaspur and Batalawere given to India along with
Pathankot tehsil. The Muslim majority tehsil Ajnalain in Amritsar district was also
handed over to India.
• In Jullundur district the Muslim majority areas in Ferozpur district were also given to
India. All of these areas were attached to western Punjab.
• This unfair award resulted in India's occupation of Kashmir and snatching from
Pakistan important head works and giving them to India.
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Lecture 09 Handouts
Land and People of Pakistan

The Muslim World1
The Muslim world is vast and immense mass of land. It spreads from West Africa to Southern
Philippines to Pacific. Its northern limit touches the Volga in Russia while southern frontiers
touch Mozambique in southeast Africa on the Indian Ocean. In China, in addition to Sinkiang,
Muslims are in substantial numbers, in the provinces bordering Burma and in districts around
Peking. The total population of the Muslim world is around one billion.
Geography
Geography is the study of man's natural environment and how it influences his social and
cultural development. Geography concerning the territorial boundary of a state covers the study
of the region, mountain, desert, sea, plain and rivers.
The Geography of Pakistan is a profound blend of landscapes varying from plains to deserts,
forests, hills, and plateaus ranging from the coastal areas of the Arabian Sea in the south to the
mountains of the Karakoram Range in the north. There are green mountains and dry mountains,
land rich for cultivating, and waterfalls.
Regions2
Pakistan is comprised of four provinces, i.e. Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK,
Former N.W.F.P), and Baluchistan. Moreover, Kashmir (Disputed territory) Federally
Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Gilgit-Baltistan are also part of Pakistan.
Pakistan is the 36th largest nation by total area. It is bordered by Afghanistan, Iran, India, and
China. Pakistan is also very close to Tajikistan, separated by the Wakhan Corridor. Pakistan is
strategically located between the regions of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East.
This prime location – combined with varied natural resources, diverse geography, and exciting
environment – makes Pakistan a unique country.
Also, Pakistan is one of the few countries in the world to have every kind of geological
structure. The geography of Pakistan is a blend of landscapes such as plains, deserts, forests,
hills, and plateaus. There are coastal areas along the Arabian Sea and mountains of the
Karakoram Range in the northern part of Pakistan. Moreover, there are green as well as dry
1
www.pakhistory.com
2
www.insider.pk
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mountains in Pakistan. It has also got a vast tract of land rich for cultivating, and abundant
waterfalls.
Mountains3
There are four mountain ranges in Pakistan namely, Himalaya, Karakorum, Hindukush and
Sul-e-man Range. Due to their very high altitudes and sub-zero temperatures, these
mountainous regions are also one of the most heavily glaciated parts of the world outside the
Polar Regions. It consists of numerous ice glaciers including the world second and third longest
glaciers, i.e., the Siachen Glacier (70 km) and the Biafo Glacier (63 km).
Himalayan Range:4
The Western Himalayan Range is situated in Kashmir valley and Northern Pakistan to the south
and east of Indus river and is Dominated by Nanga Parbat, Pakistan’s 2nd and world’s 9th
highest, is considered as one of the most difficult and dangerous to climb, nick named as Killer
Mountain. In local language it is called “deo mir”. It is situated in Gilgit-Baltistan.
Karakoram Range:
Karakoram means black stone. It is believed to be the north western extension of the greater
Himalayan range, covering the borders between Pakistan, India and China, in the regions of
Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), Ladakh (India), and Xinjiang region, (China). The range is about
500 km (311 mile) in length.
Hindu Kush:
The Hindu Kush is an 800 km long mountain range that stretches between central Afghanistan
and northern Pakistan. The highest point in the Hindu Kush is Tirich Mir (7,708 m or 25,289 ft.)
in Chitral district of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The mountain range separates Central Asia from
South Asia. Numerous high passes (“kotal”) transect the mountains, forming a strategically
important network for the transit of caravans. The most important mountain pass is the Salang
Pass, Tangi Gharu and Khyber Pass Chitral is considered to be the pinnacle of the Hindu Kush
region. High peaks, as well as countless passes and massive glaciers, are located in this region.
Suleiman Range:
Pakistan's forth major mountain range is the Suleiman range. It emerges in the south western
region of the country, mostly covering Baluchistan Province. However, the mountain range is
quite different in character from the northern mountains as it is less precipitous, extremely
steep, and with medium elevations. The highest peak is Takht-i-Suleiman rising 3,487 meters
above sea level.
3
www.pakistantoursguide.pk
4
https://www.slideshare.net/AyeshaShoukat99/mountains-in-pakistan
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Office of Hybrid Learning
Lecture 10 Handouts
Topography of Pakistan
Topography is the study and description of the natural and man-made physical features of an
area, for example its mountain ranges, deserts, rivers and dams; or it is the representation of
these features on maps. The topography of Pakistan is discussed below.
Mountain Ranges
There are four mountain ranges in Pakistan.
Karakoram Range
The Karakoram range covers the boarders between Pakistan, India and China in the region of
Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan), Ladakh (India) and Xinjiang region (China). The range is about 500
KM (311 miles) in length.
Himalayan Range
The Western Himalayan range is situated in Kashmir valley dominated by Nanga Parbat,
Pakistan 2nd and world’s 9th highest mountain range. It is considered as one of the most
dangerous mountains to climb, nick name as “Killer Mountain”, in local language it’s called
“Des Mir”. It is situated in Gilgit-Baltistan.
Hindu Kush Range
The height of Hindu Kush Mountain is an 800 km long mountain range that stretches between
central Afghanistan and northern part of Pakistan. It comes to Pakistan and connects with rest of
the two ranges: Himalaya and Karakoram. The highest point in the Hindu Kush is Tirch Mir and
its height is 7,708 meters or 25,289 ft high which is located at Chitral district of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. This mountain range separates Central Asia from South Asia.
There are numerous high passes in Hindu Kush and normally these passes are known as Kotal,
forming a strategically important network for the transit of caravans. The most important
mountain pass is the Salang Pass. Some of other passes are Tangi Ghoru and Khyber Pass.
Whereas Chitral is considered to be the pinnacle of Hindu Kush region. High peaks as well as
countless passes and massive glaciers are in this region.

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Sulaiman Range
Pakistan’s fourth major mountain range is the Sulaiman range which is situated in Balochistan. It
emerges in the south western region of the country mostly covering Balochistan province.
However, the mountain range is quite different from the Northern Mountains as it is less
precipitous, extremely steep and with medium elevations. The highest peak is Takht-i-Sulaiman
rising 3,487 meters above sea level. The topography of Sulaiman range is quite different from
rest of the mountains situated in Pakistan as they are quite dry and cold at sometimes.
Deserts
There are four major deserts situated in Pakistan.
Thal Desert
Thal desert is situated in Punjab, Pakistan. It is a vast area mainly between the Jhelum and Sindh
rivers. Its total length from north to south is 190 miles, and its maximum breadth is 70 miles
(110 km) while minimum breadth is 20 miles. This region is divided into the districts of
Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Jhang, Layyah, and Muzaffargarh.
Thar Desert
The Thar Desert is the largest among all and mostly falls under the territory of Sindh province,
extending eastwards from irrigated plains on the left bank of River Indus towards the Indian
states of Rajhistan and Gujrat, constituting the largest desert in South Asia, also known as the
Great Indian Desert. The approximate area of Greater Thar Desert in total is around 200,000
square km, of which around 50,000 square km falls in the Pakistani territories, covering the
districts of Tharparker, Mirpur Khas, Umerkot, Khairpur, Sukkar and Ghotki in Sindh Province.
Cholistan Desert
The Cholistan desert is locally known as Rohi, with an estimated area of 26,000 square km
covering the districts of Bahawalpur, Rahimyar Khan and Bahawalnagar.
Towards the eastern flanks, Cholistan extends into the Indian states of Rajhistan and Punjab
which joins the greatest Thar Desert while on North Western front it is bordered by the irrigated
plains of Indus and Sutlaj rivers. The total estimated population living in these desert districts is
around 7.5 million (1998 census).
Kharan Desert
The Kharan desert is situated in the western region of Balochistan province of Pakistan. Overall,
all of Balochistan plateau is characterized by extreme weather conditions and are also very
barren terrain. However, Kharan desert can be separated from the rest of the arid landscape due
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to its sandy nature and more even terrain. It mostly falls in the Kharan District covering an
estimate area of more than 20,000 square km with a population of only 0.23 million.
Sea
The coastal area of Pakistan is in the province of Sindh and Balochistan. The coastline of
Pakistan is Balochistan coastline which is 771 Km and rest of the 250 km coastline is in Sindh.
These coastlines of Pakistani areas are on the share of Arabian Sea and they connect Pakistan
with other countries like Middle East of the world through a sea route.
Gawadar and Karachi are two prominent ports on these coastal areas of Pakistan. Famous ports
of Pakistan are Gawadar, Pasani, Ormaro, Jiwani which serve as an engine of economic growth
of Pakistan.
Plains
Plain areas are also known as flat or lowlands. In Pakistan, plains are found in Sindh and Punjab.
Plains are fertile lands which favour agriculture. Most of the cultivation is carried out in the
plains of Sindh and Punjab. If Pakistan wants to ensure its food security in the future, it should
work for the betterment of these plain areas. Pakistan is an agrarian country, and for productive
agriculture, water is of utmost importance.
Rivers
The principal rivers of Pakistan are
❖ Chenab River
❖ Indus River
❖ Jhelum River
❖ Ravi River
❖ Kabul River
❖ Sutlej River
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Chenab River
The Chenab River is one of the major rivers of Pakistan. It originates in the Himachal Pradesh-
India and flows through the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir into the plains of the Punjab,
Pakistan.
Indus River
Indus River is one of the longest rivers in the world. Originates from the glacial Tibetan
mountains, the Indus gushes into Pakistan with all its might and fright from the northern areas. It
then runs through Jammu and Kashmir, enters the Gilgit-Baltistan (formerly Northern Areas of
Pakistan) region and flows through the entire length of the country and merges with the Arabian
Sea.
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej
Besides Indus, four other rivers also enter Pakistan from the neighboring India, namely the
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej and all empty into the Indus to add to its might and power. The
place where all these four rivers meet the Indus is known as PanjNadh.
In KPK it is called as Abaseen; Aba means father and seen means river. Thus, Abaseen means
the father of rivers.
Jhelum River, originates from India, enters Pakistan Jhelum district. The Jhelum was crossed in
326 B.C. by Alexander the Great, who defeated the Indian king Porous. The river's ancient name
was Hydaspes. This river is a tributary of the Indus River, and its hydrology is basically handled
by snowmelt in the spring and the Indian monsoon. Strategically very important, any
construction of dam by India can affect Pakistan.
The Ravi is a trans-boundary river flowing through Northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is
one of the six rivers of the Indus System in Punjab region.
Sutlej, originates from India, enters Punjab, tributary of Indus River. The hydrology of the Sutlej
is controlled by spring and summer snowmelt in the Himalayas and by the South Asian
monsoon.
Dams
Dams are built by people to store water. Dams are built where there is a lake which has
mountains on two sides and then spillwaysare constructed in the area where there is no natural
barrier. The glaciers (smaller moving mass of snow) melt and the water is collected in the dams.
When there is a need the spillways are opened, and the water is supplied to the rivers. Pakistan
has two most massive dams, i.e. Mangla dam built in 1967 and Tarbela dam built in 1976.
Attahbad lake which was created naturally by the earthquake of 2010, it can be called the natural
dam, just spillways need to be constructed on one side, so the stored water can be used.
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Other than dams, we have barrages constructed in lowlands to guide the water for irrigation.
Kotri Barrage (1955, Hyderabad) and Taunsa Barrage (1958, Dera Ghazi Khan) can be stated as
examples.
Kalabagh Dam
Kalabagh dam has been proposed to be built on the Indus River in Mianwali, an area bordering
KPK. This dam could not materialise till date because national consensus is missing. KP
government says that the lake of the dam will reach till Noshwera and this will destroy the
agricultural land. On the other hand, the Sindh government says that if this dam is built, the
chances are that Sindh will not get an adequate share of water from it. Unfortunately, the Federal
Government has failed to develop a consensus on the construction of this dam.
Diamer Bhasha dam also has issues of Royalty. KPK will get that Royalty and Northern areas
will get affected by it and government is unable to resolve these issues.
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Lecture 11 Handouts
Current Environmental Issues, Agriculture Sector

and Industrial Sector
Climate and Weather of Pakistan

There is a difference between climate and weather. Climate is the record of the weather of an
area over the period of 30 years while the weather is the day-to-day changes in the
temperature, rainfall, humidity and sunshine hours. Climate influences the lifestyle, economic
activities and temperament of people to great extent. Pakistan has a diversity of climate due
to difference in physical landscapes. Following is the climate division of Pakistan.
➢ Highlands
There are northern mountains, which have the extremely cold climate, and there are other
lower mountains found in KPK and Balochistan, which do not experience extreme cold
climate. It has severely cold winters and to warm summers characterized the climate in
northern and northwestern areas of highland zone. During winters, the temperature reaches to
freezing point. Like now in winters northern and western areas of Pakistan are experiencing
severe coldness. It has temperature ranging between -2 to -10 and in summers temperature
ranges between 15-20 Celsius. 1
➢ Lowlands
It consists of upper Indus plain and Lower Indus plain. The land usually is low lying and near
to the river. It is divided in Punjab and Sindh. It has long summers and mild to cool winters
and in summer temperature ranges between 30-40 Celsius.
➢ Coastal Areas
Coastal zone is divided in two parts; the Makran coast and Karachi coast. Karachi coast
climate is very moderate because of the influence of sea. Trade takes place throughout the
year because sea does not freeze. Makran coast climate is dry and hot.
➢ Arid
The deserts of Pakistan, which have hot summers with minimum rainfall and mild winter are
included in arid zone. This zone occurs in two parts: the southeastern deserts and
Kharan desert. There is Karez system (underground water canals) commonly practiced
irrigating the agriculture field.
Current Environmental Issues

Pakistan is facing many environmental challenges, which pose serious threats to human
health and life. First, climate change is a non-traditional threat for Pakistan. Pakistan has been
declared among top ten countries most affected by climate change. Climate change is

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negatively affecting health, agriculture and overall economy of the country. The main reasons
are carbon emission, deforestation, population explosion and lack of finances to mitigate and
adapt to climate change effects. 2
➢ Water Scarcity
Water scarcity and clean drinking water is the talk of the town these days. Pakistan is a water
scarce country. The main causes are climate change, lack of enough reservoirs to store water,
water issues with India, and old irrigation system and water wastages in domestic
consumption and lack of awareness. Air pollution, poor waste management and population
bomb are major hurdles behind the availability of clean drinking water for everyone in
Pakistan.
➢ Deforestation
Similarly, one of the biggest issues is the increasing deforestation in the country. Pakistan
could not achieve the UN’s set target of 25 percent of forest cover on its total area, besides
two plantations drives annually. The reason behind deforestation is energy crises, commercial
benefits and domestic use. Though certain plans have been launched to increase forest cover,
which includes Green Pakistan Program, Billion Tree Tsunami and REDD Plus, but it will
take some years for these plants to grow and replace already cut big trees.
➢ Air Pollution
Another important issue that is devastating for our environment is air pollution. The release
of toxic gases from factories, brick kilns and carbon emission from transport vehicles are
main reasons for day-by-day air pollution. Pakistan has all the environmental laws, but the
government and citizens lack the will to implement and follow those laws completely. This
also undermines the superiority of laws. The Pakistani nation needs to adopt trend of using
public transport in daily life. Another reason for air pollution is increasing deforestation in
the country. The air pollution causes respiratory diseases and skin and eye infections as well.
➢ Water Pollution
Water pollution is another dangerous factor that is causing of environmental problems not
only for Pakistan but also for other countries. Water is need of every living thing on the earth
in other words it is not possible to live without water. Most of Pakistani people are compelled
to drink the polluted water and this water is causing deaths of people and causes seriously
dangerous diseases. The sewerage system in Pakistan is substandard due to this the sewerage
water is mixed with drinking water and people drink this water. 3
➢ Population Explosion
The population of Pakistan is increasing rapidly with the passage of time. If the population of
Pakistan was one million at the time of independence most probably it would be around 300
million at the end of 21 century, which will be more than American population. Floods will
be common that would be harmful for Pakistan moreover the first surface of earth would be
flown with flood and land will be barren and water under the earth will be polluted. Pakistan
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has limited sources but still it has to resolve the pollution or environmental problems at
priority bases.
➢ Solutions of Environmental Problems in Pakistan

The people and as well as the government of Pakistan will has to take some serious interests
to control the environmental problems in Pakistan for living better and healthy lives. The
government should take responsibility of making environment good for its people by making
such laws that prohibited the environmental problems and pollutions. Print media and as well
as electronic media of Pakistan should create awareness among the people about harms of
environmental problems.
➢ Natural Hazards
Natural hazards also fall into the environmental problems of Pakistan. These mainly include
the following.
• Frequent Earthquakes
Active faults and their resultant earthquakes in northern Pakistan and adjacent parts of India and
Afghanistan are the direct result of convergence between the South Asian and Eurasia plates. This
collision causes an uplift that produces the highest mountain peaks in the world like the
Himalayas, the Karakoram, the Pamir and the Hindu Kush ranges. The May 30, 1935, 7.6
magnitude Quetta earthquake, which occurred in the Suleiman Range in Pakistan, killed between
30,000 and 60,000 people. The country is still rocked by the rather disastrous earthquake.
The last calamitous earthquake in the same region was on October 8, 2005. About 80,000
people died and 3.5 million people were rendered homeless.
• Flooding
Pakistan raised serious concerns over the increased frequency of massive floods and urged
the government to reduce the impacts of environmental hazards through better management
of floodplains. Encroachments on floodplains for agricultural purposes and housing
settlements are regarded as the main reasons for the increasing devastation caused by heavy
rains and floods.
Agriculture Sector of Pakistan

The agriculture sector is the backbone of our economy. However, the growth of agriculture in
Pakistan is facing many problems. Due to various causes, per acre yield is very low in
Pakistan as compare to other developed countries.
➢ Problems of Agriculture Sector

Problems of the agriculture sector are categorized into techno-economic problems, natural
problems, socio-economic problems and financial problems. Each one is discussed in detail
below.
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➢ Techno-Economic Problems
• Limited Cultivable Area

The total area of Pakistan is about 79.6 million hectares, out of which only 23.7 million
hectares (28%) area is used for agricultural purposes. About 8 million hectares area is idle
and un-utilized. There are vast sub-division and fragmentation of land holdings, as a result,
modern technology cannot be applied in the agriculture sector.
• Water Logging and Salinity
Water logging and salinity are twin problems of the agriculture sector. Due to salinity,
deposits of salt have appeared on the surface of land and they have adversely affected the
performance of the agriculture sector. Water logging and salinity affect about 0.10 million
acres of land every year. It is not only a waste of land but also a reduction in productivity.
• Slow Growth of Allied Products
Allied products refer to those productions, which are not agricultural but indirectly, help the
farmer to improve his living standard. Pakistan is insufficient in the production of fruits,
milk, poultry, fisheries, livestock, and forestry. As a result, not only our food quality is poor
but also industries such as furniture, textiles, and dairy cannot be developed.
• Low per Hectare Yield
The most important problem of agriculture is its low yield per hectare for almost every major
crop. 45.0% of the labor force is engaged in this sector in Pakistan while it is less than 5% in
developed countries. However, other countries of the world are getting a higher yield per
hectare due to the use of modern technology and trained labor.
• Inadequate Infrastructure
Rural infrastructure like roads, storage facilities, transport, electricity, education, sanitation,
and health facilities etc. is inadequate to meet the requirement of growth of agriculture. The
total length of farm-to-market road is not only shorter but their condition is also poor. Many
villages have no metal-led road at all. Electricity is available to only 3/4 rural populations.
• Uneconomic Land Holdings
Due to increasing population and division of land under the law of inheritance, landholdings
are subdivided repeatedly. The result is that a very large number of farmers have less than 2
hectares of area. Moreover, holdings are scattered. It is difficult to use modern machinery on
small pieces of land.
• Old Methods of Production
No doubt, mechanization of agriculture is increasing in Pakistan, but in most of the areas, the
old implements are still being used for agricultural production. Old and orthodox techniques
of production cannot increase the production according to international levels.
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• Inadequate Supply of Agricultural Inputs

The supply of modern inputs like high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, mechanized machinery etc. is not only costly but also inadequate and irregular in
Pakistan. Numbers of fertilizer producing units are just 10 in Pakistan.
• Lack of Irrigation Facilities
Shortage of irrigation facilities causes a serious limitation in the expansion of crop area in
Pakistan. The lower water supplies lose from watercourse in the fields is the serious problems
of the farm sector. Actual surface water availability is 91.8 million acre-feet.
• Inadequate Agricultural Research
The average crop yield in Pakistan is very low as compared to the production levels of the
advanced countries of the world. In order to raise the potential of agricultural production,
there should be continuous improvement in the research for agricultural growth. Total
agricultural universities and colleges are only 16 in Pakistan.
• The Problem of Land Reforms
Land reforms have been implemented against the will of people. There is an urgent need to
conduct a proper land reform for improving agricultural growth. Due to this problem,
agricultural production cannot increase to the desired level.
• Defective Land Tenure System
Defective land tenure system is also responsible for low yield per acre in the agriculture
sector. Property owners and feudal-lords live in posh urban areas while tenants and peasants
have no or less incentive for their hard work. So, the productivity in the agriculture sector
remains low.
• Subsistence Farming
Our farmer is attached with subsistence farming; a huge portion of production is consumed at
a farmer's own house to support a large family. Hence, less portion of the production is
available for market supply. It causes low income of the farmers. Farming is not conducted at
the commercial level in Pakistan.
• Low Cropping Intensity
Cropping intensity means the number of crops grown on a piece of land in one year. At the
present stage of our development, there is a low level of cropping intensity as compared to
advanced countries. The cultivable area under double or multiple cropping is inadequate in
Pakistan.
• Improper Crop Rotation
Proper turning round of crops is essential to re-establish the fertility of the land. The constant
cultivation of one crop or two; exhausts the fertility of the soil. Proper rotation of crops is
necessary in order to restore the fertility.
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➢ Natural Problems
• Various Plant Diseases
Various agricultural crops like cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, wheat, and rice often come under
attack of pests and insects. Pests and plant diseases reduce the annual productivity of
agriculture.
• Natural Calamities
Labor is in the hand of human-kind, but its result is in the hands of ALLAH in the agriculture
sector. Therefore, the growth of agriculture is dominated by nature. In case if there is too
much rain, reduction in the productivity. There is a 20% reduction in productivity due to
unnecessary rain and unfavorable climatic situations in Pakistan.
• The Scarcity of HYV Seeds
Our poor farmers have to use lower quality seeds due to non-availability of High Yielding
Variety (HYV) seeds. On the other hand, if the seed is available they cannot be purchased
due to low income. Agricultural production is badly affected because of the inferior quality of
seeds.
• Under Utilization of Land
Most of the poor population is attached to the agriculture sector in Pakistan. They are using
orthodox and traditional means of cultivation. Our farmer is not interested to use the
advanced and modern means of farming, as a result, the area under cultivation remains under-
utilized, un-utilized or mis-utilized.
➢ Socio-Economic Problems
• Consumption Oriented
Our farmers have no proper records of their incomes and expenses. Mostly, they spend more
when they have more due to illiteracy. A huge part of the farmer's income is consumed on
occasions of marriage, birth, death and several other rural ceremonies and festivals in
Pakistan.
• Farmer's Litigation
There are frequent and continuous litigations among the farmers directly or indirectly. They
are often seen in courts, police stations, irrigation offices, revenue boards, and other official
problems. Due to the mentioned problems, our farmer cannot devote his time, energy,
efficiency and labor to agricultural productions.
• Joint Family System
Joint family system is also a big problem in the agriculture sector. Our farmer is poor; on the
other hand, he has to support his big family. It creates a deficiency in saving and investment.
A huge part of farmer's productivity is consumed at his own house.
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• Illiteracy and Ill health

Most of the farmers and tenants in our country are illiterate. They are untrained and
inefficient to boost up the agricultural productivity. On the other side, the health of our
farmers is improper due to rural backwardness. The literacy rate is only 57.7 % in Pakistan.
Economic Survey of Pakistan shows that literacy remains higher in urban areas (73.2 percent)
than in rural areas (49.2 percent).
• Political Instability
Political instability has affected development in all economic and social sectors.
Unfortunately, the political situations in Pakistan are not stable. It creates unrest among the
farmers to sell the productions to various industries as raw material. On the other hand,
people hesitate to invest in the agriculture sector due to political unrest.
➢ Financial Problems
• Lack of Credit
Basically, our farmer is poor and he has low level of income. Agricultural credit facilities are
not common in Pakistan. Credit that can facilitate agriculture is not available easily.
Moreover, non-institutional sources are available but these are not reliable due to high rate of
interest. About 50.8% poor borrow from landlords in Pakistan.
• Poor Financial Position of Farmers
It is a common saying about our farmer that he born in debts, grows in debts and dies in
debts. It means that the financial position of Pakistani farmer is weak and poor. According to
"Pakistan Human Development Report 2003" about 57.4% poor are working for feudal-lords
without wages.
• Instability in Market Prices
The price market of agricultural goods generally remains unstable in the country. Cobweb
theorem is very popular in case of market prices; it means that a price of one commodity is
much high in this year and many lows in the next year and vice versa. The farmers do not get
a due reward from the sale of their productions. Therefore, they remain unsatisfied.
• Shortage of Agricultural Finance
Agricultural credit facilities are not sufficient in Pakistan. The rate of interest on agricultural
credit is high and the loan is not provided in time. According to "Pakistan Human
Development Report 2003" in Pakistan, about 50.8% poor borrow from property owners at a
very high rate of interest.
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➢ Measures to Remove These Problems

The following measures are suggested to improve the agriculture.
• Supply of Agriculture Credit
Poor farmers cannot afford the expensive technology from their own resources in Pakistan.
So, the supply of agriculture credit at easy terms and conditions is very necessary. An amount
of Rs. 85,177 million is disbursed by commercial banks in 2009 and Rs. 49 billion was
distributed by ZTBL. ZTBL issued credit or Rs. 37.4 billion during 2010-11.
• Water Logging and Salinity Control
Water logging and salinity destroys about one million acres of land every year in Punjab and
Sindh. It reduces our cultivable area. For this purpose, installation of tube wells, repair of
canal banks and drainage of water etc. are needed. The Ministry of Agriculture proposed to
invest Rs. 18.5 billion with the objective of converting 2,00,000 acres of irrigated land to drip
and shower irrigation system.
• Construction of Dams
Sometimes, due to heavy unwanted rains and floods agricultural productivities destroys. To
tackle this problem, it is necessary to construct dames and bands on rivers.
• Provision of HYV Seed
High yielding variety seed is not available at a suitable price in Pakistan. So, farmers have to
depend upon the low quality of seeds that causes a 20% reduction in total production. The
government should provide HYV seed at a minimum price in this case.
• Mechanization
Farm mechanization is necessary to remove the problems to the agriculture sector. Sowing,
cultivation, and harvesting of crops through agricultural machines increase the product
quality and quantity.
• Agricultural Research
Agricultural research is compulsory to remove the backwardness of the agriculture sector.
Major agricultural colleges and universities are only about 16 in Pakistan. The government
should increase the research work in the field of agriculture.
• Agro-Based Industries
Agro-based industries like poultry, fisheries, dairy, and livestock should establish. These
industries indirectly lead to improving the agriculture sector.
• Tax Concessions
Mechanization is necessary to remove the problems of the agriculture sector. The government
should give tax concession on imports of agricultural technologies to enhance the process of
farm mechanization.
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• Training of Farmers
Our farmers are illiterate and ill trained so, their efficiencies are poor. The government should
start a special education programme for farmers and give them training about farming.
• Prices of Agricultural Productivities
Sometimes, our farmers receive low prices of their crops. There is no proper effective price
policy of the government. The government should set reasonable prices of agricultural
productions to develop the living standard of farmers.
➢ Conclusion
Being an agrarian country, the agriculture sector of Pakistan's economy is still backward. Use
of modern techniques, provision of credit facilities, basic infrastructure, and agriculture
research facilities are needed to remove all the problems of the agriculture sector.
Industrial Sector of Pakistan

➢ Causes and Removal of Industrial Backwardness in Pakistan
The backward industrial sector is the second major sector of the economy of Pakistan.
Industrial sector plays an important role in the development process of any country. Since the
latter part of the 18thcentury manufacturing as a human, occupation got much importance.
The modern concept of industry-manufacturing goods began in Great Britain in the late 18th
century.
➢ Problems or Causes of Industrial Backwardness
Causes of industrial backwardness may be divided into the following four major categories:
historical causes, economic causes, social causes and political causes. Each one is discussed
below.
➢ Historical Causes
• The Policy of British Rulers
There were no favors for the Muslims due to the British government, before independence in
the sub-continent. British exported the raw material at a cheaper rate to Britain so that the
industrialization process in the sub-continent is to be stopped.
• Lack of Technical Knowledge
Modern technology was introduced at the beginning of the 20th century. British used the
modern methods of production in Britain. However, in sub-continent, they used the old
method of production in all the manufacturing units. Therefore, quality and quantity of
production were very low it creates a bad view of our industry at world level.
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• Industrial Share
Before partition, there were 921 total industrial units in sub-continent. However, out of 921
industrial units, Pakistan got only 34 industrial units that are just 3.69 % of total industrial
share. Accordingly, we started our economy without the industrial sector.
➢ Economic Causes
• Disputable Industrial Strategy
It is a huge barrier in the way of industrial advancement. In the history of Pakistan, there was
a policy of import substitution, in the early 1950s. There was a trend of industrialization in
the 1960s. The policy of Nationalization was adopted in Z. A. Bhutto's period and Zia-ul-
Haq adopted the policy of Privatization. The investors are always hesitant to make an
investment in such situations.
• Lack of Mineral Resources
There is an acute shortage of mineral resources like oil, coal etc. These resources are
necessary for industrial development. Due to the lack of mineral resources, the rate of
industrial development in Pakistan is very low. The contribution of natural resources to GDP
is 0.8 % in Pakistan.
• Low Investment and Low Savings
Deficiency of capital is one major problem in the way of industrial development. Pakistan is
fundamentally underdeveloped and there is a shortage of capital in the country. Industrial
development is impossible without capital. Sufficient capital is a major condition for
industrial development. Total investment and domestic saving are 6. 13.4% and 9.5% of GDP
respectively.
• Lack of Technical Know-how
There is a lack of technical and skilled workers in the country due to the high rate of
illiteracy. The efficiency of labor is very low due to the use of backward and orthodox
technology. It is also the main cause of industrial backwardness.
• Lack of Infrastructure
The infrastructure for industrial development is necessary. There is a shortage of
infrastructure in Pakistan. For example, gas, electricity, transport, roads, railways network
and communication are not available up to the requirement of industrial development.
• Inflationary Pressures
Rate of inflation is very high in Pakistan. The prices of imported machinery, oils, chemicals
and spare-parts are rising very sharply. These factors contribute to industrial backwardness.
The very high rate of inflation is 14.1 % in Pakistan.
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• Inadequate Industrial Credit

There is a shortage of active financial institutions in Pakistan, which may provide credit
services to industrialists according to their needs. Terms and conditions for the provision of
credit are very tight.
• Unfavorable Industrial Structure
There are inequalities in industrial growth in Pakistan. Manufacturing of consumer goods is
preferred over capital goods. No doubt return on consumer goods is more but capital goods
are necessary for economic development.
• Limited Market for Capital Goods
The narrowness of domestic and foreign markets for the industrial goods is also a major
hurdle in the way of industrial development. The small size of the market is due to low
purchasing power, low standard of goods and the high cost of production etc.
• Lack of Industrial Consultancy Firms
The investment in modern industries is not only costly but also risky. The capitalists are
regularly withdrawn and hesitant in investing their capital in new industrial ventures. No
doubt, deficiency of capital is a problem in Pakistan, but the major problem is that existing
capital is not properly utilizing due to lack of consultancy firms.
• Lack of Industrial Research
Research work for the industrial sector is not satisfactory due to lack of technical education
and in addition to that, there is a shortage of technological universities in the country.
Improvement in production and reduction in the cost of production is impossible due to lack
of research. A number of technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan is more than 1522
out of which 1140 are in the public sector. These are providing training to 3,00,000 persons.
• Frequent Breakdown of Electricity
Like other power resources, electricity is also insufficient in Pakistan to meet the domestic
needs. There is irregular supply and frequent breakdown of electricity in Pakistan. It is
affecting the industrial production in the country. The growth rate of electricity and gas
sector, in Pakistan, is -21.1%.
• Economic Sanctions
Advanced countries are not willing in the improvement of backward countries. They have
created various trade zones among themselves. As a result, they import and export among
themselves. Therefore, the export volume of developing countries remains very low. On the
other hand, developed nations have imposed various sanctions on import and export with
poor nations.
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• Global Recession
The global economic recession in the last years adversely affected the growth of the
manufacturing sector. The donor countries usually interfere in our internal affairs and
economic activities in the time of recession.
• Adverse Balance of Payment
Adverse balance of payment is a new cause of industrial backwardness. To make industrial
development, we have to import modern machinery and advanced technology from other
countries. However, due to a shortage of foreign exchange, we cannot import such items to
make rapid economic development. Pakistan is facing the deficit of $ 8.3 billion in its balance
of payment during 2010-11.
➢ Social Causes
• Lack of Education
People have no idea how to set up the industry due to a high degree of illiteracy. They have
no sufficient resources to start heavy projects. The efficiency of unskilled, untrained and
illiterate labor is very low that causes in industrial backwardness. The literacy rate is just 57.7
% and expenditures on education sector are only 1.8 % of GDP, which is the lowest in Asia.
• Faith & Fate
Man should work hard first and then put the result in the hands of ALLAH. Mostly, our
people are irrational, they believe on faith and fate. They do not want to take the risks. They
are working just to meet their basic needs. There is absence of commercial mind in Pakistan.
• Corruption
Corruption is a great evil, which is still increasing at very high rate in Pakistan. It is found in
government as well as private sector also. Due to corruption, illiterate and dishonest workers
come forward and cause industrial backwardness. Pakistan is at number 34th at the table of
the most corrupt nations and at number 1st in South Asia.
• Climate and Weather
Climate and weather conditions are also a big cause of backwardness in various industries.
There is inter-relationship between industrial and agriculture sector. If the weather is not
well, it causes agricultural backwardness and it results in industrial backwardness.
• Cultural Disturbance
The cultural disturbances in the country have slowed down the production in the
manufacturing sector. In addition to this, a shortage of raw material has an adverse effect on
production. There are various caste systems in the country.
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➢ Political Causes
• Political Instability
An additional cause of industrial backwardness is political instability. Since partition, the
political situation of Pakistan is not satisfactory. There are regular changes in the
governments and government policies. Domestic as well as foreign investors feel the risk of
making investment due to political unrest. All these results in industrial backwardness.
• Kashmir and Water Issues
Since freedom, the Kashmir problem has been disturbing our economy. People in Pakistan
remain worried about the danger of war with India due to Kashmir and water issues.
Therefore, Pakistani and especially foreign people hesitate to invest.
• Burden of Refugees
At the time of partition, Pakistan had to face a serious problem of refugees coming from India
and there was a shortage of resources in Pakistan. Now Pakistan is also facing this problem in
the form of Afghan refugees.
• Wars with India
The two big wars fought in opposition to India in 1965 and 1971. It creates many economic
problems. Now the situation is that both Pakistan and India has to keep up a huge part of their
budget for defense.
➢ Measures or Suggestions to Improve Industrial Sector
The following measures are suggested to improve the industrial sector of Pakistan.
• More allocation of funds for industrial research is required, which is necessary, for the
industrial development.
• Industrial sector can be promoted by increasing capital.
• Saving and investment should be increased to develop the industrial sector.
• To promote the industrial sector, there should be technical knowledge.
• Tax concession is also needed to increase the investment in new industries.
• In time, the supply of raw material is necessary for the improvement of the industrial
sector.
• Advanced infrastructure is necessary for the industrial development of Pakistan.
• Financial institutions should provide credit facilities to the industrial sector at flexible
terms and conditions.
• There should be an expansion of markets, at the domestic and foreign level, of
industrial goods.
• Foreign investment should be encouraged; more incentives should be given to
investors.
• Political stability is compulsory for the development of industrial sector.
• High degree of technical education is required to produce skilled, technical and
efficient workforce.
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• The problem of load-shedding and irregular supply of electricity should be removed.

• Commercial policy and self- reliance policy should be adopted to remove industrial
backwardness.
• Foreign exchange reserves and the balance of payment position should be favorable to
develop the industrial sector.
➢ Conclusion
All the above factors are causing industrial backwardness. Backwardness is not bad but
remaining backward is so bad. So, the Pakistan needs to make industrial development
through the following.
• Use of advanced technology

• Development in infrastructure
• Provision of credit facilities
• Increase in industrial consultancy firms Recommended
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
https://infoaboutclimate.wordpress.com/
2
https://dailytimes.com.pk/247550/pakistans-environmental-challenges/
3
https://ihelpf9.com/environmental-problems-in-pakistan-and-its-effect-on-human-life/
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Lecture 12 Handouts
Natural Resources and Culture of Pakistan

More about Pakistan

The constitutional name of Pakistan is the “Islamic Republic of Pakistan”. It is a federation
which means that different units (provinces) have given up part of their sovereignty to the
central government to form a federation.
Pakistan has the following administrative setup:

1. There are five provinces.
2. Islamabad, the capital territory
3. Federally administered tribal areas
4. Gilgit Baltistan
5. Azad Jammu and Kashmir
The Pillars of the Government

The following are the pillars of the Government of Pakistan.
Legislature - the law-making body; Parliament (upper house Senate, lower house the
National Assembly)
Administration - also called the executive; those who execute the laws (prime minister and
his cabinet). They are at the top of administration of a country.
Judiciary - that is the judicial set up which decides legal matters and interprets the law.
Interpretation of policies and procedures is made by judiciary
Defence - We can include defense in the pillars of state. We can also bring defense in the
administration.
Media - as it plays a vital role in shaping public opinion and can also be taken as ingredient
of government because it keeps a cheque on the government. We also have a ministry of
communication and PEMRA (Pakistan electronic media and regulatory authority) which
comes under the ministry of communication.
Political Pressure Groups - these are the groups which exert pressure on the government
when their interests are not served. It includes military, Ulema, landowners, and people in
the business. When pressure groups feel that their interest are not protected or not served
then they use some tactics to influence legislation in the country and the administration of
the country just to make them to take some steps that they want to take or to safeguard their
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interest. How military can be a pressure group in a country? When martial law is enforced in
a country then it becomes a government Martial law dictator is himself will be a legislator,
executive and at time he himself serve as a judiciary.
More Details about Pakistan

• The official code of Pakistan’s currency is PKR.
• The internet code is .pk
• There are 31 AM radio broadcasting stations and 68 FM radio broadcasting station
• There are 90 television channels
• There are eight international airports and 42 smaller airports countrywide
• There fiveseaports (2 in Balochistan and 3 in Sindh)
• There are 11 dry ports, 34 railway stations
Fishery
Pakistan has 800 miles long coastline, and the fishery industry is essential for the country. It
is a source of income for the local coastal population and fish are also exported.
Forests
Pakistan has only 4% of land covered with forests which is no way good news. Forests are
significant because of the following reasons:
• It can reverse the effects of global warming by absorbing the carbon dioxide gas.
• It is home to the wildlife.
• It is a source of food (vegetable, fruit and herbal medicines).
• Trees are used to make paper, and its wood is also used as fuel and for furniture
• Forests are also sites of tourist attraction.
Mining in Pakistan
There are approximately 05 trillion minerals in Pakistan which are known to be explored.
Mining is an essential economic activity. Pakistan has different minerals, but they are of
little economic value. Pakistan has the following minerals:
• Salt range in Potohar plateau has large deposits of rock salt.
• Other minerals includes gypsum, limestone, chromite, iron, silver, gold, precious
metals, gems, marble, tin, sulphur, fire clay and silica sand.
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International Agreements
Pakistan is a signatory to different international agreements. Some of them are as follows:
1. Specific regions and seas, law of the seas, ship pollution.
2. Atmosphere and climate, climate change, ozone layer protection.
3. Biodiversity, environment and forest, desertification, endangered species, marine life
conservation, and environmental modification.
4. Waste; dangerous wastes.
5. Rivers Indus water treaty.
These agreements enable Pakistan to seek technical support and help wherever it needs, e.g.
it can ask for help in reducing carbon dioxide emissions under the climate change
agreement.
The Culture of Pakistan

Culture is the way of life which includes customs, value system, norms and traditions.
Pakistan has many cultures like Punjabi culture, Balochi culture, Sindhi culture and Pushtun
culture.
The variety of music available in Pakistan such as folk songs, qwali and ghazal, are also a
part its culture. The unique dances of the different cultures of Pakistan are attan, khattak,
ludi, hojamalo and bhangra.
Literature of Pakistan
Literature is available in Urdu and English. Other than this Pakistan has literature available
in all the languages.
Pakistan as a Multicultural and Socially Diversified Country

Our country is multicultural. The culture is different in every region. The people who speak
a different language they have their own culture. Culture also varies across different castes,
tribes, rural and urban areas. The elites and the religious sects have different cultures.
It is the strength of a country and we should be socially diversified to accept the cultures of
other social groups. Our country is socially diversified as there are wealthy, poor, managers,
workers, officers, subordinates, teachers, students, doctors and engineers.
If we accept the diverse cultures of our country, it will become our strength.
Conclusion
We have now come to understand that Pakistan is a pluralistic cultural society, combined
with multi-culturalism and social diversities which have been playing a constructive role in
political development of the country.
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Lecture 13 Handouts
Initial Problems of Pakistan

Initial Problems
Pakistan had to face problems right after its independence. It was because Pakistan was
carved out of the peripheral areas of the subcontinent where infrastructure was not well
developed. So, Pakistan had to build everything from scratch. Following are the initial
problems of Pakistan.
1. Political Problems
2. New Administration
3. Division of Assets
4. Integration of the Princely States
5. Communal Riots and Arrival of Refugees
6. Canal Water Dispute and Trade Issues
7. Economic Problems
8. Social Problems
1. Political Problems
There was a lack of experienced lawmakers in new Pakistan. There were mostly feudal lords.
The constituent assembly failed to frame a constitution even in eight years. Lack of a
permanent constitution created chances of unscrupulous interference in democratic progress
of Pakistan.
2. New Administration
In the new country, there was a shortage of human power especially senior officers. The
senior officers did not want to come to Pakistan as it was underdeveloped. There was a lack
of building for the administrative workers, lack of furniture and equipment. Offices were
operating in tents, and it was less efficient.
3. Division of Assets
At the time of division of assets, the actual share of Pakistan was 750 million, but only 200
million was given. British rulers were not willing to give the rest of the share to India and
Pakistan. Gandhi went on a hunger strike to put pressure on the government. It worked, and
they gave the rest of the amount.
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Military assets were also divided.
➢ Sixarmoured divisions were given to Pakistan while India got 14

➢ Eight artillery divisions were given to Pakistan while India got 40
➢ Eight infantry divisions were given to Pakistan while India got 21
4. Integration of the Princely States

There were 560 princely states in the subcontinent before independence. Almost 500 joined
India before 15thAugust 1947. The princes were inclined to honor every gesture of the British
representative, so they conceded to what the member of the Royal family (Mountbatten)
wished. There were some particular cases of the states.
i. Junagadh
It was a small state with access to sea having about 7 lakh population and 3377-mile area.
The ruler was Muslim while the majority of its population was Hindu. The ruler decided to
accede to Pakistan and Pakistan also accepted the accession. It was a princely state. There
was a Muslim ruler, and the majority of the population was Hindu. In November 1947, the
Indian troops entered the state and took its control. The referendum favored India. Indian
forces entered and annexed it with India.
ii. Hyderabad
It was geographically big and financially a rich state. Its ruler was Muslim named Nizam and
majority population was Hindu. It was surrounded by India from all sides. The Nizam wanted
to stay independent. Mountbatten discouraged him and signed Standstill Agreement. But
India built pressure on the Nizam by sending its troops in September 1948 claiming that
serious law and order situation had developed. The state was integrated in India. He wanted
to keep Hyderabad independent from India and Pakistan. However, India again annexed it
with India,
iii. Kashmir
The most important state was Kashmir naturally connected with Pakistan. Its ruler was Hindu
Maharaja while population was Muslim. It was the most crucial state. The population
inclined towards Pakistan, but the Hindu ruler declared to join India. The Kashmiri people
revolted against the ruler in Poonch area and soon it became widespread. The ruler sought
Indian support. India demanded accession. On October 27, 1947 Indian troops landed in
Srinagar. The people continued their struggle for independence and India promised to finally
settle the matter with reference to the people under the UN Resolutions. After the war in
1948, India has half of the Kashmir which is called Indian occupied Kashmir and the other
half is under Pakistan was known as Azad Jammu Kashmir.
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5. Communal Riots and Refugee Crises
The Communal riots occurred earlier in August 1946. The killing of Muslims in Indian areas
forced them to leave India. The military was asked to help cope with the refugee problem.
After the independence, when the Muslims were migrating towards Pakistan, they were
attacked by Extremist Hindus and Sikhs, and thousands of Muslims were massacred. There
were organized gangs to kill the Muslims. The refugee problem created critical condition in
the border areas. The massive migration proved serious economic and humanitarian problems
for the new state. The people who reached Pakistan alive were the refugees. It was quite
challenging for the new country to cater to the several needs of the refugees.
6. Water dispute
In 1948, there was a water dispute between India and Pakistan as India stopped the water
from Ravi and Sutlej. It was a threat to the already fragile economy of Pakistan. This matter
was taken to the World Bank. In 1960 the Indus water treaty was signed according to which
three eastern rivers Ravi, Sutlej and Beas came under India and it can build dams on it, while
three western rivers came under Pakistan namely Chenab, Jhelum and Indus.
7. Economic problems
Pakistan had a very weak economy at the time of independence. There were few industries.
The war in Kashmir, the issue of refugees and the water dispute created problems for
Pakistan. The industrial enterprise was 10%, industrial workers were 0.5%, electrical capacity
was 5%, and mineral deposits were 10%.
8. Social Problems
Many sects imposed social pressures at the time of formation of Pakistan. The Pakhtuns were
not in favor of Pakistan at the time of partition and were threat to the integration of the
country. The Balochs do not want to join Pakistan, as they want independent status. The
Sindhis wanted to stay with India.The Punjabis were majority in number and wanted a
separate nation. The Bengalis were equal or greater than the people in the West Pakistan and
were not in favor of Pakistan.
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Lecture 14 Handouts
Dilemma of Constitution Making in Pakistan
Background
One of the uphill tasks for the newly created Pakistan was the framing of its comprehensive
Constitution. Quaid-e-Azam with his vast and strong background of handling legal matters
took up this problem with urgency, however; the gravity of other issues compelled him to pay
his attention to other matters, which delayed this important process of constitution making.
We have a parliamentary form of government in our country. The executive (lawmaker)
should be more powerful than the head of the state. Governor should be the head of the state
and prime minter was the head of the country. We borrowed our parliamentary system from
the British parliament system. The Indian act of 1935 was adopted as an interim constitution
with little amendments right from the independence of both countries (India and Pakistan)
and it was adopted by both India and Pakistan at that time. In the original act, the governor
general (The Viceroy) used to report to the queen of Great Britain. Now what were the
shortcomings, India established its constitution very quickly, but Pakistan could not able to
establish it. The shortcoming was creeping on from 1947. All India Muslim league was
demanding for a separate homeland but at the same time, they did not perform their
homework about the constitution of the country. The lawmakers who constituted the
constitution assembly of Pakistan, they did not know much about the law-making process
because most of the policymakers were living in East and West Pakistan. They were mainly
involved in a kind of just getting out of clashes.
Definition of Constitution
The constitution is a basic document, which sets out the framework for governance and
exercise of power. It defines the powers of the institutions and sets out the relationship that
exists between different state institutions. It describes the powers within which these
institutions have to work and what would be the nature of the relationship of the individual
with the state. A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established patterns
according to which a state or other organization is ruled. The term constitution comes through
French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders. Culture, society,
civilization, history, religion, traditions and political system are the sources of constitution
making.
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Constitution of Pakistan
Constitution of Pakistan is the supreme law of Pakistan. There have been several documents
known as the Constitution of Pakistan. The Constitution of 1973 is the existing constitution,
which provides for a parliamentary system with a President as head of state and popularly
elected Prime Minister as head of government. Pakistan has a bicameral legislature that
consists of the Senate (upper house) and the National Assembly(lower house). It was drafted
by the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and, following additions by the opposition parties,
was approved by the legislative assembly on April 10, 1973. It was Pakistan's first ever
constitution by consensus unlike two earlier constitutions, the constitution of 1956 and the
constitution of 1962.
Reasons for Delay
It took almost nine years for the two constituent assemblies to make a constitution for the
country. Following are the main reasons for the delay.
a) Two wings of Pakistan – East Pakistan and West Pakistan

b) Inexperienced Politicians
c) Clash of Interests between two Wings
d) Debate on 'State’ and ‘Islam’
e) Federal State System
f) Cultural and linguistic differences
g) Lack of Homogeneity between two Wings
h) Language Issue
i) Administrative Problems
j) Influx of refugees
k) Politicians personal clashes and differences
l) Lack of quality leadership
m) Illiteracy
n) Lack of mutual Understanding & Tolerance
History of Constitution Making
Pakistan became independent from British India in 1947, following its partition. The first
document that served as a constitution for Pakistan was the Government of India Act, 1935
and 1945 with amendments.
1. Measures Taken by Jinnah
Mohammad Ali Jinnah appointed the first constituent assembly of Pakistan in August 1947.
Total 69 members elected in the 1945-46 election and 10 members were included from
princely states. Dual responsibility of acting as the federal legislature and constituent
assembly.The members, however, lacked the essential requirements of high competence,
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commitment, and political experience. Even though Jinnah wanted to improve this situation
but his early demise in 1948 struck another shock to inexperienced Pakistan.
2. The Objectives Resolution (1949)
The first big step in the framing of a constitution for Pakistan was taken by the Constituent
Assembly on 12 March 1949, when it passed a resolution on the 'Aims and Objectives of the
Constitution', popularly known as the Objectives Resolution. It laid the foundation of the
constitution and indicated the broad outline of its structure. Liaquat Ali Khan, the first Prime
Minister of Pakistan, moved the resolution.
▪ Main Features of Objective Resolution

Following were the main features of objective Resolution.
• Sovereignty belongs to Almighty Allah alone
• Authority delegated by Him through the People to be exercised within the limits
permitted
• Constitution is to be framed for Sovereign Independent Pakistan
• Power will be exercised through elected Representatives of People.
• Democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and Social justice will be as dictated by
Islam.
• Enabling Muslims to live in accordance with the teachings of Islam.
• Minorities will have total freedom to profess and practice their religion and develop
their culture
• Safeguarding the legitimate interests of minorities, backward and depressed classes.
• Pakistan shall be a Federation with autonomous units. State’s sovereignty and
territorial integrity will be protected.
• People of Pakistan should prosper and attain their rightful place in the comity of
nations and make contribution towards international peace and progress and happiness
of humanity
▪ Importance of Objective Resolution
Sovereignty of Allah was declared as distinctive political philosophy
Unlike Western democracy where sovereignty lies with people
The limits were provided to exercise powers are to be the ones given by God
Minorities were given their due rights and respect in the benign society of Pakistan.
Provided a framework for future constitutions of Pakistan
It embraced the centrality of Islam in the constitutional framework
It remained the preamble of all constitutions of Pakistan.
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▪ Objections Raised by Non-Muslims

Following were the objections raised by non-Muslims at that time on objective resolution.
1. Government trying to mix religion with politics and was against the spirit of
democracy
2. Sovereignty of Allah will promote inequality in the society
3. They viewed Sharia was not in conformity with modern time
4. Will encourage the establishment of a theocratic state
3. Constitutional Issues
Following were the main issues faced by Constitution Assembly at that time.
1. Federalism
2. Representation
3. Separate or Joint Electorate
4. National Language Issue
5. Parliamentary or Presidential system
6. Islamic or Secular State
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Lecture 15 Handouts
Constitution of 1956
➢ Constitutional Issues
Constitutional issues are as follows
1. Federalism
2. Representation
4. National Language Issue
5. Parliamentary or Presidential system
6. Islamic or Secular State
1. Federalism
There was consensus on federalism but there were many issues to be settled. Pakistan
consisted of two parts. Division of power was the most difficult part between two wings and
among the provinces. Provinces were demanding more Autonomy and Provincial Rights.
Strong Centre tradition continued in 1956 as well.
2. Representation
East Pakistan and West Pakistan were different in population and size and thus appropriate
representation was an issue. Not only wings but also the provinces were differently, diversely
filled. Everyone was sensitive to their representation and provincial autonomy. To have a
standard formula Basic Principle Committee was formed on March 12, 1949.
The minorities did not favor separate electorate after independence. Religious elements
supported this as a part of heritage. East Pakistan decided for Joint Electorate. West Pakistan
decided for Separate Electorate.
4. The National Language Issue
Before independence, the Muslim elite all over India adopted Urdu. In 1948 Jinnah declared
that Urdu would be the national language. Opposition against Urdu was in East Pakistan. It
was more prominent after Jinnah’s Death. Language Movement started in East Pakistan from
February 1952. Two-language formula was adopted in 1954.
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5. Parliamentary or Presidential System
There was a consensus for parliamentary system. There was limited demand for presidential
system. Debates were continued on this issue. These debates delayed the process of
constitution making in Pakistan.
6. The Islamic or Secular State
From the very beginning, there was an agreement that the state will have close relationship
with Islam. Muslims defined their national identity with reference to Islam and its heritage.
Some opposition came from the Congress members of the Constituent Assembly, and a few
secularists. The Constituent Assembly took time to define the precise relationship between
the state and Islam. Objectives Resolution rejected theocracy in Pakistan and provided the
basic objectives for the future constitution of Pakistan.
➢ Issues to be Addressed
What would be the scope of legislation for an elected Assembly? Who will decide about the
Islamic nature of laws? Should a Board of Ulema be given this power? Position of women,
vote and work? What about religious minorities? Discussion in the Constituent Assembly and
outside continued. An active demand by religious elements for Islamic political system.
Leading Ulema of various sects presented famous 22 points to provide a religious base to the
future constitution.
1. Basic Principle Committee Reports1
After the Objectives Resolution was passed in 1949, the Constitution Assembly set up a
number of committees to draw the future constitution on the basis of the principles given in
the Objectives Resolution. The most important among those committees was the Basic
Principles Committee set up on March 12, 1949, by Khawaja Nazimuddin on the advice of
Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan.
The primary function of this committee was to determine the basic principles of the future
Constitution of Pakistan. The committee comprised 24 members. MaulviTamiz-ud-din Khan
headed it, and Liaquat Ali Khan was its Vice President. The committee presented its interim
report to the Legislative Assembly in 1950. This was a short document presenting the
guidelines and principles of the future Constitution of Pakistan.
• Criticism
Representatives of East Pakistan raised objections against the report. The main criticism was
against the quantum representation in the Central Legislature. East Pakistan, with a majority
of the population, was given an equal number of seats in the Upper House as West Pakistan,
1
http://storyofpakistan.com/basic-principles-committee
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thus reducing the representation of the majority of the population in Pakistan by one-fifth.
East Pakistan representatives also did not like Urdu being declared as the only national
language of Pakistan.
• Second BPC Report
Liaquat Ali Khan agreed to consider the objections with an open mind. He, therefore,
postponed the deliberation of the Constituent Assembly in order to enable the Basic
Principles Committee to examine and consider suggestions that might be made by the people
regarding the principles of the Constitution. In order to include public opinion, Liaquat Ali
Khan called forth general comments and suggestions by the public on the report. A large
number of proposals and suggestions were sent by the public, which was examined by a
special subcommittee headed by Sardar Abdur Rab Nishtar. The setting up of the committee
was a right and commendable step, but its working was immensely affected by the
assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan. The subcommittee, however, gave its report to the Basic
Principles Committee in July 1952, which was presented by Khawaja Nazimuddin in the
National Assembly on December 22, 1952.
According to the Basic Principles Committee Report, the head of the state was to be a
Muslim, elected by a joint session with the majority vote of the Central Legislature for five
years. The Prime Minister was to be appointed by the head of the state. The Central
Legislature was to consist of two houses: the House of Units with 120 members and the
House of People with 400 members. There were to be three lists of subjects for the division
of power between the Federation and the Units. Adult franchise was introduced. The
judiciary was to be headed by the Supreme Court of Pakistan consisting of a Chief Justice
and two to six other judges. The Chief Justice was to be appointed by the head of state. There
was to be a High Court for each of the units of East Pakistan, Punjab, Sindh Baluchistan and
the N. W. F. P. A Board of Ulema was to be set up by the head of state and provincial
governors. The Board of Ulema was to examine the lawmaking process to ensure that no law
was passed that went against the principles of the Quran and Sunnah. The Objectives
Resolution was adopted as a preamble to the proposed Constitution.
• Criticism
The Basic Principles Committee’s report was severely criticized and raised much bitterness
between East and West Pakistan. The Prime Minister, Khawaja Nazimuddin, however,
welcomed the report and commended it as a valuable document according to the aspirations
of the people of Pakistan. However, the fact was that the nation was not satisfied with the
report, and hence there was a severe deadlock in the making of the constitution.
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2. Muhammad Ali Bogra Formula2
While taking charge as Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Bogra declared that formulation of
the Constitution was his primary target. He worked hard on this project and within six
months of assuming power, came out with a constitutional formula. His constitutional
proposal, known as the Bogra Formula, was presented before the Constituent Assembly of
Pakistan on October 7, 1953. The plan proposed for a Bicameral Legislature with equal
representation for all the five provinces of the country in the Upper House. A total of 50
seats were reserved for the Upper House. The 300 seats for the Lower House were to be
allocated to the provinces based on proportionate representation. One hundred and sixty-
five seats were reserved for East Pakistan, 75 for Punjab, 19 for Sindh and Khairpur, 24
for N. W. F. P., tribal areas and the states located in N. W. F. P., and 17 for Baluchistan,
Baluchistan States Union, Bahawalpur and Karachi.
In this way, East Pakistan was given more seats in the Lower House than the combined
number of seats reserved for the federal capital, the four provinces and the princely states
of the Western Wing. So, in all, both the wings were to have 175 seats each in the two
houses of the Legislative Assembly. Both the houses were given equal power, and in case
of a conflict between the two houses, the issue was to be presented before a joint session.
In order to prevent permanent domination by any wing, a provision was made that if the
head of the state was from West Pakistan, the Prime Minister was to be from East
Pakistan, and vice versa. The two houses of the Legislative Assembly formed the Electoral
College for the presidential elections, and the President was to be elected for a term of 5
years. In place of the Board of Ulema, the Supreme Court was given the power to decide if
a law was in accordance with the basic teachings of the Holy Quran and Sunnah or not.
• Reaction to Bogra Formula
Unlike the two reports of the Basic Principles Committee, the Bogra Formula was
appreciated by different sections of the society. There was great enthusiasm amongst the
masses as they considered it as a plan that could bridge the gulf between the two wings of
Pakistan and would act as a source of unity for the country. The proposal was discussed in
the Constituent Assembly for 13 days, and a committee was set to draft the constitution on
November 14, 1953. However, before the constitution could be finalized, the Assembly
was dissolved by Ghulam Muhammad, the then Governor General of Pakistan.
2
http://storyofpakistan.com/bogra-formula
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• Dissolution of First Constitutional Assembly
October 1954, GG (Governor General) dissolved the CA (Constitutional Assembly) that was
challenged in the Sindh court by MaulviTamizuddin. The court declared the dissolution
illegal but the Federal Court upheld the GG action but asked for setting up an elected CA
• 2nd Constitutional Assembly
Ghulam Muhammad called a Convention on May 10, 1955. All its members were to be
elected indirectly (by the provincial assemblies). In this way, the 2nd CA came into
existence.
3. One Unit Scheme, Oct 19553
The One Unit was a geopolitical program launched by the government of Pakistan led by
then-Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra on 22 November 1954. The program was
believed to be enacted after the government faced difficulty of administrating the two
unequal polities of Pakistan separated from each other by more than a thousand miles to
diminish the differences between the two regions, the program merged the Four Provinces
of West Pakistan into a single province as was the case with East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
4. The 1956 Constitution4
After the approval of Objective Resolution in 1949, the “Constituent Assembly formed many
committees including the Basic Principles Committee headed by the Prime Minister. The
Committee, under the chairmanship of Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the interim report on
September 28, 1950, which was criticized due to its incompleteness, and was asked to be
revised. The second report of basic principle committee presented to Khawaja Nazim-ud-Din
in 1952, but this report was also rejected. Later on Ch. Muhammad Ali started the
constitutional process in Pakistan when he became Prime Minister.
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Unit
4
www.bookhut.net
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After taking charge, Ch. Muhammad Ali started the working on constitution-making. The
Constituent Assembly passed the draft of a federal parliamentary Constitution in 1956 which
was enforced on March 23, 1956 in the country. This constitution contained of 234 articles.
➢ The Islamic Provisions of the Constitution (1956)

Islamic provisions of the constitution of 1956 are as under:
1. Parliamentary System
Executive Authority vested in the President who exercised it on the advice of the Prime
Minister except in the matters he had discretion.President had ceremonial functions and
exercised limited powers.The President would be of 45 years of age, Muslim and
qualified to be a member of National Assembly.He was to be elected by National
Assembly (NA) and Provincial Assemblies.
2. Prime Minister (PM)

President would appoint PM. President could not remove him unless he was sure that PM
did not enjoy the support of majority in the National Assembly (NA). The President
would be its sole judge. He could ask PM to show his support. Cabinet was collectively
responsible to NA. PM was the head of government assisted by cabinet.
3. Unicameral Legislature
National Assembly was the only house of the parliament having a membership of 300
plus 10 women seats. Method of direct elections was adopted for general seats. All
legislative powers were rested with NA. President could return, reject or sign the bills.
Regarding monetary bills of ordinary expenditure NA had all powers but they could not
vote on Consolidated Fund List. Salaries of President, judges, federal service
commission, etc. were to be paid through Consolidated Fund.NA could control the
Executive.
4. Federal System
The constitution provided three lists: Federal, Provincial and Concurrent. There were two
Provinces in the federation of Pakistan.
5. Provincial Structure
At the provincial level there was elected Assembly. The Parliamentary System under the
nominal headship of Governor. The real powers were given to Chief Ministers and his
cabinet. Centre had some overriding powers and some Emergency powers too.
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6. Independent Judiciary
At center, the highest court was Supreme Court, then High Courts in provinces and
subordinate courts were established. Higher Courts had the power of Interpretation of the
constitution. They could hear the disputes between governments. They were guardians of
the Legal rights of the citizens.
7. Fundamental Rights
Civil and Political Rights were given to the people of Pakistan but they could be
suspended in case of emergency.
8. Directive Principles of State Policy

These principles provided guidelines for policy making.Principles of Objectives
Resolution were included as preamble. The other principles included surety about Islamic
practices, Welfare of people, non-discrimination, and fulfillment of basic needs, etc.
9. Islamic Character
The name of the country was the Islamic Republic. Objectives Resolution was the
Preamble. Other Islamic clauses were part of Directive Principles. No law can be made to
violate Islamic principles and teachings. Existing laws would be brought in conformity
with Islamic teachings. A Commission was to be appointed to examine the laws for
bringing them in conformity. Whether a Law is Islamic or not, NA had to decide. The
matter could be taken up with the Judiciary. Islam was not declared state religion. Riba
(Interest) will be eliminated from the country as soon as possible.
10. Sovereignty of Allah

In the constitution of 1956, Objective Resolution was included in the preamble of the
Constitution, and Sovereignty over the whole world belongs to Allah Almighty.
11. Organization of Islamic Research

According to the Constitution of 1956, it was declared the organization of Islamic
Research wouldbe established, which will research the legislation and enforcement of
Islamic principles.
12. Protection to Minorities

Rights of Minorities will be protected in the country. They can spend their lives
according to their own religion and culture.
13. Relation with Muslim Countries

Pakistan will establish good relations with other Islamic countries for the Unit of Muslim
World.
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14. Welfare State

Pakistan will be a welfare state, and the government will try its best to eliminate the
poverty & illiteracy from the country. Moreover, basic facilities like food, shelter &
cloth shall be provided to the people.
15. End of Racial & Provincial Discriminations

The government will try to eliminate Racial, Provincial, Communal and other
discriminations from the country.
16. End of Illiteracy

The Government will take specific steps to eliminate the illiteracy from the country &
education will be declared free & compulsory in Pakistan. The government will also take
suitable steps for the adult education in the country.
17. Compulsory Teachings of the Holy Quran

In the constitution of 1956, it was declared that the government should take steps for the
compulsory education of the Holy Quran in Pakistan.
18. Free Judiciary

Judiciary shall be independent and will work without any political and economic
pressure.
19. Separate Electorate

It was declared in the constitution of 1956 that separate electorate would be provided
to the minorities.
20. National language

Urdu will be the national languages of the country.
➢ Cancellation of the Constitution of 1956
Constitution of 1956 was constituted after the hard struggle of the nine years from 1947 to
1956, but Chief of Army Staff General Ayub Khan dismissed the constitution of 1956 on 7th
October 1958. Constitution of 1956 was implemented in Pakistan only for two years & 7
months. General Ayub Khan dismissed the government and later on the President of Pakistan
Sikandar Mirza. He imposed First Martial Law in Country on 7th October 1958.
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Lecture 16 Handouts
According to the Constitution of 1956, the first Prime Minister was Mr. Hussain Shaheed
Suharwardi. He was a Pro-American and did not know much about the East Pakistan. He
was in favor of having alliance with America and there was a quite strong opposition in the
country against this stance. He faced opposition from different sections of society in spite
of that he was a very strong person and a very strong politician but unfortunately, he was
very much detached from the realities of East Pakistan. Mr. I.I. Chundrigur took the charge
as Prime Minister but resigned after 2 Month at that time. Mr. Sikandar Mirza was the
President of the country, but he was not clear about the situation of the Pakistan. He invited
General Ayub Khan to implement Martial law and control the country situation.
Constitution Making
The government introduced Basic Democracies in October 1959. Under this system, Forty
Thousand basic democrats (local councilors) were to be elected in each province. They had
to perform functions as local government and their role in developmental work. They also
acted as an electoral college for the election of president and the national assembly.
Elections for the Basic Democracies (BD) were held in December 1959 and January 1960.
Then the elected BD members held Presidential referendum on February 17, 1960. A
Constitutional Commission was established in February 1960 under the leadership of
Justice Shahabuddin, former Chief Justice.
The tasks assigned to the Commission were
✓ To examine the causes of failure of Parliamentary system.

✓ Recommend a new system keeping in view the
✓ Genius of people
✓ Standard of education
✓ Internal conditions of the country
✓ Need of development
Commission presented its report in May 1961 which was reviewed by two committees.
Under the report of these committees, the new Constitution was drafted. Ayub announced
the Constitution on March 1, 1962. Elections to the National Assembly (NA) and Provincial
Assemblies (PAs) were held in April and May 1962 respectively. The new Constitution was
enforced on June 8, 1962. Martial Law was withdrawn. The new Constitution was consisted
of 250 articles, 5 schedules.
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Military took over on 7 October 1958 and consequently Ayub Khan became Chief Martial
Law Administrator. One major task was to frame a new Constitution. The new
administration was critical of Parliamentary system because it caused in-stability in the
past. They sought stability of the state in the gradual development of democracy
President Ayub Khan constituted a commission for constituting the constitution in February
1960. This commission was headed by Justice Shahb-ud-Din. The Commission prepared a
draft and presented to Mr. President on 6th May 1961 in which all powers were given to
President. After certain amendments from the President Ayub Khan, the new Constitution
was enforced on June 8, 1962 in the country. This constitution contained 250 clauses and
Federal Presidential in nature. This constitution commission was assigned two major tasks.
First was to check the causes of the failure of parliamentary system. Second was to make a
system of standard education, focus on development and work on the internal conditions of
the country.
Salient Features of Constitution of 1962

Islamic Provisions of the constitution of 1962 are as under.
• Country’s name
The name of the country was proposed as “Republic of Pakistan,” which was later on
amended as “Islamic Republic of Pakistan.”
• Muslim President
It was declared in the constitution of 1962 that the president of Pakistan would be Muslim.
• Presidential System
A Powerful President who was responsible for administration and affairs of the state. He
would be a Muslim, at least 40 years of age, should be qualified to be a member of NA. He
would be elected through indirect elections for a period of five years. If he has held office
for more than 8 years, he could seek reelection with the approval of the NA and the PAs.
National Assembly was given the power to impeach the president, however it was difficult
to achieve. President could dissolve the NA but, in that case, he must seek re-election.
• Powers of the President

President was the focal point of all the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. Cabinet
was accountable to him. All key appointments were to be made by President. He could
issue Ordinances. He could also declare State of Emergency in the country.
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• National Assembly (NA)

The National Assembly was consisted of one house based on principle of parity between
two wings of the country. There were 150 seats, and 6 seats were reserved for women. All
members were elected indirectly. Minimum age limit for membership was 25 years.
• Legislative Powers
The National Assembly had all the powers of law making but law was to be finally ratified
by the president. President could sign, reject or return the bill.
• Financial Powers
Financial Powers of NA were limited. Only new expenditure could be voted. NA could not
reject consolidated fund list and recurring expenditure.
• Federalism
There were two provinces of the federation; East Pakistan and West Pakistan. Only one list
of subjects, i.e. the Central list was given in the constitution.
• Provincial Governments
Governors were the heads of the provinces and governed the provinces with their cabinets.
Provincial governments were directly under the control of President. There was a strong
center with a powerful President. He had enough powers to manage provincial affairs. In
case of emergency powers, central government could take direct control of the province.
• Principles of Policy
National solidarity would be observed. Interests of remote areas would be looked after.
Opportunities for participation in national life, education and wellbeing of people will be
provided. Islamic principles would be implemented in day-to-day life.
• Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights were provided in the constitution.
• Political Parties
Political parties were banned according to the constitution of 1962.
• Islamic Provisions
Objectives Resolution was the preamble of the Constitution. Other Islamic provisions were
the part of principles of policy and not the constitution.
• Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology

An Advisory Council for Islamic Ideology was made in the constitution having 5-12
members. This body could only make recommendations.
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• Islamic Research Institute

It was designed for the research and instructions in Islam for assisting the reconstruction of
Muslim society on truly Islamic lines.
Working of the Constitution

The constitution was enforced from June 8, 1962 to March 25, 1969. In early 1965, Mr.
Bhutto and General Musa started Operation Gibraltar and won the territories of India.
However, after this General Ayub felt that if they could not give their territories back it will
shed the blood of our army. At that time, Russia negotiated and signed a peace treaty
between two countries in Moscow and gave them back all the territories. Mr. Bhutto started
campaign against Mr. Ayub khan, he resigned in 1969, and Mr. Yayah took over the
charge.
Cancellation and Abrogation of 1962 Constitution

First constitution was promulgated in 1956. Mr. Ayyub Khan was not in favor of western
democracy in Pakistan. He was against the system of governance, which was in the west,
and Ayub khan was the person who had deep understanding of looking into the things in a
very detached manner. He developed the idea under which politicians are to be ruled, they
were only taking care of their narrower interest, and they need to discard them. This was
the reason, he put a ban on political parties. The political parties were not doing so good for
the country. In the meanwhile, Mr. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became blue-eyed person for Ayub
Khan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was quite young and was quite intelligent and got solutions for many
problems, which Ayub Khan was facing at that time. Whenever there would have been a
meeting of cabinet, people were criticizing Ayub khan, vocals in those meetings. Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto tried to remain calm without saying a single word and when the meetings went
over, he used to go silently to Ayub khan to consult the matter.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had capitalized the opportunities to have a favor of president of
country. Initially Ayub Khan implemented land reforms in the country though they were
not that much effective at that time. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had dual nationality and he was
busy in the administration of country in 1960. He was very influential as the foreign
minister of the country and Army was virtually run by General Mussa at that time.
Therefore, Ayub Khan did not have the time to look into the matters of the country.
Strategies were built by Pakistan to take back the Kashmir from India, but it was a
miscalculation of Pakistan Army. In 1965 war, Pakistan retaliated fiercely and penetrated
deep into India but it was a temporary kind of thing because Pakistan was running out of
arms and it was in the interest of Pakistan to ceasefire with India.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Ayub Khan went to Moscow, a treaty was signed between two
countries, and situation was resolved between two countries as the result of 1965 war.
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When he came back, Zulfiqar Ali launched a campaign against Ayub Khan and he just gave
away everything on the table which Pakistan had acquired into the battle field.. Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto launched his party with the name of Pakistan people’s party (PPP) and he went to
East Pakistan to make an alliance with Mujeeb-ur-Rehman. But Mujeeb-ur-Rehman had his
own desires and was not happy with the behavior of bureaucracy with East Pakistan.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was also playing the role of diplomat with China, Russia and with other
countries and was highly visible in print media and electronic media. General Yahya Khan
was very disappointed. Military was against him due to his role played in the war of 1965.
Ayub Khan was left with no any other option else to resign. General Yahya Khan came into
power, another martial law was implemented in the country, and constitution of 1962 was
abrogated. When the constitution of 1962 was abrogated elections were held and Sheikh
Mujeeb Rehman clean swept from East Pakistan under Awami League Party (AMP) and
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto secured seats in Sindh and South Punjab. Consequently, Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto did not accept the results of elections.
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HUM111 Pakistan studies
Lecture 17 Handouts
Background
Abrogation of the 1962 Constitution on March 25, 1969 led to second martial law in the
country. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto became first civilian chief martial law administrator of Pakistan
on 20th December, 1971. After assuming power the most important task for Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto was to frame a new constitution. He was in favor of presidential form of government
as this would give him more power but due to conflicting opinions within the Pakistan
People’s Party he had to settle for parliamentary system. National Assembly approved an
Interim Constitution, which was enforced on April 21, 1972.
Constitution Making
Constitutional Committee comprised National Assembly (NA) members from all parties was
set up in April 1972. Law Minister was the Chairman of this Committee. All parties agreed
on the future political system in October 1972. The Committee reported on December 31,
1972. After long deliberations and compromises the final draft was approved unanimously on
April 10, 1973. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto amassed a lot of power in the 1973 constitution and gave
only nominal authority to the head of the state. The new constitution was approved on 14th
August, 1973. This constitution remained enforced from 1973 to 1977 and suspended from
1977 to 1985. Later in 1985 this constitution was enforced again with a major amendment
called 8th amendment, also termed as the mini-constitution. Later, Zia introduced 58-2-B and
made president more powerful giving him power to dissolve the national assembly.
The Constitution functioned since then with two gaps. It remained operational during
following periods:
• 1973-77: Operational
• 1977-1985: Suspended
• 1985-1999: Operational after changes
• 1999-2002 : Suspended
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• 2002 onwards Operational after changes
Salient Features of 1973 Constitution

All the Islamic provisions of the previous constitutions were included in the Constitution of
1973. Some more Islamic provisions were also added, which are as under.
❖ Parliamentary System
Parliamentary form of government was introduced. It was a parliamentary constitution having
powerful Prime Minister (PM) as head of government with a very weak President. President
must act on the advice of PM. All of his orders were to be countersigned by PM. Prime
Minister need to be elected by the NA. PM exercised all executive authority. PM was
answerable to the National Assembly (NA).
❖ Role of President
Role of President was reduced to a mere symbolic figure. In 1985, powers of the President
were increased through the 8th constitutional amendment. He had power to dissolve the NA.
He had the powers of appointment of caretaker PM. He could give his consent to bills passed
by the parliament or returns these.
According to the Constitution of 1973 the President must be at least 45 years of age. He must
be Muslim and Qualified to become member of the NA. He is elected by the Parliament and
the Provincial Assemblies for 5 years. President was to act on the advice of the Prime
Minister.
❖ Bicameralism
Bicameralism was introduced in the country including Upper and Lower houses.
o The Senate
Upper House called Senate. In this house equal representation was given to Provinces.
Seats were reserved for the tribal areas, women and technocrats. Its original strength was
63, which was later raised to 87 and then 100, while the latest number is 104. Senate was
to be elected through indirect election. It’s a permanent House as half of its members are
elected after three years.
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o National Assembly
Lower House called National Assembly is elected on population basis. Its Original
strength was 210 but now it is 342. NA is elected for five years. National Assembly
member are elected through direct elections. Voting age for the franchise is lowered from
21 to 18.
National Assembly is more powerful than the Senate. Budget is presented before national
assembly (NA). Cabinet was to be answerable to National Assembly.
Prime Minister was to be elected by the national assembly. Parliament under 1973
constitution is a powerful legislative body. It enjoys all legislative powers. It has control
of the executive through questions, resolutions, parliamentary committees etc.
❖ Federal System
Federal form of government was introduced. Federation of Pakistan has four provinces and
federally administered areas. Two lists are given in the constitution: Federal list and
Concurrent list. Residuary powers belong to provinces.
❖ Provincial Structure
The President on the advice of the PM appointed provincial Governors. Elected Chief
Minister exercises executive powers. Parliamentary system was introduced in the provinces.
Size of the provincial assembly varied depending on the size of population and number of
constituencies. Governor rule to prevail in case of breakdown of provincial government.
Provinces to depend on centre for finance. Residuary powers were to rest with the provinces.
Centre was given emergency powers. Sufficient provincial autonomy was ensured in the
constitution.
❖ Principles of Policy
Islamic provisions are provided in Principles of Policy. Foreign policy principles are also
given under this heading.
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❖ Fundamental Rights
Fundamental Rights are secured in the constitution and are implemented through the highest
court. Supreme Court designated as the highest court in the country.
❖ Islamic Provisions
Title of the state is Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The objectives resolution was the preamble
in the initial constitution but through article 2-A of 8th amendment it was inserted in the
constitution in 1985. Islam was declared the State Religion of Pakistan. Ahmadis were
declared non-Muslims. Definition of Muslim was included by an amendment. Principles of
Policy also carried some Islamic clauses.
Council for Islamic Ideology is established under the constitution. i. e. Federal Shariat Court
was added in 1981. Council of Islamic ideology was established.
❖ National Language
Urdu was declared National Language; however, English may be used for official purposes
until arrangements would be made for its replacement by Urdu. Provincial Assembly may
prescribe measures for teaching, promotion and use of a provincial language in addition to
the national language. Provincial assemblies were allowed to prescribe measures for the
promotion of provincial languages.
❖ National Security Council

National Security Council was added in 2002 in advisory capacity.
❖ Judiciary
An independent judiciary was given under the constitution. Supreme Court of Pakistan was
the highest court. One High Court was established in each province and one in Azad
Kashmir. A chain of lower courts was there under the high courts. One high court was
established in each province including Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
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Bhutto’s Rule
The 1973 constitution gave Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto immense power, and therefore under this
constitution, he tried to implement his will on the people but faced tremendous opposition,
especially from the Baloch tribes. Nawab Akbar Bugti was made the governor of Balochistan
to curb resistance there posed by Nawab Khair Baksh Marri and Ataullah Mengal. Nawab
Akbar Bugti toed Bhutto’s line and resorted to forceful violent of crushing the opposition.
The matters that could be solved through debate and discussion in the provincial assembly
were now subjected to the battlefield. Ultimately, in order to tackle the restless situation in
Balochistan a full-scale military operation was launched under General Tika Khan, who was
notorious for his role in the 1971 war.
Pakistan People’s Party enjoyed enormous support in Sindh and South Punjab, but its
popularity was significantly low in the other two provinces. It was for this reason that
Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (NWFP at that time) were subjected to Bhutto’s wrath.
Consequently, the Federal Security Force (FSF), comprising of retired military personnel,
was established to manage the Prime Minister’s affairs through brutal measures. Formation of
FSF gave rise to political assassinations as a means of settling scores with dissenters and
opposing factions – Lahore, Karachi, Hyderabad and NWFP had to face an alarmingly high
level of assassinations. As the political landscape of the country deteriorated, Hayat Ahmed
Khan Sherpao was killed when Bhutto was on a foreign trip. Upon his return, Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto blamed Hayat Abdul Wali Khan for Sherpao’s assassination and arrested him.
On the other hand, the retirement age of General Tika Khan was approaching, and Bhutto
was posed with the challenge of looking for a loyal and submissive replacement. Bhutto’s
quest for appointing a docile army chief led him to select general Zia, bypassing many senior
officials eligible for the post. This move compounded Bhutto’s declining popularity among
the army officers who were already dissatisfied and critical of his policies. At the same time,
the political wing of Pakistan’s premier spy agency, ISI, was created. The political wing of
ISI was exclusively dedicated to helping Bhutto maneuver the upcoming elections in his
favor.
Subsequently, elections were held on March 1977 and PNA (Pakistan National Alliance) was
badly defeated. The elections were drastically rigged and managed by Bhutto’s FSF to make
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sure that Pakistan People’s Party scores a fantastic victory. PNA launched countrywide
agitation movement to protest against the conduct of unfair elections; there were street
violence and large-scale arrests in all major cities of the country. The economy of Pakistan
had also suffered because of this, and it was on a downward spiral to the extent that Bhutto
ran out of money to pay his FSF. Thus, FSF collapsed which made Bhutto more open to the
idea of negotiating with PNA leaders for the smooth functioning of his government.
However, PNA members and Bhutto could not reach an agreement vis-à-vis process of
holding fresh elections in the country. This made military intervention inevitable, and on 5th
July 1977, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s government was toppled by his handpicked chief of army
staff, General Zia-ul-Haq. Bhutto was arrested, the constitution was once again suspended,
and Pakistan slipped under its third military rule. General Zia-ul-Haq re-activated this
constitution in 1985. Later on this constitution was once again suspended by Pervaiz
Musharaf in his regime twice partially in 1999 and 2007.
Importance of Constitution of 1973

Constitution of 1973 has a great importance in the constitutional history of Pakistan because a
lot of Islamic Clauses are added in the constitution as compared to the previous constitutions.
This constitution cannot be dismissed (Cancelled or abrogated), any persons who will
dissolve it will be hanged till death.
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Lecture 18 Handouts
Introduction to Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

Background
What is a Foreign policy? Why do we need a Foreign policy? How relations of countries are
going to be with other countries? These are some of the questions that need to be answered. In
today’s world no country can survive on its own. In individual capacity, an individual can be
employed by some employer and can earn his/her living. However, when it comes to states they
cannot be employed by other states so, they must carry out business with other states to give
boost to their economy and improve their socio-economic situation inside the country. Therefore,
to cater the domestic needs, every state needs a viable foreign policy to take care of their
interests.
What is Foreign Policy?

Foreign policy is generally defined as the relation between the sovereign states. It is the
reflection of domestic politics and an interaction among sovereign states.
It is the establishment and development of relations with other countries to protect the national
interest by taking appropriate steps at an international level. The relationships between the two
countries are established based on the principle of equality. It is the choice of any state to have
relation with other state. For example, Pakistan and Israel are two sovereign states but the
foreign policy of Pakistan states, not to have any diplomatic relations with Israel. At domestic
front Pakistan, do not approve any Zionist state in occupied land of Middle East. That is why
Pakistan has never accepted Israel as a sovereign state. Thus, termed these nonexistent relations
as a reflection of domestic politics. At domestic level Pakistan, consider India as a threat for its
security, survival and existence. That is why the foreign policy of Pakistan towards India is
aggressive in nature and vice versa. At domestic fronts, we have good relations with Muslim
countries and they are reflected in our foreign policy.
Pakistan is a Muslim state and it came into being as result of an ideology, so we have friendly
relations with all of the Muslim countries. In this case too, the domestic aspirations are reflected
in foreign policy.
Foreign policy also indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to
establish relations with another country.

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Pakistan has good relations with China because it is in its preferences. Pakistan considers China
as her good friend and this relationship is beneficial in economic terms as well as the security.
That is why we have good relations with China.
Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

No country today can think of a life independent of other nations, as this is an era of
interdependence we need to achieve our own interest. Every country has to develop relations
with advanced countries to meet its requirements in economic, industrial and technological fields
and is dependent on economically strong countries to support us in various fields. Pakistan needs
to maintain good bilateral relationships with other countries for the sake of trade and security
measures. It is thus necessary for every country to formulate a sound foreign policy.
Pakistan is an important third world country in its developmental stage. It has formulated its
foreign policy keeping in mind its geography, geopolitics and economics needs.
Principles of Pakistan Foreign Policy

Following things should be taken care while formulating the foreign policy of a country.
1. Peaceful coexistence (Live and let live others)

2. Non-alignment (Be Neutral)
3. United Nations Chartered
4. Unity of Islamic world
5. International and Regional Cooperation: Member of South Asian Regional Cooperation
(SARC), Organization of Islamic countries (OIC), World health organization (WHO).
Objectives of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

Pakistan’s foreign policy intends to achieve the following objectives;
• National Security
• Economic Development
• Ideology
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Determinants of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

The key determinants of foreign policy of Pakistan are as under:
• Security
• Ideology
• National Interests
• Diplomacy
• Public Opinion
• Decision making
Guiding Principles of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

1. Protection of freedom and sovereignty
Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of millions of the Muslims, like any other country.
It also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not
allow any country to harm its freedom. Therefore, the principle of protection of independence
and sovereignty is the cornerstone of Pakistan's Foreign Policy.
2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries
Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has
always moved its concern against Israel, India and Russia capturing Palestine, Kashmir and
Afghanistan respectively. It has shouldered high responsibilities and used its influence for
safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of the Organization of
the Islamic Conference.
3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs of Other countries
Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially its
neighboring countries based on universally acknowledged principle of national sovereignty, by
using force and interfering in the internal affairs of state. Pakistan should not interfere in the
internal policy matters of other countries
4. Implementation of U.N Charter
Pakistan's policy is to act upon United Nations Charter and to support all moves by the UN to
implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth.
Pakistan must be implementing United Nations charter on the world stage. If United Nations’
policy talks about fundamental human rights then United Nations should implement that policy.
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We are also facing educational emergency in Pakistan because there are some millennium
developmental goals (MDG) for sustainable development. They are the part of the United
Nations charter. Pakistan is part of those implementation efforts such as the policies of (WHO)
for eradicating POLIO which are diligently implemented in Pakistan.
5. Promotion of World Peace
Pakistan’s Policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any
country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the international
disputes should be settled through negotiations rather than in battlefield. Pakistan plays the role
of mediator to settle down the conflicts between various countries with negotiations and by peace
talks. As a guiding principle of foreign policy, Pakistan raises its voice for oppressed countries as
is the situation prevailing in Palestine and Kashmir. Pakistan is the part of many groups in which
they play their role to promote world peace. Therefore, Pakistan is promoting those efforts.
6. Non-Alignment
Pakistan followed the policy of non-alignment that is to keep away from aligning with any big
power block and avoids taking sides in the cold war. It has also withdrawn its association with
SEATO and CENTO.
We should play a neutral role, but this neutrality is related with cold war. In cold world war,
there were two blocks socialist or communist and capitalists. There was another group which
non-alignment group they were not part of any group and they remained non-aligned. Therefore,
under a lot of constraints and security considerations Pakistan became part pf capitalist block as
it just signed SEATO and CENTO with United States of America. So it formally became part of
capitalist group, but when they thought, their interest has been fulfilled then they no longer
remain aligned.
7. Right for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination
Pakistan is a staunch supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the forefront of
efforts to eliminate colonialism. It has advocated the right of self-determination of Kashmir.
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Lecture 19 Handouts
Factors of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy
The guiding principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy are rooted in the country's Islamic ideology,
its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country,
Pakistan supports Islamic values and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles, which
hold out the promotion of a just and unbiased world order in which nations can live in peace
and security
Guiding Principles of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy are as follows
a. Protection of freedom and sovereignty

b. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries
c. Non Interference in Internal Affairs of Other countries
d. Implementation of U.N. Charter
e. Promotion of World Peace
f. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination
Important Factors of Foreign policy
Important Factors of Foreign policy include internal and external factors, which are as under
i. Internal factors included

a. Geographical location
b. Size of the State
c. Natural capacity
ii. External factors included
a. Alliances
b. Power structure
c. World opinion
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Current Focusing Points
The major focus of Pakistan's foreign policy is security against external and internal challenges
to its national identity, territorial integrity and independence. Another foreign policy interest is
the cultivation of close and brotherly relations with the Muslim states. Pakistan highlights
sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each
other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy. Pakistan firmly believes
that it has to work within the norms and institutions of the international system but it supports
their restructuring for bringing them in line with the realities currently obtaining in the
International system.
Pakistan also identifies with the political and economic concerns of the developing countries.
Pakistan, therefore, maintains a strong faith in the principles enunciated in the United Nations
Charter and takes an active part in the deliberations of the UN and other International and
regional organizations. Other leading foreign policy goals include support to the right of self-
determination for the subjugated nations, oppositions to colonialism, peaceful resolution of
inter-state disputes, arms control and nuclear non-proliferation, and promotion of peace and
stability through international and regional cooperation.
Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of percentage of population (after
Indonesia), and its status as a declared nuclear power, being the only Islamic nation to have
that status, plays a part in its international role. Pakistan has a violent independent foreign
policy, especially when it comes to issues such as development of nuclear weapons,
construction of nuclear reactors, foreign military purchases and other issues that are vital to its
national interests. Pakistan has a strategic geo-political location at the corridor of world major
maritime oil supply lines, and has close proximity to the resource and oil rich central Asian
countries.
Pakistan is an important member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), a major

non-NATO ally in the war against terrorism, and has a highly disciplined military, which is the
world's eighth-largest standing military force.
Historically, Pakistan's foreign policy has encompassed difficult relations with the Republic of
India; especially on the core-issue of Kashmir, over which it has fought three wars. However
it has had long-standing close relations with its other neighbors Afghanistan, Iran and China,
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extensive security and economic interests in the Persian Gulf and wide-range bilateral relations
with the United States and other Western countries. Due to intention of Soviet expansion,
Pakistan has strong relations with the People's Republic of China during much of the Cold War
and good relations with the United States of America. Today, the People's Republic of China
remains Pakistan's closest ally.
Major Alliance
Pakistan has historically maintained brotherly and friendly relations with all the Arab and
Muslim countries under the banner of OIC. Apart from friendly relations with Muslim
countries, China and USA are also seen as major partners.
Major Revelries
Pakistan and India have fought 3 wars in the past. The continuing dispute over the status of
Kashmir inflames opinion in both nations and makes friendly relations difficult. Moreover,
Pakistan and Israel maintain no diplomatic relations.
International Organization & Foreign Policy
Pakistan is an active member of the United Nations. It was a member of the CENTO and
SEATO military alliances. Its alliance with the United States was especially close after the
Soviets invaded the neighboring country of Afghanistan. In 1964, Pakistan signed the Regional
Cooperation for Development (RCD) Pact with Turkey and Iran, when all three countries were
closely allied with the U.S., and as neighbors of the Soviet Union, worried about the
expansionist policy of the USSR.
To this day, Pakistan has close relations with Turkey. RCD became obsolete after the Iranian
Revolution, and a Pakistani-Turkish initiative led to the founding of the Economic Cooperation
Organization (ECO) in 1985. Pakistan is the leading member of the Club which opposes Indian
membership in the United Nations Security Council. Pakistan began with an independent
foreign policy in 1947. However, it tilted towards the West in a period of 7 years due to serious
economic and security pressures. It pursued independently to non-aligned foreign policy from
mid-60s to the end of the 1970s and assigned a great importance to its interaction with the
Muslim states and the issues and problems of the developing world. It maintained a policy of
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close interaction in the security and economic fields with the West in general and the U.S. in
particular in the mid and late 1950s, the 1980s, and in the post 9/11.
Pakistan is currently an active player in the global efforts for combating religious extremism
and terrorism with a policy that extremism and terrorism pose serious threats to global security
as well as to Pakistan's internal peace, stability and economic development. Pakistan has made
some difficult decisions in pursuing counter terrorism and for ensuring peace and stability in
the immediate neighborhood in order to boost its image at the international level, restore
international confidence in the ability of the Pakistani state and government to put their socio-
economic house in order, and shape up as a democratically oriented, modern and enlightened
Muslim state that does not allow its territory to be used by extremist groups.
Different Phases of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy
After independence there were Indian threat on the Eastern borders. Pakistan opted non-aligned
and independent foreign policy. At that time other Muslim countries were not strong enough
to extend any military help. It was cold war era and the big power’s rivalry made the country
territorially unprotected. However Pakistani political leaders visited the US in search of ties to
have guarantees of borders but in vain. Pakistan lived on developing with meager resources till
1955 and 1959 when Pakistan entered into a multilateral alliance system initiated by USA to
contain communism. They were South-East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO-1955) and
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO-1959). Pakistan felt secure because one of the clauses
of both the agreements was “attack on one will be considered attack on all”. These agreements
turned out to be useless when Pakistan-India clashed in 1965 and 1971. No country came to
Pakistan’s rescue. After it’s defeat in 1971 Pakistan instead on depending on any other world
power began a massive venture of arms purchase. Due to this defense policy, expenditure raised
and socio-economic needs of the country suffered. The nuclear and missile system program
was started to maintain the balance of power in the region.
Pak-China relations were promoted due to unsafe borders and to counter the power imbalance
of South-Asia. During the past three decades the Afghanistan issue, Kashmir struggle for
freedom and Pakistan’s nuclear policy has made the borders of the country more porous for
cross border infiltration in and out of the country. Recent development in the world has put the
country in the hot waters. Due to continue political disturbance and wars in Afghanistan has
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created serious socio-economic issues for Pakistan. Pakistan has been over burdened by
unnecessary foreign aid which turned out to be useless for socio economic needs of common
men. Consequently, Pakistan is included among the poor countries of the world therefore the
country still requires to design its foreign policy to fulfill its economic needs and to ensure
stable economy and cultivate capabilities by which the country comes out of the unkind
clutches of loans.
Conclusion
The guiding principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy are rooted in the country's Islamic ideology,
its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country,
Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles, which
hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which nations can live in peace and
security.
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Lecture 20 Handouts
Political System and Political Parties of Pakistan
Political System of Pakistan
A political system is a system through which a state is run. As we have already discussed 1956,
1962 and 1973 constitution of Pakistan. So basically, these constitutions are defining political
system of Pakistan. In 1956 constitution, we had a unicameral legislation or parliamentary
system. Unicameral means there is one house of parliament and parliamentary system means
that executive of the country (i.e. Prime minister) is from the members of parliament. In
parliamentary system all members of cabinet will also be from parliament members. Then 1962
constitution which was given by President Ayub Khan, was basically unicameral presidential
system. There was only one house of the parliament. The form of the government was
presidential form of government. There was an electoral college that was elected by the people
and in return the electoral college elects the president. In presidential system, president is the
chief executive of country while in parliamentary system prime minister is the chief executive
of the country. In presidential system, president has liberty to choose members of cabinet and
those members should not be necessarily members of parliament.
1973 constitution was bicameral- parliamentary. Bicameral means one senate and one national
assembly. In senate all provinces were given equal representation. While in national assembly
(lower house) representation was given based on population. This constitution was
parliamentary system which means executive of country and cabinet members should be from
members of parliament. In parliamentary system, we have a multi-party system in Pakistan.
We have different provinces and the presidential system is implemented in different provinces
but there is unicameral legislation and there is no upper house and he can be elected from the
leader of the political party by the people and part of that house of provincial, again the same
process is repeated and becomes the chief minister and selects members from provincial
assembly and then he makes his own cabinet.
Defining a Political Party
A political party is defined as an organized group of people with at least roughly

similar political aims and opinions, that seeks to influence public policy by getting its
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candidates elected to public office.
These political parties contest the elections by the people. Every political party have different
aims and prospects e.g. voting for religion, voting for equality, voting for justice. These aims,
and prospects must be aligned with the objective of people which haven’t been fulfilled or
people which are aspiring for it. Than these political parties devise their manifesto and slogan
than ask people to vote them. When these political parties are implemented than they go to the
public offices to implement their manifesto of whatever they promise with the people.
Another definition of political party describes political party as: An organization of people
who share the same views about the way power should be used in a country
or society (through government, policy-making, etc.).
Political parties usually say that power shall be used in a very humble manner not in an editorial
manner. Political parties go to ground and they ask people that how power should be exercised
and when they come to know about the opinions of the people than they devise their own aims
of whatever the people are asking to do so.
Political Parties in Pakistan
There are around 90 fringe political parties. Fringe parties are basically small parties which are
confined to one district only. Around a dozen mainstream political parties are there in the
country. Such as PMLN, Baluchistan National Party, PTI etc. These political parties and fringe
political parties can combine with each other to increase their vote bank. These parties
primarily try to find a breathing space and survive.
However, keeping in view the diverse issues in the country; Pakistan is considered as one of
the fertile states for political parties. There are many issues in Pakistan and each political party
claims to resolve different issues. So political parties have a lot to do in the country. Political
parties in Pakistan have remained underdeveloped due to authoritarian political culture,
imbalance between powerful state and weak political institutions. In west, there is no
authoritarian political culture but in Pakistan usually parties are made by elites. So authoritarian
political culture is more common in Pakistan. In west political parties there is no authoritarian
political culture. A politician whom we elect or public elects consider to be as a very humble
person because he hasn’t seen the political approach by his predecessor but when we see this
authoritarian culture in Pakistan those parties are made by elites in the country. If you take
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example of these political parties (NAWAB’s). They were in the habit that they would serve
the masses. If we see about Pakistan people party It was made by a landlord which was Zulfiqar
Ali Bhutto and the problem in this scenario that there were no any internal democracies in the
party, then because if you introduce internal democracy in the party than it is a sort of procedure
that persons from elite class would be voted out.
Except the right wing religious political parties, the majority of political parties in Pakistan are
least interested in any form of political education of the masses. This is the major dilemma as
political parties as they do not educate masses. As uneducated masses would vote for the wrong
person who will not be eligible for this position. The followers of most of the political parties
mainly rely on the speeches of their leaders in public gatherings or on the views of their leaders
disseminated through print and electronic media. The tradition of study circles, position papers
by the leaders and the workers prevailed in the late 1960’s however, it vanished with the
passage of time.
Historical Reasons of Weak Political Parties
Within the colonial state structure that Pakistan inherited, the state institutions, like the military
and civil bureaucracy, were far more developed than the political institutions such as
legislatures and political parties.
The All-India Muslim League, to whom power was transferred in August 1947, was unable to
transform itself from a movement to a genuine national political party. It was and remains an
elitist organization and does not practice internal democracy.
Islamic Politics
Since Pakistan’s inception, the combination of self-interest and Islamic politics has
complicated the problem of building a political organization with broad responsibilities to the
larger society. Efforts by other parties to contest the power of the League were frustrated and
the opposition politicians were often physically prevented from appealing to their constituents
and by dubbing them unpatriotic.
The League governments used repressive measures against them. The Red Shirt (NWFP),
Majlis-i-Ahrar, Jama'at-i-Islami, and the Pakistan National Congress were the targets at
different.
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Lecture 21 Handouts
The Problems of Political Parties in Pakistan (A)
In democratic societies, political parties play a significant role in articulating citizens'

aspirations. Upon gaining people's support and electoral trust, they serve as a vital link between
the state and society.
Islamic Politics
Since Pakistan’s inception, the combination of self-interest and Islamic politics has
complicated the problem of building a political organization with broad responsibilities to the
larger society. Efforts by other parties to contest the power of the League were frustrated and
the opposition politicians were often physically prevented from appealing to their constituents
and by dubbing them unpatriotic. The League governments used repressive measures against
them. The Red Shirt (NWFP), Majlis-i-Ahrar, Jama'at-i-Islami, and the Pakistan National
Congress were the targets at different times.
East Bengal's first province-wide elections in 1954, however, dramatized the weakness of the
League and it’s programmes for constructing an Islamic state as the United Front - an
organization of all provincial parties – won the elections. The League also lost its influence in
West Pakistan when a Bengali, Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy, took charge as the prime
minister in 1956. The Punjabi landlords sought refuge in a jerry-built organization, the
Republican Party. In 1958, the military-led establishment decided to terminate the
constitutional experiment, and the 1956 constitution was abrogated, the legislatures were
closed, and all political parties were banned.
Pakistani Version of Political Party
Between 1958 and 1971 President Ayub Khan, through autocratic rule was able to centralize
the government without the inconvenience of unstable ministerial coalitions that had
characterized its first decade after independence.
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The martial law was lifted only when Ayub bestowed his own constitution to the nation in
1962. Ayub believed that it was possible to conduct government without the formal
establishment of political parties but had no recourse other than to resurrect his own political
party in the parliament. He borrowed the name of the Muslim League, but when the real Muslim
League members displayed their outrage, Ayub modified the name, as Convention Muslim
league. It performed well under Ayub Khan's military umbrella but in December 1970, with
official patronage, it polled only 3.3 per cent of the total votes cast.
Along with other political parties, it was dissolved on July 5, 1977, when the third martial law
was imposed. Again in 1986, Mohammad Khan Junejo recreated it after becoming prime
minister in the non-party based elections. But on May 29th 1988 President Zia dissolved the
National Assembly and removed the prime minister.
The growth of political parties within the parliament is a phenomenon confined only to
Pakistan. Otherwise, citizens form parties that politically compete for power and if trusted only
then enter power corridors. Besides the establishment's modus operandi to have obedient
political parties in its pocket, personality centered Pakistan People's Party and Awami League
were able to articulate people's voice and exhibited unique success in the country's first general
elections in 1970 on the basis of adult franchise. General elections were held in Pakistan on 7
December 1970 (East and West Pakistan) and ultimately only general elections held prior to
the independence of Bangladesh. Voting took place in 300 parliamentary constituencies of
Pakistan to elect members of the National Assembly of Pakistan. The politically shocked
establishment, instead of transferring power, resorted to military action in East Pakistan, which
resulted in the tragic break-up of the country in 1971. Later, Awami League assumed power in
Bangladesh and the Pakistan People's Party remains a potent force in Pakistan.
Political Parties and Mass Contact
The development of political parties is related to the level of development of a society, the
quality of mutual relations and the nature of the state structure. It was the uneven political
development in rural and urban areas that affected the growth of parties in the colonial period
also persisted, though it gradually narrowed down in 1990s. The trend affected the development
of parties in Pakistan. They mostly remained urban-based, with limited contacts with rural
population. In the absence of regular elections there was no pressure on the city-based political
parties to reach the 70 percent rural population and integrate it in the political process.
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The Problems of Political Parties
Almost all the political parties currently face certain problems. The first is the lack of
democracy within the party structure. Second, they are preoccupied with the sole objective of
grabbing power. They have failed to encourage the growth of alternate leadership. Third, most
of our political parties lack a clear political vision. Corruption has also eaten into the heart of
the society, a society that has few resources and great development demands. Thus, they have
alienated the citizens from political sharing and participation.
Lack of Inner Democracy
All major political parties are accused of democratic malpractices. Their leaders appoint
themselves as life chairpersons. Heirs are groomed to take over their father's mantle. Party
positions are distributed at a price to favorites.
With a few exceptions, political parties in Pakistan have never held elections within their ranks.
Often, influential politicians (landlords and industrial barons) sought and secured important
positions in major political parties on the basis of nominations. The heads of major political
parties are nominated by their so-called working committees or Central Boards, which again
comprise non-elected nominated members.
Down to the lowest rung of the hierarchical ladder in the party, the leaders of the different tiers
and/or Central Executive Committee nominate the office bearers. Consequently, influential
people with clout within the party and high command get themselves nominated to important
positions in the party. Social and business upstarts with political ambitions employ similar
tactics. The heads of the country's two largest political parties often cry hoarse over the need
to get rid of military dictatorship, yet they continue the dictatorial practice of nominations in
their own parties. Such contradictions hinder the flourishing of normative democratic culture.
The result of this situation is that the political parties were hardly prepared to cope with the
situation arising out of the assumption of power by General Pervez Musharraf in October 1999.
Lack of Building Up of Leaders

Both Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto, the leaders of the two mainstream parties, never
encouraged the growth of alternate leadership in their parties. The parties in Pakistan do not
build politicians from workers to leaders, from low-ranking to high-ranking public activists
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and from weak to powerful decision makers, commanding a progressively expanding

jurisdictional territory. Hence these parties face a problem in mobilizing their disenchanted
workers who seem to be in no mood to make sacrifices for the leadership.
Corruption and Lack of Transparency
The political leaders focus on personal or vested interests instead of national interests. They
have always tried to achieve their vested interests in the garb of politics. They have never
respected the norms of democracy. That’s why our country has failed to develop healthy
political institutions and lasting democracy. After the October 1999 military coup, many
analysts described the two major political parties of Pakistan as “corrupt, incompetent,
unpopular and highly damaging to the welfare of the people in Pakistan” and observed that it
was plutocracy which was ripping millions of rupees away from the public exchequer.
Such charges of corruption against the party leadership further strengthened the feeling of
alienation among the people. Political parties’ funding in Pakistan remains an unanswered
question.
Political Parties and their Manifestoes
Electoral manifestos play a crucial role in visions of party democracy and political science
analyses of party competition. Ritualistically, every party has its manifesto issued at election
time but these manifestoes hide many contradictions.
First, while they consciously try to be “all things to all people”, they are also high nuance
documents - nuances that only seasoned and native political analysts can adequately fathom.
Second, while manifestoes tend to address a long list of problems, they evade prioritizing them
- as well as the pledged solutions. Third, while they promise an array of outputs, they rarely
specify how resources, not only financial and economic but political, administrative, cultural
and social are to be generated and allocated to mutually competing promises. Fourth, parties
are rarely serious enough to sift through and solve even serious contradictions among pledges
made in their manifestoes.
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Lecture 22 Handouts
The Problems of Political Parties in Pakistan (B)

The Political Vision or The Lack of It
Almost all political parties were lacking proper vision in Pakistan as where they do stand and
where they want to take Pakistan at a certain point. Some political parties might say that they
are facing corruption in Pakistan while others say that they are lacking proper infrastructure in
Pakistan. People’s party was having their slogan to eradicate poverty and to redistribute equal
power while the slogan of Pakistan Muslim league (N) was to build infrastructure in Pakistan.
The slogan of Pakistan Tehreeq-Insaf revolve around to remove corruption and they use this
slogan to counter the power of Pakistan Muslim league Nawaz supremacy. The main slogan of
Muslim political parties revolves around to implement Islamic teachings, policies and Islamic
system in Pakistan. So, the main problem which is here that political parties were lacking
proper vision. The emergence of political parties is related to the material and cultural
advancement of society in which citizens are free to form groups and associations and to
articulate their demands and problems. The low level of such advancement and the lack of
freedom in Pakistani society, particularly during the first decade, constrained the development
of parties. Thus, the phenomenon led to their myopic vision of these political parties.
Because there was lack of freedom in Pakistan, People couldn’t able to express their views
freely. If you oppose PML (N) than PML (N) will brand you as a traitor which is a constrained
on the freedom of speech not there is the society, or the freedom of thought is not in the society
than you be incarcerated in the box that would produce vibrant political parties because I have
already told you political parties as a one kind of representative of people. It represents the
mindsets of people It represent either the true mindset of people or its ignorant masses. If that
thing is not there than we see impact of those political parties on the growth of political parties
and their myopic vision.
The Lost Vision
General Zia-Ul-Haq was killed in a plane crash accident than PPP and PML (N) they got the
opportunity to rule the country one after another. So, this curse political development was
changed but the thing is that we were on the eve of 21st century so that political direction and
the vision that was supposed to be there for us to enter into 21st century with all its changes and
dynamics that was lost because both these political parties they were involve in the power grab.
They didn’t allow the other political parties like Pakistan People Party (PPP) was given an
opportunity in 1998 and that was over thrown so PML (N) was involve in the conspiracy against
PPP and we lost the Political vision in such kind of those conspiracies against PPP and we lost
the political vison in such kind of those conspiracies and political parties lost their vision.
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However, in the 1990s the course of political development changed totally. The political
direction and vision to enter the 21st century was lost. Major political parties, particularly the
Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) and the Muslim League, set their direction for a power struggle,
floor crossing and corruption throughout the decade. The lack of vision weakened them to the
extent that the governments of Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif were struck by the dissolution
syndrome, twice each.
The weakness of political parties in Pakistan is evident from their massive proliferation and
high rate of mortality, their fragmentation into small and ineffective fractions, their
regionalisation and ethnicization with appeal only to a limited number of citizens. This also
reflects their indifference to formulate coherent programmers and policies for winning the
support of the broad strata of society. With weak institutional roots in society, parties are
amorphous groups tied together by their leaders; some charismatic, others not, some becoming
party leaders because of their wealth and the others due to inheritance.
So, some of the leaders are charismatic but some other leaders are not that much charismatic.
Political parties need funding and some of the wealthy rich political parties need funding’s to
win the election. Some rich people provide the funding to political parties, so some rich
political parties become leaders because they are wealthy and rich, and others become leaders
because their father and forefathers have established the parties. This inheritance prevails in all
political parties except Jamat-e-Islami (JI). Pakistan people party got established after the death
of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Benazir Bhutto succeeded the elections after the death of Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto and Billawal Bhutto Zardari emerged and became renowned after the death of his
mother.
Lack of Citizen's Participation
The political parties can hope to play a meaningful role only if they succeed in gathering the
masses around them. There are rarely any membership campaigns conducted by the parties.
Even those who joined them on one or the other pretext have been demoralised. Part of the
problem lies in the inner working of these parties, which does not provide a sense of
participation to the members.
Lack of Mutual Understanding
Pakistan’s political parties lack mutual trust and understanding. The culture of political
dialogue has never taken roots in Pakistan. It was only in 1977 that the two competing political
parties entered a process of negotiations. Today, only circumstances have brought the Pakistan
People’s Party and the Muslim League together into the Alliance for the Restoration of
Democracy.
Mainstream, as well as the ethnic-regional parties, lack internal debate over policy alternatives.
Their priorities and preferences are not an outcome of household debates and discussion.
Instead, they are identified with their leaders.
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The culture of dialogue has not been established and it lacks mutual understanding. In U.S.
there are a lot of peaceful dialogues and meetings are to be held and carried out. We often see
mutual political debates of political parties. They should articulate their vision and abandon
their ego to talk on their manifesto and to develop mutual understanding apart from it they
don’t come closer to each other.
The Way Forward
Accountable democracy cannot function in Pakistan until drastic changes are made in the
formation and functioning of political parties, which can faithfully represent and serve the
people through a transparent political system. Educated professional and progressive-minded
middle-class citizens do not have any chance to participate in the democratic process. Our
failure to recognise the need to restructure the political party system on fundamental principles
of democracy has destroyed our national institutions by corruption and nepotism.
Lack of accountability by the elected autocratic rulers during the past decades has become the
accepted feature of our national policy. The chasm between the poor and the rich has reached
alarming proportions. By squandering public funds on dubious projects and levying ever-
increasing taxes to pay for their extravagant lifestyle, rulers have demoralized and crippled the
tax paying middle class, which is the productive segment of any developing democratic society.
We have miserably fail to recognize the need to restructure the political party system in
Pakistan on the bases of democracy because restructuring of the political parties on the bases
of democracy means that they should be internal democracy that must be introduced in the
political parties of Pakistan but this failure has basically brought to the stage to this point that
we are facing in our country one after another and this is because of our failure to recognize
we would always say that there is genuine democracy in Pakistan having genuine democracies
in political parties themselves. So, this failure has contributed a lot to the current political
miseries of the country. So, national institutions have been destroyed by corruption and
nepotism whenever, there is a political leader you would have heard about from your cities and
villages.
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Lecture 23 Handouts
The Problems of Political Parties in Pakistan (C)
The Way Forward
Accountable democracy cannot function in Pakistan until drastic changes are made in the
formation and functioning of political parties, which can faithfully represent and serve the
people through a transparent political system. Educated professional and progressive-minded
middle-class citizens do not have any chance to participate in the democratic process. Our
failure to recognise the need to restructure the political party system on fundamental principles
of democracy has destroyed our national institutions by corruption and nepotism.
Lack of accountability by the elected autocratic rulers during the past decades has become the
accepted feature of our national policy. The chasm between the poor and the rich has reached
alarming proportions. By squandering public funds on dubious projects and levying ever-
increasing taxes to pay for their extravagant lifestyle, rulers have demoralized and crippled the
tax paying middle class, which is the productive segment of any developing democratic society.
We have miserably fail to recognize the need to restructure the political party system in
Pakistan on the bases of democracy because restructuring of the political parties on the bases
of democracy means that they should be internal democracy that must be introduced in the
political parties of Pakistan but this failure has basically brought to the stage to this point that
we are facing in our country one after another and this is because of our failure to recognize
we would always say that there is genuine democracy in Pakistan having genuine democracies
in political parties themselves. So, this failure has contributed a lot to the current political
miseries of the country. So, national institutions have been destroyed by corruption and
nepotism whenever, there is a political leader you would have heard about from your cities and
villages.
Pakistani Political System and its Different Aspects
In Pakistani political system, many things need to be improved. It has been observed in last
few decades that politicians once elected start thinking that they are not accountable or
answerable to anyone in this country. Despite the presence of institutions like Supreme Court
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and other low level courts. Over the past few decades, a perception is built among politicians
that once they are selected, they will enjoy the government office fully and will not be
answerable to any institution or person.
There is a need of well recognized policy for political parties which so that it will be strictly
followed once they are elected. Extra funds should not be used against unnecessary projects.
The gap between poor and rich should be minimized.
Main Features of a Good Political System
After doing the survey of Pakistani political system, it has been suggested that there are certain
features which should be adopted in order to create a balance between political entities and
institutes etc.
• Democracy
Democracy means everybody with equal chance. In Political system, each and every member
of political party should have an equal chance of expressing their views. In democratic system
each and everybody should have a chance to vote, an equal opportunity to contribute towards
development.
• Accountability
In democratic system where the leader is elected by other members who is answerable to them
even after taking the oath. It is usually ignored and leaders start to think that they are above
any law. In reality, it is not. It is observed that the best democratic political system has the
strongest accountability system.
• Financial Resources
In a mature and democratic political system, financial resources are best utilized. Extra
expenditure on unnecessary projects is always discouraged.
• Mass Contact
Political parties have to draw their strength from citizens for sustainable democracy instead of
looking for behind-the-scene intrigues to grab power. They should consider public the main
source of power in democratic system.
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Lecture 24 Handouts
Civil Military Relations in Pakistan: A Brief Survey (A)
Civil Military Relations
Civil military relations for a country describes the relationship between a society as whole and
established military organization(s) to protect it (society). More narrowly it describes the
relationship between the civil authority of a given society and its military authority. The term
“civil–military relations” refers to the role of the armed forces in a society. It implies that the
relations between the military and the civilian population are like labor-management relations,
legislative-executive relations civil-military relations includes studies of how a military
employs civilian contractor, how military bases interact with their neighbors, and how a
nation's military affects its politics
Military organizations are generally established to protect the societies from all kind of threats
like external, internal and existential threats. In other words, the civil military relationship
outlines the scopes of civil authority, military authority and relationship between these two
authorities. Nature of civil military relations can be used to measure the type of democracy in
a country i.e. Good democracy usually have balanced civil military relations. Also, civil
military relations refer to the role of armed various in various components of society like e.g.
how military employ civilian contractors, how military bases are established how they interact
with neighbors or how military effects the politics of a country. Balanced civil military relations
can be managed by considering all the required factors for balanced civil-military relations.
The most basic precondition of a true democratic setup is a healthy civil-military relationship.
In all democratic countries, an elected civilian government enjoys full control over the military.
However, in Pakistan, control over governance has oscillated between the two; a decade of
civilian supremacy followed by a decade of military rule. The reasons for this periodic shuffling
are incompetent political leadership, weak political parties and institutions, rising power of
civil-military bureaucracy, serious security threats to the country and frequent use of military
in aid of civil power.
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Civil Military Relations in Pakistan
From history, it can be analyzed that civil military relations of Pakistan mostly remain
imbalanced due to various reasons, the control of Pakistan’s governance remained shuffling
between civilian supremacy and military rule. Supposedly there are more than one reasons for
these imbalanced civil military relations, including the incompetent political leadership, weak
political parties. Other factors to imbalanced civil military relations may include rising power
of military bureaucracy, frequent use of military in aid of civil power e.g. for solving internal
political disputes etc. Sometimes it is perceived that the military desired to rule the Pakistan
but this perception is wrong as supposedly Pakistan has been suffering from incompetent
political leadership and weak political parties that are apparent causes of most of the military
interventions in governance.
Civil military relations can be affected by the existential, internal, external and even global
factors. Pakistan has always remained under the existential and various other external threats
that required a strong and efficient military to mitigate these threats. e.g. The eastern and
western border always remained vulnerable to existential threats. Internal factors may include
the incompetent leadership and weak political parties, involvement of military in internal
especially the political disputes. These all factors including the external and internal factors
require the active participation of military in country that can lead to imbalance in civil military
relations.
Civil-military relations of Pakistan remained imbalanced, country has faced four military coups
since its inception, military has ruled Pakistan for 33 years out of 71 years, due to effects and
perception drawn from military rule civil military relation balanced has been badly effected it
has been believed that the military is the most influential institutional player, even it is widely
believed that military rules from behind the scenes in the civil governments. This trend of
military supremacy can be observed in the other strong democracies on the globe as well. This
is a one side of coin that military is the most influential player the other side of coin can be the
competent leaders and strong political parties can work together with military in their
respective domains to maintain healthy and balanced civil military relations.
Geo-strategically Pakistan is very important nuclear-armed country that need a strong military
for its existential and other external threats, Pakistan has allegedly considered as heaven for
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terrorists, especially considering that war in neighboring Afghanistan, Pakistan needs a strong
military for the counter-terrorism activities. Pakistan is also very central to America’s
Afghanistan strategy that is supposedly also causing the civil-military imbalances due to
military to military direct cooperation instead of involving the civil government. Despite some
analysts’ regard Pakistan as soon to be failed state due to prevailing indicators but Pakistan is
on the way strengthening democracy and balanced civil military relations
Factors to be Analyzed
• External Threats
• Internal Threats
• Military Composition
• Condition of the State
• Military Institutionalization
1. External Threats
• Pakistan-India Relations
The major external threat to Pakistan since its inception is its neighbor India, India has been
remained threat due to various reasons one of the basic reasons is Hindu Muslim antagonism.
India still consider Pakistan its part and expecting it be its part again in future because India
consider Pakistan will not be able to survive and economically and strategically it is failed
state. Pakistan should make his military strong in order to avert this threat or in order to counter
that threat, so Pakistan has got civil military institutions and civilian society is not that strong
in Pakistan. Military society is also well educated, and they are also well equipped, but our
civilian people and institutions are weak. Most civilian societies are also dislike by the military
societies. There were four wars were fought between India and Pakistan in the year of 1947,
1965,1971 and 1999. The war of 1947 and 1965 was due to Kashmir, war of 1971 was due to
East Pakistan and the war of 1999 was due to Kargil and it was not a full fledge war. Another
major issue is Kashmir issue from 1947-1999 Pakistan has faced four wars with India due to
Kashmir issue, Kashmir issues has been considered is major cause of conflicts between India
and Pakistan. The other Pakistan-India issues may include division of water resources, trade
and its routes etc. For above mentioned major threats there is need of strong military to mitigate
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threats, because these threats can lead to the existential roots of country the need of strong
military in such circumstances can be a cause of imbalanced civil military relations.
• Terrorism
Like other countries around the globe Pakistan has been facing terrorism challenges especially
after the soviet invasion of Afghanistan, after soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan the
‘Mujahidin’ that were fighting during soviet invasion moved to Kashmir and started fighting
against India, Unfortunately India blames Pakistan for these Mujhadin. These displaced
Mujahidins of soviet war has relationships with neighboring countries like Afghanistan, during
last few decades these Mujahdin remained the main cause of terrorism in countries of this
region and mostly the countries of region blame each other for anonymous terrorism. In past
years major cities of Pakistan even sometimes Capital remained vulnerable to terrorism. To
counter that terrorism there is need of extra strong and influential military, that can be the cause
of imbalanced military relations.
Internal Threats
• Leadership Crisis
The first year of Independence was marked by heavy dependence on the charismatic
personality of Jinnah; he was Governor-General and President of the Constituent Assembly.
He had charismatic appeal, stature and unrivalled prestige that commanded and compelled
unquestioned acceptance of his leadership all over Pakistan. However, he died on 11 September
1948, leaving behind an enduring political vacuum. After the untimely demise of Quaid-e-
Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah Pakistan has been lacking the competent civilian leadership. If
country lacks the civilian leadership ultimately there is need of replacement of that leadership
for the existence of country, military leadership can be considered as the best replacement in
such circumstances. Jinnah’s lieutenant and Pakistan’s first Prime Minister, guided the country
with courage and confidence during a difficult period but lacked the authority of the Jinnah.
He endeavored to strengthen the parliamentary system, but his tenure was cut short by an
assassin’s bullet in October 1951.Parliamentary democracy began to erode after the death of
prime minister Liaqat Ali Khan from that time bureaucratic intervention started at various
levels of state at provincial level bureaucratic intervention resulted into to governor’s rule,
many critics and analysts consider that early intervention of bureaucracy as a root cause of
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imbalanced civil-military relations in Pakistan. In 71 years of Pakistan’s history about four

times supposedly incompetent civil leadership was replaced by military that may cause the
ongoing imbalance in civil military relations. With Liaquat’s death, the facade of
“parliamentary democracy” began to erode. The bureaucratic elites did not take long to convert
the office of Governor-General into an instrument of bureaucratic intervention. In the
provinces, on several occasions, bureaucratic intervention occurred in the garb of the
Governor’s rule. The Chief Ministers were dismissed, even though their parties had a majority
in the provincial assemblies.
• Provincialism
The geographic separation of East-West Pakistan caused the major administrative, social,
economic and financial problems, East and west Pakistan were facing the major complexes that
led to the separation. In such circumstance military played to major role that may be the reason
to imbalanced civil-military relations. East Pakistan was economically worse off than West
Pakistan. The Pakistan Muslim League policies were purportedly directed toward overall
economic development, but focused on West-Pakistan, which contributed to Bengali
deprivation and alienation.
• Constitutional Making Dilemma 1947-56
The constitution making dilemma of 1947-56 has empowered the military elites instead of civil
supremacy, Punjabi-Bengali controversy the differences Punjabi dominated West Pakistan elite
and East-Pakistan elite caused the delay of about nine years in constitution making of Pakistan.
Due to repercussions of aforementioned factors and difference of opinions between both
groups, military was utilized to neutralize the situation that military intervention empowered
the military and also the popularity of military has been enhanced in public and civil circles,
that factor was not considered by the civil leadership of that time. Although the situation was
not successfully neutralized and East-Pakistan was separated from west Pakistan that
supposedly empowered the military that can be a cause of imbalance in civil-military relations.
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Lecture 25 Handouts
Civil Military Relations in Pakistan (B)
Internal Factors
1. Role of Judiciary:
When we talk about the role of judiciary in civil-military relationship in Pakistan, the most
important case that comes in to play is Maulvi Tamizudin Case (1954-1955). Governor General
Ghulam Muhammad dismissed the Constituent Assembly in 1954 to save his own powers as
assembly was trying to make legislative attempts to put checks on Governor General powers.
This act of Ghulam Muhammad was challenged by Maulvi Tamizudin (Speaker of the
assembly) in Sindh High Court. Sindh High Court ruled the decision in favor of Maulvi
Tamizudin. Appeal was made in Supreme Court and Chief Justice of Supreme Court
Muhammad Munir over turned the decision in the favor of Ghulam Muhammad in 1955 under
the doctrine of necessity. This decision of Supreme Court was considered undemocratic and it
became the basis of military interventions in civil politics/government. This decision of Chief
Justice Muhammad Munir continued to haunt Civil government until suspension of Chief
Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Chaudhry by President/Chief of Army Staff Pervez Musharaf in
2007.
2. Absence of Land Reforms:
Feudalism is opposite to democracy as in democracy people power is chosen to elect a

government in the country. While landlords cannot empower people (peasants) working under
them as it weakens their hold over their land and peasants. So, it is suitable for landlords to
deal with a military dictator rather than a democratic government and likewise it is easy for a
military dictator to deal with landlords as a lot of people work under them.
3. Absence of Independent Election Commission:
Another factor that facilitated the rise of army to power in Pakistan was ineligibility of election
commission to conduct free and fair multi-party elections in Pakistan. Free and fair elections
result in a strong, democratic government of people’s choice, which would lessen the
conspiracies of army against civil government.
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International Factors that have Influenced the Civil-Military Relationships
World War II / Cold War Years:
After World War II, world divided in to two blocs capitalist bloc led by the U.S. and
Communist bloc led by USSR. Post-World War II, national independence movements and
decolonization, observed an increase in the role of the military in the developing countries.
Military was considered the strongest institution in a new state due to the former monetary,
colonial and training assistance.
In 1950s America invited India to join Capitalist Bloc against Communist Bloc, but Prime
Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru refused to join US and remained neutral in this Capitalist-
Communist confrontation. However, Pakistan signed US sponsored military pacts SEATO
(1954) and CENTO (1955), which further strengthened the position of army in Pakistan as
army was on front in the negotiation in these pacts and it was easier for US to deal with army
rather than political parties. During cold war years America provide tacit support to army which
led to army intervention in Pakistani politics. These things were ignored as the main concern
was security of Pakistan as our neighboring country India was busy in conspiracies against
Pakistan.
Internal Threats
Main ethnic groups that live in Pakistan:
1) Punjabi
2) Sindhi
3) Pashtun
4) Balochi
5) Mohajir
These different ethnic groups have linkages to different nations based on ethnicity i.e.
mohajirs are migrated from India. These transnational links/relations should be used for
betterment of Pakistan and not for its destruction.
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Lecture 26 Handouts
Civil Military Relations in Pakistan (C)
When we fail to face or control the ethnic problems than it is natural for civilian elites to rely
on military and to control these certain issues of ethnicity in East Pakistan. It is also an issue
of disparity that civil elites are bound to follow the instructions of military. When these issues
prevail in large frequency than civil relations are more dependent on upon military. This
overdependence over military has given rise to the power of military in Pakistan which is a
growing power of military politics in Pakistan.
Domestic Terrorism
Domestic terrorism is one of most alarming threat for the Pakistan. Some security analysts
consider internal terrorism is a greater threat to Pakistan than India about 35,000 killed from
2009-2016 from only terrorism. It became a big figure if we go beyond the last three years.
These figure shows that it is more dangerous situation than conflicts with India. Many terrorist
group are operating in Pakistan to destabilize the country due to cold war legacy. Some groups
are implementing agendas of our enemies, some have their own intensions to control and
enforce their ideologies in the country and some are using our soil for cross border activities.
All these groups are cause of law and order situation and terrorism in Pakistan.
• Other groups that operate in Pakistan are Anti-Shia (SSP, LEJ), anti-India (LeT), It
doesn’t mean that government has provided very much conducive environment to
operate in Pakistan but still they operate and exist in Pakistan.
• The Haqani network (Afhan Taliban) operate in the tribal areas/belt of Pakistan.
• Local Pakistan Tehreeq Taliban also operates in Pakistan.
• Most famous and renowned Al-Qaeeda group is also operating in Pakistan.
• Another new brand of terrorism group which is operating in Pakistan are (ISIS) Islamic
State of Iraq and Syria or it is also known as (ISIL) as Islamic state of Iraq in Lawant.
Pakistan has also threats from ISIS and it considered to be as domestic terrorism threat
for Pakistan.
For this domestic terrorism military is needed to take care of these issue of terrorism because
military is antithesis of it as only military can able to handle it. Civilians need to rely on military
or on such hardcore militants as the Militants have got power in this country. Government
continuously order to curb and control threats of terrorism So this over-reliance on military has
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provided prominence to military over civilians of Pakistan. Hence, domestic terrorism has
played a role of imbalance relationship between civil/military relationship.
Military Composition
• The Pakistan army is mainly comprised of Punjabis and Pashtuns (over-representation).
• Army as an ethnic movement due to internal unity and cohesion. If a person is serving
Army as Pukhtoon, Punjabi, Sindhi and Balochi, It must operate the operations like a
coherent unit netted together. So, it operates like this and considered to be as ethnic so
that is why some analyst say it ethnic movement. People who join Army have generous
benefits, meritocracy, control over promotion turns into discipline compliance. So
that’s why military has become a very strong candidate to rule the country because of
a certain power which is currently missing in the civilian establishment.
• There is a culture of military superiority over politicians because of the incompetency

of politicians because when incompetent politicians come into the job than they do not
perform well, and they do not run the operations of the country according to the way it
is supposed to be run or operated or to move economy forward.
Weak State
• Pakistan is a weak state, the state cannot provide for economic or physical security for
over 200 million citizens, 60% live in poverty, 22% people live in extreme poverty,
56% is the literacy rate so human development index (HDI) is low and low global
competitiveness. So, these are few of the factors which allowing the state of Pakistan
to grow economically because we are not a very much competitive economy, our
manpower is not very much skilled, and it is a burden over the resources of the country
so that’s why military is strong in Pakistan and state is weak.
• Corruption; systematic affecting PMs. Presidents, including current one’s corruption is

being affected by every person and affecting every person like prime minister and
minister including current ones.
• Unstable constitutional history in Pakistan is also very important aspect which has
weaken civilian establishment against the military establishment in Pakistan.
• Electoral cycles are not consistent. Elections are to be held after every 5 years but there
is still inconsistency in our electoral cycles.
• Military seen as antithesis of civilian politicians so that’s why a win-win situation need
to be carried as every citizen must play a role and no institution is useless in Pakistan
in any country. If this point is understood by politicians and military than a
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collaboration can be developed and then military and state can be considered as two
wheels of a vehicle otherwise there would be no balance.
Military Institutionalization
• Pakistan Army has entrenched itself into the state because of its multi facet roles not
only confined to defence but many other roles that it is playing as it is expected to play.
• Suspended and then rewrote constitutions to favor itself, giving the president, not Prime
Minister, control of the executive.
• Controls large part of the economy, intelligence, and defense services, overrepresented
in government.
• Culminated in the 2004 National Security Council under the presidentship of General
Pervaiz Musharraf.
• Under Article 152A of the Pakistan Constitution, the President of Pakistan and the
Prime Minister of Pakistan serve as Chairman and Vice Chair, respectively, and NSA
membership also includes all major civilian and military leaders. The creation of the
NSC formalized the Pakistani military’s input into policymaking.
• Pakistan inherited the well-established tradition of supremacy of civil-political over

military institution under British political theory.
• Within a few years of her independence, Pakistan encountered the ever-growing

influence of military into politics.
• Ultimately, unlike India, Pakistan degenerated into a praetorian state with dreadful
political, social and economic fallouts.
• This process of militarization of Pakistan owes its transformation to multiple variables

as have been discussed. No single factor can be cited as the sole cause; rather, a cluster
of causes led to the intervention of military into politics in Pakistan.
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Lecture 27 Handouts
Geo-Strategic Importance of Pakistan (A)

Introduction
Pakistan (the only Muslim country that has the nuclear capability) is located in a region which
has a great political, economic, and strategic location. It has been the hub of activities of great
powers for the past few decades. It has witnessed intervention of three great powers i.e. Britain,
USA, and USSR.CPEC (China Pakistan Economic Corridor) is the game changer for Pakistan.
Both countries (Pakistan and China) are keen to enhance the trade activities, improving
infrastructure, development of dams, and stability of economy by investment in different
sectors.
Geographical Location of Pakistan

In the Southern Asia, Pakistan lies between 24 and 36.75 northern latitude and between 61 and
7505 eastern longitude. Total area of Pakistan is 7,96000 sq.km. Pakistan shares bordered with
Afghanistan, China, India, and Iran.
➢ Afghanistan
Pakistan is bordered by Afghanistan to the west. These two neighbor countries are
separated by the Durand line that covers 2250 km of lengths. A narrow strip of Afghanistan
knows as Wakhan separates Tajikistan from Pakistan that covers about 20 km to 40 km
lengths.
➢ China
Pakistan is bordered by China to the north and shares 400 km long border.
➢ India
Pakistan is bordered by India to the east and shares the 1650 km international border
lengths.
➢ Iran
Pakistan is bordered by Iran to the southwest.
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➢ Arabian Sea: Arabian Sea is situated in the south of Pakistan, and 700 km is the length of
Arabian Sea coastline with Pakistan.
Strategic Significance
Following are the major strategic significance of the geo-strategic importance of Pakistan.
• Proximity of great powers
• Gateway to central Asia-oil and energy game
• Significance as a transit economy
• Significance as an important in the chain of Muslim countries
• Only Muslim country having nuclear capability
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Lecture 28 Handouts
Geo-Strategic Importance of Pakistan (B)

Strategic Significance
The major strategic significance of the geo-strategic importance of Pakistan are discussed
below.
➢ Proximity of Great Powers
Pakistan is located at the junction of great powers i-e Russia and China. So, in this context
Pakistan has higher significance. Any alliance among world powers enhances its significance
and these world powers cannot ignore importance of Pakistan. This factor has been utilized by
Pakistan after 9/11. Pakistan’s importance has been increased after 9/11 incident. Security and
business are two main US interests in the region while Pakistan is playing a front-line role in
the war against terrorism. Apart from this US interest in the region to contain the growing
China, nuclear Iran, and Afghanistan and to benefit from the market of India. US is also
interested in Afghanistan from business perspective as it wants to control resources of
Afghanistan and want to use it for personal advantage.
Iran’s nuclear program, India’s geopolitical muscles (strategic deal with US) to gain hegemony
and to counter the rise of China, which has the potential to change unipolar world into a bi-
polar or multi-polar one.
Amidst these issues, Pakistan is directly or indirectly involved. The US policy makers have
repeatedly accepted that war against terrorism could never be won without the help of Pakistan.
The US has time and time again reiterated that Pakistan should play its due role to bring the
Afghan Taliban to the negotiation table with the Afghan government.
➢ Gateway to Central Asia - (Oil and Energy)
The quest for oil and energy resources in the Central Asia is the center stage of new Great
Game. After the collapse of the USSR, the new quest started which is manifested by the politics
of oil. Pakistan is located very close to the oil rich Middle Eastern countries. The belt starts
from Iran and extends to Saudi Arabia.
In the energy starved world, Pakistan is located in the hub of energy rich countries i.e., Iran
and Afghanistan: both are energy abundant while India and China need energy for economic
growth. Thus, Pakistan is a bridge between energy rich and energy starved countries. China
finds way to Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea through Karakoram highway (CPEC about to be
completed).
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➢ Significance as a Transit Economy
The potential to develop transit economy on account of its strategic location. The land locked
Afghanistan is currently in the phase of reconstruction and finds its ways through Pakistan to
connect to the world for trade. The nearest port in China is about 4500 km away from Sinkiang,
however, Gwadar is 2500 km away. It offers Central Asian countries the shortest route of 2600
km as compared to Iran 4500 km or Turkey 5000 km. Gwadar port with its deep waters attracts
the trade ships of China, CAR and south East Asian countries. The coastal belt of Baluchistan
can provide outlet to China’s western provinces to have access to middles eastern markets with
the development of coastal highways and motorways.
➢ Important Link in the Chain of Muslim Countries
Pakistan occupies a central location in the Map of the Muslim World. Towards west of Iran,
China extends to North Africa. Thus, it can actively participate in the activities of Muslim
world’s economic development, transport of resources etc.
➢ Only Muslim Country with Nuclear Capability
Pakistan is the only Muslim country having nuclear capability which has great influence on the
political, socio-economic activities in the region and the maintenance of status quo.
Conclusion / Analysis
Geo strategic means the importance of a country or a region as by virtue of its

geographical location. While history has been unkind to Pakistan, its geography has
been its greatest potential. Pakistan is a junction of South Asia, west Asia and central
Asia; a bridge between resource efficient countries to resource deficient countries.
The world is facing energy crises and terrorism. Pakistan is a route for transportation
and a front-line state against terrorism. Moreover, Pakistan has been traditionally ally
of emerging economic giant; China. So as a result of any significant change in world
politics, Pakistan’s geo-strategic significance would further.
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Lecture 29 Handouts
The Role of Pakistan in the War Against Terrorism (A)
Defining Terrorism
The quest for a satisfactory definition of terrorism, described by Nicholas J Perry as the search
for the ‘Holy Grail’, is one pursued by law and various other branches of the social sciences. To
define terrorism, however, assumes that such a phenomenon exists. As a concept, terrorism has
oscillated in meaning, reflecting ideas contextually specific to the time period and location to
which it is being applied. Many etymological studies of the origins of terrorism trace the term
back to the aftermath of the French Revolution and Maximilien Robespierre's ‘reign of terror’
between 1792 and 1794.
The Oxford English Dictionary first mentions the word ‘terrorism’ in 1795, shortly after this
violent period, and today the Oxford English Dictionary still starts its definition of terrorism
with this ‘at once too literal and too historical’ definition. As a result, this definition is,
according to Bruce Hoffmann, not ‘of much use’ when trying to understand the concept of
terrorism. Terrorism has deviated from this original meaning of State-sponsored violence
designed to induce fear and terror in order to control and dominate an otherwise anarchical
society, to describe the exact opposite: political violence directed against the State.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, terrorism was often used to refer to
anarchists, particularly following the assassination of US President William McKinley in 1901
by Leon Czolgosz—a self-confessed anarchist. At the same time, in Europe terrorism was
gaining its connection with ‘freedom fighters’ as a result of renewed struggles for Irish
independence from Britain using tactics such as bombings, assassination techniques and
guerrilla warfare. This evolution from State-sponsored to State-targeted terrorism was not
linear, however; in the 1930s, terrorism again became associated with State-sponsored violence
due to the rise of violent, authoritarian regimes in Italy, Spain and Nazi Germany.
Following the end of World War II and the decline of the European empires, terrorism again
became linked with freedom fighters and the violent methods used by various anti-colonialist
groups seeking self-determination. Today, these two issues of whether States can commit
terrorism, and whether one can distinguish the terrorist from the freedom fighter struggling
against an oppressive regime are the fundamental problems afflicting attempts to provide a
definition of terrorism in international law. For this course following definition of terrorism
will be used “The unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the
pursuit of political aims”. For more details please see International and Comparative Law
Quarterly, Volume 66, Issue 2.
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How War Against Terrorism Started
On the morning of September 11, 2001, 19 terrorists hijacked four planes at Boston's Logan
airport. They chose planes headed for the West Coast because they would be loaded with fuel.
They planned to cripple the U.S. economy by destroying three centers of power: Wall Street,
the Pentagon, and the White House. The first two planes hit their targets. American Airlines
Flight 11 crashed into Tower One of the World Trade Center at 8:46 a.m. United Airlines Flight
175 crashed into Tower Two at 9:03 a.m. At 10:05 a.m., millions of television viewers saw
Tower Two collapse. Tower one collapsed from the top down at 10:28 a.m. Tower Seven
collapsed at 5:20 p.m.
American Airlines Flight 77 crashed into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m. Portions of the building
collapsed at 10:10 a.m. United Airlines Flight 93 never made it to its target, the White House.
At 9:23 a.m., after the World Trade Tower crash, dispatcher Ed Ballinger texted all flights he
was following, including Flight 93. He said, "Beware any cockpit intrusion two a/c hit World
Trade Center." Five minutes later, the terrorists killed the pilots and took control of the plane.
By that time, at least 10 of the passengers had talked to loved ones via cell phone. They heard
about the World Trade Tower attacks and figured out their likely fate. At 9:57, the brave
passengers attacked the terrorists. Flight 93 crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania
at 10:03 a.m., killing all 30 people aboard.
On September 20, 2001, President Bush called for a War on Terror. He said, “Americans should
not expect one battle but a lengthy campaign, unlike any other we have ever seen.” Then he
put it into action. Bush launched the War in Afghanistan to find and bring to justice Osama bin
Laden. He was the head of the al-Qaida organization that launched the 9/11 attacks. In its first
year, Congress appropriated $29.3 billion in emergency funding for the war. On March 21,
2003, President Bush sent troops into Iraq. He said the Central Intelligence Agency had found
weapons of mass destruction. He added that Iraq's leader, Saddam Hussein, was aiding al-Qaida
operatives. Congress appropriated $36.7 billion in emergency funding for the War in Iraq in its
first year.
The 9/11 incident had strong connections with Cold War conflicts during the 1980s. The Soviet
Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979 to halt the fundamentalist rebellion against the
Kabul regime and forestall the possibility of western involvement in the civil war. At the same
time another great change occurred across the western border of Pakistan, where a revolution
ousted the Shah of Iran. The cumulative effect of these historic events at Pakistan’s doorstep
was an upsurge of terrorism in its many manifestations in the country.
It is generally believed that the main reason for the growth of terrorism in Pakistan was the
involvement of the US in Afghanistan in the 1980s. The border region between Pakistan and
Afghanistan had been turned into a base camp in the war against the Soviet Union. The Central
Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) trained Arabs, Afghans and
Pakistani militants were organized to fight against the “infidel” and assisted the operations of
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the Mujahideen from the Jihadi components in the tribal areas of Pakistan. They established a
very large secret infrastructure for training guerillas on the Pak-Afghan border.
After the withdrawal of Soviet Union in 1989, Pakistan assisted in forming an Afghan
government in Kabul composed of war lords. But civil war broke out and they were replaced
by the Taliban. However, the events of 9/11 changed the whole scenario turning erstwhile
Mujahideen into terrorists. As a result the US and its coalition forces invaded Afghanistan and
ousted the Taliban from power. The US and coalition forces launched Operation Enduring
Freedom (OEF) to save Americans from another 9/11. Pakistan supported and cooperated with
the US and the coalition forces in OEF.
Pakistan has also deployed a large number of troops along the Afghanistan border in support
of OEF and employed a large portion of its logistical reserves to support the coalition. The
Taliban and al Qaeda members, on the other hand, have managed to re-assemble in the tribal
areas between Afghanistan and Pakistan. As terrorist activities are increasing, the economy of
Pakistan has been sliding downward. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has fallen due to high
level of security risk. The cumulative economic impact runs into billions of dollars and Pakistan
is likely to continue to suffer as long as there is no peace in Afghanistan.
International Community Response on War on Terror
The international community fully supported strikes on the Taliban. Indeed, over a month after
Operation Enduring Freedom began, the Security Council condemned the Taliban “for
allowing Afghanistan to be used as a base for the export of terrorism by the al Qaeda network
and other terrorist groups and for providing safe haven to Osama Bin Laden, al Qaeda and
others associated with them. “The ‘war on terror’ launched with a broad base of international
support and the Northern Alliance ousted the Taliban from power. Germany, France, the
Netherlands and a few other countries contributed towards development assistance in
Afghanistan
In 2002, strong majorities supported the U.S.-led War on Terror in Britain, France, Germany,
Japan, India and Russia, according to a sample survey conducted by the Pew Research Center.
By 2006, supporters of the effort were in the minority in Britain (49%), Germany (47%), France
(43%) and Japan (26%). Although a majority of Russians still supported the War on Terror,
that majority had decreased by 21%. Whereas 63% of Spaniards supported the War on Terror
in 2003, only 19% of the population indicated support in 2006. 19% of the Chinese population
still supports the War on Terror and less than a fifth of the populations of Turkey, Egypt, as
well as Jordan support the efforts. The report also indicated that Indian public support for the
War on Terror has been stable.
Andrew Kohut, while speaking to the U.S. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, noted that
and according to the Pew Research Center polls conducted in 2004, "the ongoing conflict in
Iraq continues to fuel anti-American sentiments. America’s global popularity plummeted at the
start of military action in Iraq and the U.S. presence there remains widely unpopular. Marek
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Obrtel, former Lieutenant Colonel in Field Hospital with Czech Republic army, returned his
medals which he received during his posting in Afghanistan War for NATO operations. He
criticized the War on Terror as describing the mission as "deeply ashamed that I served a
criminal organization such as NATO, led by the USA and its perverse interests around the
world.
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Lecture 30 Handouts
The Role of Pakistan in the War Against Terrorism (B)
Global War on Terror and Pakistan’s Position
The previous lecture was about the cold war and how it links with the war against terrorism. It
covered how Pakistan was embroiled into the war against terrorism. Pakistan’s position in the
“War on Terror” is quite significant. Pakistan played a key role in facilitating the U.S.-led
intervention in Afghanistan from shortly after 9/11 up to the present.
War Against Terrorism
The US needed Pakistan’s support due to Pakistan’s geographical location and its links to major
regional players like India, Iran, Afghanistan and China. So, the United States of Pakistan
needed Pakistan to support against terrorism. Pakistan provided different types of support
demanded by the US such as:
• Pakistan approved to provide over flight rights to the United States of America over
Pakistani airspace
• Naval and land bases were provided to large its attack against the Taliban, Al-Qaida
and Afghanistan
• Pakistan agreed to the US that it will be willingly eliminating all those elements who
would be supporting terrorism against the US and its allies.
• Pakistan opposed all those who were against the United States of America in the war
of terrorism.
As a result, it corporates Taliban and its regime that is why Pakistan cuts off diplomatic ties
with the Taliban in Afghanistan. Hence, every logistic and diplomatic support to Taliban
became ended. The slogan by George W. Bush ‘either you’re with us or you’re against us’
made this happened. So, Pakistan had to show its support with the United States of America
and clearly gave the message that we are not against you. That slogan divided the whole world
into two compartments without leaving any grey area in between. The whole world was now
looking towards Pakistan and without its help it was unlikely the US would have been able to
pursue its interests in the region.
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Pakistan’s role in the War against Terrorism is pivotal. The US preferred Pakistan’s
cooperation over India’s due to two reasons:
i) One was Pakistan’s geographic proximity to Afghanistan

ii) The second was that the Indian army was equipped with Russian weapons and
training.
Pakistan not only has a long border with Afghanistan, but it has a long coastline which was
very significant for US forces and they stationed in the Indian Ocean because it wanted its
forces to reach Afghanistan rapidly and easily. Due to diplomatic relations between Pakistan
and the Taliban, the US had been keen to get its support in the war against al Qaeda and its
networks operating in Afghanistan. This relationship of Pakistan and the Taliban regime was
very significant in pursuing US military and political interest in the region. The Taliban regime
was basically run by the Pashtun, an ethnic group of Afghanistan, who have the same culture
and traditions as the Pashtun’s of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Baluchistan in Pakistan.
Pakistan: The Most Useful Ally
Being the most useful ally due to the support provided to the US in terms of war against
terrorism. To make the bond stronger, the US demanded that Pakistan cut itself off completely
from al Qaeda activity and break their diplomatic ties with the Taliban. It must freeze all of
their assets and to stop the fuel supplies to those against the US.
The US demanded Pakistan to provide the intelligence information about both organizations
and allow it to use its airspace for offensive military operations in Afghanistan and bases for
US forces in Pakistan, logistics, and the like.
Steps Taken by the Government of Pakistan after 9/11
Pakistan is a country whose strategic position in the region is the most delicate due to which
the post 9/11 developments profoundly affected its bilateral relations, defense and strategic
concerns, national integrity, internal stability and economic situation. Pakistan in this regard
supported all UN resolutions concerning prevention of terrorism. It cooperated with the
international coalition to curb terrorism. Immigration control measures were initially taken to
keep a check on the movement of potential extremists. Many actions were taken against
fanatical and extremist organizations and groups. Jihadi leaders were imprisoned, and Jihadi
organizations were banned by the government of Pakistan
Following steps were taken for the reformation and regulation of madrassahs:
1. NOC (No Objection Certificate) for the opening of madrassahs. No illegal

madrassah shall be operated in the premises of the state.
2. The registration of madrassahs was made mandatory.
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3. A review of their syllabi was another condition to be fulfilled by the Jihadi

organizations.
4. There’ll be a check on the number of foreign students attending them.
Few steps were also taken for the regulation of Mosques:
1. NOC became a requirement for opening a mosque.

2. Political activities in mosques were made unlawful.
3. The use of loudspeakers became restricted to only Azaan (the call to prayer).
Provision of Air Bases
Pakistan allowed the US and its coalition forces to use its air bases/airfields in Pasni,
Jacobabad, Shamsi and Dalbadin. It also permitted the US to land planes anywhere in Pakistan
in the case of an emergency and access to Kohat and Zhob air bases was also provided.
Support of an Air Corridor:
Pakistan provided an air corridor for the use of the US and its coalition forces in launching air
strikes on Afghanistan because it would have been difficult for the US to keep launching
ground operations into Afghanistan. In providing such a resource Pakistan’s government had
to reschedule/redirect many commercial flights; 2/3rd of Pakistan airspace was provided to US
forces for OEF operations and about seven thousand air force personnel were allocated to the
role.
Support of Naval Facilities
Support in landing ships at Pasni and even curtailed its Navel training operations in order to
accommodate the US and Coalition Navies. Around 25000 Pakistan Navy personnel, 50
aircraft and 2,000 Coalition military personnel were imbedded in these locations, using up to
100,000 gallons of fuel a day. The US Amphibious task force (TF 58) was involved for a
hundred days of surface operations and landed 275 craft for offloading. US 400 C-17 and C-
130 helicopters were used in various sorties, about 8000 Marines, 330 vehicles and 1350 tons
of cargo were regularly used throughout the operation. An officer from Florida stated “these
efforts may be the largest amphibious operation conducted by the US Marine Corp since the
Korean War.”
Support for Logistic Supply by Road
Pakistan allowed the US and NATO to use Pakistani supply routes for about 75 per cent of its
gas, food and military equipment requirements. This supply route made a significant
contribution to the success of operations in Afghanistan, but many were destroyed or damaged
by tribal militants.
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Sharing Intelligence Information
Pakistan provided the US with vital information on various terrorist and extremist outfits
helping avert terrorist attacks and facilitating arrests that broke the back bone of major terrorist
organizations. In August 2006 Pakistan shared its intelligence information with the UK and
played a pivotal role in attack prevention, allowing them to take pre-emptive action against
terrorists planning to use chemical explosives on a civil airplane.
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Lecture 31 Handouts
The Role of Pakistan in the War Against Terrorism (C)
Steps Taken By Pakistan in Curbing Terrorism1
The air bases of Dalbadin and Jacobabad were very close to Afghanistan and proved vital when
the US launched its major military operations of which there were more than 57,000 attacks
from these bases. Pakistan also allowed the US to install radar at three of its airfields. Pakistan
banned some militant religious organisations and took measures to prevent their re-emergence
under other names.
Due to US invasion of Afghanistan, al Qaeda and the Taliban entered the lawless tribal regions
of Pakistan where there was no presence of forces. Afghan leaders and fighters who had fought
against the Red Army returned to fight against US and coalition forces in Afghanistan. The
tribal people welcomed them, allowing them to consolidate their existing network of facilitators
and sympathisers. When Pakistan deployed the army to clear the region of militants, Tehreek-
e-Taliban Pakistan emerged led by Baitullah Mehsud after the killing of Nek Muhammad.
TTP started to attract militants and rebellious groups in Federally Administered Tribal Areas
and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa from 2006 to resist the action of the Pakistan armed forces. Thus
emerged the problem of homegrown insurgency and militancy for Pakistan as a result of which
there was the rise of extremism within the borders of Pakistan. An alarming manifestation of
widespread extremism was the Lal Masjid saga that unfolded in the capital city of Islamabad.
Pakistan made peace agreements with the Taliban, but when they violated the agreement
reached with them in Malakand, Pakistan was forced to take the strategic decision to launch
military operations aimed at marginalising and eliminating terrorist outfits from tribal areas.
1
Most of the text has been copied from www.ipripak.org
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Major Military Operations to Fight Militancy
✓ Al-Mizan Operation
✓ Sheradil Operation
✓ Zalzala Operation
✓ Rah-e-Haq Operation
✓ Rah-e-Rast Operation
Agreements with Local Tribes
Continued conflict is not the solution and brings peace to South Waziristan, on June 27, 2002,
Pakistan Army entered into an agreement with the local tribes of the area. It was mutually
agreed within the agreement that any person found harbouring a foreigner would be destroyed.
Pakistan also signed another agreement in Waziristan Agency called ‘Nek Muhammad’ at
Shakai. Peace agreements were also signed with Ahmedzai Wazir militants and Ahmedzai
tribes in 2004. Sargodha agreement was signed with Baitullah Mehsud in February 2005. Then
in 2006, the government of Pakistan entered into another agreement called ‘Miramshah
agreement’ with local commanders of the Taliban. A sincere attempt to bring peace in the
Bajaur agency resulted in Bajaur Agreement on February 23, 2009. The government promised
to compensate militants and tribesmen for the loss of life and property during military
operations.
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Pakistan Studies - Lecture notes 1-30

Pakistan Studies (COMSATS University Islamabad)

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It is also important to have an ideology because it offers an interpretation of the past, an

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Ideology of Pakistan Based on Muslim Nationalism

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Nationalism and Two Nation Theory

Nationalism on the Three Time Levels (Past, Present and Future)

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Views of Prominent Personalities about Religion and Nationalism

Allama Iqbal said:

Two Nation theory

Constituent Assembly of Pakistan gave it a legal sanction by passing objectives Resolution in

Jinnah in Lahore Resolution

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Mandate of Two Nation Theory

Factors Responsible for the Creation of Muslim Nationhood

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COMSATS University Islamabad, Virtual Campus

Historical Background of Pakistan

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Causes for the Failure of War of Independence

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Nature of the War of Independence

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Formation of Indian National Congress

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COMSATS University Islamabad, Virtual Campus

Simla Deputation and All India Muslim League

All India Muslim League (1906)

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Minto-Morley Reforms and Lucknow Pact

Indian Councils Act 19091 (Minto Morley Reforms)

The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:

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Factors Behind the Pact

Jinnah and the Pact

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Significance (Importance of the Pact)

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Khilafat Movement, Nehru Report and Jinnah’s 14 Points

The Failure of the Khilafat Movement

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Montague Chelmsford Reforms 1919

Main Features of 1919 Act

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Muslim League Reaction

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COMSATS University Islamabad, Virtual Campus