Part II

Microscopic World I
Part II
Microscopic
World I

The Periodic Table is an important tool for

studying Chemistry.

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

Chapter 6 The Periodic Table
Chapter 7 Chemical bonding: ionic bonding and metallic bonding
Chapter 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
Chapter 9 Structures and properties of substances
Chapter 5
Atomic structure
5.1 Classification of elements into metals, non-metals
and semi-metals
5.2 Atoms
5.3 Structure of an atom
5.4 Atomic number and mass number
5.5 Isotopes
5.6 Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass
5.7 Arrangement of electrons in atoms

Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

5.1 • classify elements as metals or non-metals on the basis of their properties

• be aware that some elements possess characteristics of both metals and non-metals

5.2 • state the relationship between element and atom

• use symbols to represent elements

5.3 • describe the structure of an atom in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons

• state and compare the relative charges and the relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an
electron
23
5.4 • interpret and use symbols such as 11Na

• deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms with given atomic numbers and
mass numbers

5.5 • identify isotopes among elements with relevant information

5.6 • perform calculations related to relative isotopic masses and relative atomic masses

5.7 • understand and deduce the electronic arrangements of atoms

• represent the electronic arrangements of atoms using electron diagrams

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

Imagine that we cut a piece of gold. We cut it into small pieces. Then we further cut these small pieces
into even smaller pieces. If we continue to do this, what do we get at last?

...

Gold metal

About 2500 years ago, some ancient Greek philosophers thought about a similar question. They
argued that by dividing a substance many many times, they would eventually get small particles which
could not be divided any further. They called these small particles ‘atoms’.

Think about...
Are there any even smaller particles present in an atom?
Yes. The smaller particles present in an atom are protons, neutrons and electrons.
What is the size and mass of an atom?
Refer to Section 5.2.
What is the structure of an atom?
Refer to Section 5.3.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.
 5 Atomic structure

5.1 Classification of elements into

PowerPoint metals, non-metals and semi-metals
Classifying elements into metals and non-metals
In ‘Part I Planet Earth’, we have defined what an element is. Now, we are
going to learn how to classify elements. An important way of classifying
elements is to group them into metals and non-metals based on their
physical properties. But what are the differences in physical properties
between metals and non-metals?

Differences in physical properties between metals and non-

metals
Metals are usually shiny when freshly cut. They are silvery white in colour,
with only a few exceptions (such as copper and gold). See Figure 5.1.

Iron Lead Zinc Silver Calcium

Figure 5.1 Most metals are Tin Magnesium Aluminium Copper Gold
silvery white in colour.

Solid non-metals usually have a dull appearance. Unlike metals, they

Note 1 show a variety of colours (e.g. sulphur is yellow; phosphorus is red or
There are some impurities (usually
yellow; carbon is black). See Figure 5.2.
including red phosphorus) in white
phosphorus.

Learning tip
White phosphorus N1
usually appears yellow
because of the
presence of impurities.

Figure 5.2 Non-metals

show a variety of colours.

metal 金屬
non-metal 非金屬
dull 暗晦的
shiny 有光澤的
silvery white 銀白色
variety (同一事物的) 不同種類
3 5
 II Microscopic world I

Note 2
Room temperature and pressure refer to Metals and non-metals also differ in many other ways. See Table 5.1.
25°C and 1 atmospheric pressure.

Property Metals Non-metals

State at room temperature solids (except mercury) gases or solids (except bromine)
and pressure N2

Appearance shiny usually dull in appearance

Melting point and boiling usually high usually low

point (some non-metals like diamond
and graphite have a high melting
0.2 apt
point and high boiling point)

Hardness and strength hard and strong brittle

Malleability and ductility malleable and ductile not malleable and not ductile

Density usually high low

Thermal conductivity and good conductors of heat and poor conductors of heat and N3
electrical conductivity electricity non-conductors of electricity
(except graphite)
Table 5.1 Some typical differences in physical properties of metals and non-metals. Note 3
If a very high voltage is used, substances
which are normally classified as non-
conductors (e.g. air) may conduct
electricity.
Learning tip
Note that there are exceptions to most of the properties mentioned
We should note that
• mercury is the only above.
liquid metal
• bromine is the only • An example is sodium. It is a metal but it is so soft that it can be easily
liquid non-metal cut with a knife. Besides, it has a low melting point (below 100°C). Its
density is so low that it floats on water.

• Another example is carbon (in the form of graphite). It is a non-metal

but a good conductor of electricity. Besides, it is shiny and has a very
high melting point (3730°C).

Think about Classifying an element according to its physical properties N4

A brown solid
element conducts The following flow chart shows how to classify elements according to their
electricity well. Is it a physical properties (Figure 5.3).
metal or non-metal? Note 4
(a) The easiest way to distinguish between a
metal and a non-metal is to test whether the
Think about substance conducts electricity.
The brown solid is copper. It is a metal. (b) Metals feel cold to the touch because they
easily conduct heat away from our hands.

5 4 graphite 石墨 brittle 易碎的

 5 Atomic structure

What is the physical state of the

element at room conditions?

gas liquid solid

non-metal What is its Does it conduct

colour? electricity?

reddish
silvery yes no
brown
mercury bromine Is it non-metal
(metal) (non-metal) brittle?

yes no

graphite metal
(non-metal)

Figure 5.3 A flow chart showing how to classify an element as a metal or a non-metal.

H20 Example 5.1

Classifying elements as metals or non-metals
The following table shows the information about physical properties of four elements W, X, Y and Z.

Physical state Density at room Does it conduct electricity

Element Colour –3
at room conditions conditions (g cm ) at room conditions?
W liquid reddish brown 3.1 no

X solid brown 8.9 yes

Y solid black 4.9 no

Z liquid silvery 13.5 yes

(a) Classify the above elements as metals or non-metals. Explain your answer in each case.
(b) Which of the above elements could be mercury?
(c) Which of the above elements could be bromine?

Solution
(a) W and Y are non-metals because they do not conduct electricity and have low densities. X and Z
are metals because they conduct electricity. Besides, X and Z have high densities.
(b) Z
(c) W

5 5
 II Microscopic world I

Elements with properties of both metals and

CE2000(II)42
non-metals — the semi-metals CE2002(I)8(b)(iv)2
CE2004(I)9(a)(i)
Concept check The classification of elements into metals and non-metals is in fact not
✘ All elements can be clear-cut. This is because a few elements, called semi-metals (or
classified as metals
metalloids), have properties of both metals and non-metals. Examples
or non-metals.
of semi-metals include boron and silicon (Figure 5.4).
✔ Many, but not all
elements, can be
classified as metals
or non-metals. A few
elements have
properties of both
metals and non-
metals. They are
classified as semi-
boron silicon
metals.

Figure 5.4 Two examples of semi-metals — boron and silicon.

Semi-metals are usually brittle, shiny solids. Normally, semi-metals do

not conduct electricity. However, when they are heated or slightly impure,
Note 5 they conduct electricity quite well. They are semi-conductors. N5
Normally, semi-metals do not
conduct electricity. However,
when heated or when slightly
Silicon is a semi-conductor widely used in the electronics industry to
impure, they conduct electricity make computer chips (Figure 5.5).
quite well. Therefore, semi-
metals can be used as semi-
conductors.

Figure 5.5 Silicon is used to make computer chips.

Key point
Elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and semi-metals
based on their physical properties.

Activity 5.1

PowerPoint Inspecting samples of some common elements

In this activity, you will inspect samples of some common elements provided by
your teacher. There are samples of metals, non-metals and semi-metals.

5 6 metalloid 類金屬
semi-conductor 半導體
semi-metal 半金屬 chip 晶片
impure 不純的
slightly 稍微
 5 Atomic structure
A5.1
1. (a) P is a non-metal because it is brittle and does not conduct electricity. Although Q conducts electricity, it is
brittle. Hence, Q is a non-metal. R is a semi-metal because it conducts electricity only when heated or
Class practice 5.1 slightly impure. S is a metal because it is hard and strong. Moreover, it conducts electricity.
(b) Q could be graphite.
1. The following table shows the information about physical properties of four elements P, Q, R and S.

Physical state at Hardness and

Element Colour Electrical conductivity
room conditions strength

P solid yellow brittle does not conduct electricity

Q solid black brittle conducts electricity

conducts electricity only when

R solid brown brittle
heated or when slightly impure

silvery
S solid hard and strong conducts electricity
white

(a) Classify P, Q, R and S as metals, semi-metals or non-metals. Explain your answer in each case.
(b) Suggest what Q could be.

2. Decide which is the odd one in each of the following groups of elements. Give reason(s) for your choice in
each case. 2. (a) Mercury. All are metals. Mercury is a liquid, while others are solids at
(a) Iron, copper, mercury, silver room conditions.
(b) Sulphur. Sulphur is a non-metal, while others are metals.
(b) Magnesium, sulphur, lead, tin (c) Iodine. All are non-metals. Iodine is a solid, while others are gases at
(c) Iodine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon room conditions.

(d) Phosphorus, bromine, helium, carbon (in the form of graphite)

(d) Graphite. All are non-metals. Graphite conducts electricity, while others
are non-conductors of electricity.

5.2 Atoms
PowerPoint
What are atoms?
Note 6 Do you still remember the gold metal mentioned in the chapter opening? N6
Matter is made up of three types
of particles — atoms, molecules
Gold is an element. It is made up of many gold atoms joining together.
and ions. Since molecules and How do we relate elements and atoms? To start with, we should have an
ions are derived from atoms,
atoms can be considered as the idea on what atoms are.
basic particles of all substances.
Everything consists of a basic type of particles called atoms. The word
atom comes from a Greek word ‘atomos’, meaning something that is
indivisible. In 1808, an English scientist, John Dalton, proposed an atomic
theory. In this theory, the word ‘atom’ means the smallest particle of an
element.

Key point
An atom is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical
properties of that element.

atom 原子
atomic theory 原子學說
particle 粒子 indivisible 不能再分割的
John Dalton 約翰․道爾頓
7 5
 II Microscopic world I

Let us take copper as an example. A copper atom is the smallest particle

that has the chemical properties of copper. A short copper wire already
consists of trillions of copper atoms (Figure 5.6).

copper atom

N7

Note 7
Some students may have the
misconception that there is air
Figure 5.6 A copper wire consists between the atoms.
of trillions of copper atoms.
(1 trillion = 1 000 000 000 000,
12
i.e. 1 × 10 )

Relationship between elements and atoms

An element contains only one kind of atoms. For example, silver consists of
only silver atoms and gold consists of only gold atoms (Figure 5.7).

silver atom gold atom

silver ring gold ring

Figure 5.7 Silver consists of only silver atoms while gold consists of only gold atoms.

Some elements exist as small particles formed from atoms. For example,
Learning tip
The hydrogen particle hydrogen exists as particles formed from hydrogen atoms. Each hydrogen
formed from two particle consists of two hydrogen atoms (Figure 5.8).
hydrogen atoms is
known as a hydrogen each hydrogen particle consists
molecule. More about of two hydrogen atoms
‘molecules’ will be
discussed in Chapter 8.

Figure 5.8 A gas jar of

hydrogen gas
hydrogen gas.

5 8 molecule 分子 trillions of 數以兆計的

 5 Atomic structure

We can define an element in this way.

Key point
Note 8 An element is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atoms. N8
Atoms of the same element have
the same atomic number. Thus,
1 2 3
the isotopes H, H and H are
the same element. Different elements have different properties because they consist of
different kinds of atoms. Until January 2008, 118 kinds of atoms have been
discovered or reported, corresponding to the 118 different elements.

XTRA
Size and mass of an atom
E Do you know?
S

Atoms are very tiny particles. If atoms are regarded to have a spherical
Atoms have diameters of
–24 3
–8
about 10 cm or shape, they have volumes of about 10 cm . They have masses of around
0.1 nm (nm = nanometre; 10
–23
g. It is difficult to imagine anything as tiny as an atom. We may get a
–9
1 nm = 10 m).
better idea of its very small size by studying at Figures 5.9 and 5.10.

Atom Raindrop Basketball Earth

–24 –3 3 16
10 10 10 10

volume
3
(cm ) –30 –20 –10 10 20 30
10 10 10 1 10 10 10

3
Figure 5.9 The range of volumes (in cm ) from atoms to Planet Earth.

mass
(g) 10
–30
10
–20
10
–10
1 10
10
10
20
10
30

27
10
–23
10
–3
10
2
10
Atom Raindrop Basketball Earth

Figure 5.10 The range of masses (in g) from atoms to Planet Earth.

Atoms of different elements have different sizes and masses. For

example, gold atoms are larger and heavier than copper atoms. We can
represent atoms as small spheres of different sizes.

nanometre 納米
sphere 球體
spherical 球狀的
9 5
 II Microscopic world I

Figure 5.11 shows scale models of six kinds of atoms. Among them, the
smallest atom is hydrogen. The largest atom is potassium.

hydrogen oxygen carbon copper gold potassium

Figure 5.11 Scale models of atoms of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, copper, gold and
potassium.

Key point
Atoms of different elements have different sizes and masses.

Class practice 5.2

A5.2
1. A, B, D Refer to the following diagrams for Questions 1 and 2.
2. (a) D
(b) A
3. Diameter of an atom
–10
= 2 × 10 × 2 × 1000 mm
–7
= 4 × 10 mm
Number of atoms
1 mm
= –7
4 × 10 mm
6
= 2.5 × 10

A B

C D

1. Which of the above diagrams best represent(s) an element?

2. Which of the above diagrams best represents the arrangement of
(a) atoms in a piece of sodium?
(b) particles in a jar of hydrogen gas?
–10
3. If the radius of an atom is 2 × 10 m, how many atoms could fit on a line
of 1 mm long?

5 10 radius 半徑
scale model 按比例縮放的模型
 5 Atomic structure

Symbols for elements and atoms

Symbols for elements
Chemical symbols are symbols which represent the names of elements.
These symbols are universally accepted and can help chemists from
different parts of the world communicate more effectively. Chemical
symbols of some common elements are given in Table 5.2.

Element Chemical symbol Element Chemical symbol

Aluminium Al Magnesium Mg

Argon Ar Nitrogen N

Calcium Ca Oxygen O

Carbon C Phosphorus P

Chlorine Cl Potassium K

Copper Cu Silicon Si

Hydrogen H Sodium Na

Iron Fe Sulphur S

Lead Pb Zinc Zn

Table 5.2 Chemical symbols of some common elements.

XTRA Each chemical symbol shown in the table consists of one or two letters.
E Do you know?
S

Some elements were The first (or the only) letter is a capital letter while the second one (if any)
named in honour of is a small letter. Some chemical symbols have letters from their English
scientists. For example,
names e.g. Argon Ar, Carbon C, Magnesium Mg and Silicon Si. Other
rutherfordium (Rf) was
named after Ernest chemical symbols come from their Latin names. For example,
Rutherford; and
• copper (Cu) from Latin word Cuprum
bohrium (Bh) was
named after Niels Bohr. • iron (Fe) from Latin word Ferrum
• lead (Pb) from Latin word Plumbum
• potassium (K) from Latin word Kalium
• sodium (Na) from Latin word Natrium

Symbols for atoms

We have learnt the chemical symbols of some elements above. In fact,
these are also the atomic symbols for their atoms. Thus, the letter C is the
chemical symbol for the element carbon, but also the atomic symbol
for a carbon atom.
atomic symbol 原子符號
chemical symbol 化學符號
capital letter 大寫字母
Latin name 拉丁名字
small letter 小寫字母
11 5
 II Microscopic world I

Class practice 5.3

A5.3
(a) (i) Mg (ii) O (iii) He Refer to the Periodic Table printed on the inside front cover of the book.
(b) (i) N (ii) Na (iii) Br
(c) (i) fluorine (ii) chlorine (a) Give the chemical symbols for (i) magnesium, (ii) oxygen and (iii) helium.
(iii) mercury (b) Give the atomic symbols for the atoms of (i) nitrogen (ii) sodium and
(iii) bromine.
(c) What elements do the chemical symbols (i) F, (ii) Cl and (iii) Hg stand for?

5.3 Structure of an atom

PowerPoint
Till the end of the 19th century, scientists still believed that atoms were very
Note 9 tiny ‘solid’ spheres which could never be divided (Figure 5.12). N9
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
suggested that atoms were
indivisible.

Figure 5.12 About 100 years ago, scientists still

believed that atoms were ‘solid’ indivisible spheres.

Since then, it was found that atoms are in fact made up of even smaller
particles.

What are atoms made up of?

Atoms are made up of three fundamental subatomic particles — protons,
neutrons and electrons.

The centre of an atom is a very tiny and extremely dense region called
Note 10 nucleus. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons packed tightly N10
In fact, the nucleus has a very
complicated structure, being made
together. A proton and a neutron have about the same mass. Protons are
up of over 200 different types of positively charged but neutrons have no charge. The nucleus is hence
subatomic particles. However, at
secondary level, only protons and
positively charged.
neutrons need to be considered.

The nucleus is very small even compared with the atom. The radius of
an atom is about 20 000 times larger than that of the nucleus. If the atom
were about the size of a football stadium, the nucleus would be about the
size of a pea in the centre of the stadium (Figure 5.13).

5 12 electron 電子
negatively charged 帶負電荷的
positively charged 帶正電荷的
proton 質子
extremely dense 密度極高的
football stadium 足球場
fundamental 基本的
pea 豌豆
neutron 中子 subatomic particle 次原子粒子
nucleus 原子核
 5 Atomic structure

Learning tip
The football stadium is
not spherical in shape.
This only gives an
approximate idea of
the relative sizes of an
atom and a nucleus.

Figure 5.13 Imagine there is a pea in the centre of this stadium. The nucleus would
be about the size of this pea if the atom would be about the size of the stadium.

An atom is mostly empty space, occupied by electrons. Electrons are

negatively charged. They are very much lighter in mass than protons and
neutrons in the nucleus. Electrons move very fast around the nucleus. See
Figure 5.14.

positively charged proton

Animation neutron
(Structure of
an atom)

nucleus containing
protons and neutrons

negatively charged
electrons moving
around the nucleus

three-dimensional diagram two-dimensional diagram

Note 11 Figure 5.14 A simple model for the structure of an atom. N11
th
In the late 19 century, a famous
scientist J.J. Thomson suggested
that the structure of an atom was
like a ‘raisin pudding’. In this
structure, the negatively charged Key point
electrons stick into a sphere of
positive charges, just like raisins Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons
in a pudding. However, in the (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are concentrated in the
model in Figure 5.14, the positively
charged protons (and neutrons, very tiny nucleus. The electrons (negatively charged) move around the
which have no charge) are nucleus.
concentrated in the very tiny
nucleus and the negatively
charged electrons are moving
constantly around the nucleus.

13 5
 II Microscopic world I

More about protons, neutrons and electrons

Note 12 Table 5.3 summarizes some data of the three fundamental subatomic
Remind students that they need particles.
NOT memorize the absolute
masses of subatomic particles.

nucleus Subatomic Relative Electric charge (relative

Symbol Mass (in g) N12
particle mass to that on a proton)
–24
Proton p 1.6725 × 10 1 +1
–24
Neutron n 1.6748 × 10 1 0

negligible
– –28
Electron e 9.109 × 10 1 –1
( )
1837

Table 5.3 Data on the three fundamental subatomic particles.

Building up different atoms from protons,

neutrons and electrons
Learning tip The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. Each hydrogen atom has
We refer to the one proton and no neutron in the nucleus. It has one electron moving
most common type
of hydrogen and around the nucleus. The next simplest one is the helium atom. Each
helium atoms here. helium atom has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus. It has two
electrons moving around the nucleus (Figure 5.15).

neutron

electron

proton

nucleus
hydrogen atom helium atom

Figure 5.15 Simplified diagrams that represent the structures of a hydrogen atom and a
helium atom respectively.

Table 5.4 gives the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the
atoms of the first 20 elements.

5 14 electric charge 電荷
relative mass 相對質量
negligible 微不足道的
 5 Atomic structure

Learning tip Number of N13

Atom Symbol
The number of protons neutrons electrons
neutrons stated in the
Hydrogen (氫) H 1 0 1
table refers to the
number of neutrons Helium (氦) He 2 2 2
found in the most
Lithium (鋰) Li 3 4 3
common type of atoms
of the elements. Beryllium (鈹) Be 4 5 4
Boron (硼) B 5 6 5
Note 13 Carbon (碳) C 6 6 6
Tell students that they have to
memorize the number of protons Nitrogen (氮) N 7 7 7
and electrons in the given atoms,
Oxygen (氧) O 8 8 8
but NOT the number of neutrons.
Fluorine (氟) F 9 10 9
Neon (氖) Ne 10 10 10
Sodium (鈉) Na 11 12 11
Magnesium (鎂) Mg 12 12 12
Aluminium (鋁) Al 13 14 13
Silicon (硅) Si 14 14 14
Phosphorus (磷) P 15 16 15
Sulphur (硫) S 16 16 16
Chlorine (氯) Cl 17 18 17
Argon (氬) Ar 18 22 18
Table 5.4 Number of protons, Potassium (鉀) K 19 20 19
neutrons and electrons in the
atoms of the first 20 elements. Calcium (鈣) Ca 20 20 20

Atoms being electrically neutral

Although an atom contains electrically charged particles, the atom itself
has no overall charge. That is, an atom is electrically neutral. This is
CE2007(II)13 because in an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.

We should note that the number of neutrons may not be equal to the
number of protons (look at Table 5.4 again).

Class practice 5.4

A5.4
(a) Hydrogen atom
(a) All atoms (except one) are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons.
(b) 91 electrons. Number of neutrons Which atom does not contain any neutron at all?
cannot be predicted from the (b) A certain atom contains 91 protons. How many electrons and neutrons
given data.
(c) It is not an atom. The numbers of does it have?
protons and electrons are not (c) A certain particle has 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 10 electrons. Is it an atom?
equal.
Explain briefly.

electrically neutral 電中性的

15 5
 II Microscopic world I

XTRA
E Historical note
S

History of the discovery of the structure of atom

The idea that atom is the basic unit of substances was first suggested by ancient Greeks. Today, it is still one of
the core concepts in Chemistry.

400 B.C. A.D. 1805

The idea of atom by Democritus Atomic theory by John Dalton
Democritus, a Greek philosopher, suggested that all Until the beginning of the 19th century, John Dalton,
matter is made up of small and indivisible particles a British scientist, modified the idea of atom from
called atoms. In his view, all substances could be Democritus based on experimental results.
divided into smaller and smaller pieces until an atom The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory are:
is obtained. However, he did not have scientific
(1) Elements are made up of very small particles
evidence to support his idea.
called atoms.
(2) Atoms are indivisible and cannot be destroyed.
(3) Atoms of any one element are identical and
have the same mass.
(4) Atoms of different elements have different
properties and different masses.
(5) Elements combine to form compounds. Their
atoms combine to form compounds in simple
whole number ratios.

400 B.C.
A.D. 1805 A.D. 1897 A.D. 1906

A.D. 1897
Discovery of electron by J.J. Thomson A.D. 1906
J.J. Thomson, a British scientist, discovered electrons ‘Plum pudding’ model by J. J. Thomson
inside atoms. When electricity was passed through gases Based on the fact that atoms are electrically neutral,
of very low pressure in a glass tube (cathode ray tube), rays J. J. Thomson further hypothesized that the
generated from the negative electrode could be deflected structure of an atom was like a ‘plum pudding’. In
by the electric field. They moved away from the negative the atomic structure, the negatively charged
plate and towards the positive plate. He found that the electrons stick into a sphere of positive charge.
rays were made of tiny and negatively charged particles
that came from the atoms. He named the particles
sphere of positive
‘electrons’. charge
gases of very
anode low pressure positive plate
cathode (+)
(–) +

fluorescent negatively
screen charged electron
beam of
electrons negative
high voltage plate ‘Plum pudding’ model proposed by J. J. Thomson
Simplified diagram of a cathode ray tube

5 16 beam of electron 電子束 fluorescent screen 熒光屏 core 核心的 J. J. Thomson 湯姆遜
cathode ray tube 陰極射線管 deflect 偏轉 hypothesize 假設
Democritus 德謨克利特 plum pudding 提子布甸
 5 Atomic structure

A.D. 1911
Discovery of nucleus by Ernest Rutherford
Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born scientist, performed the gold foil scattering experiment. Small positively
charged particles, called alpha particles, were shot at a very thin gold foil at high speed. It was found that most of
the alpha particles passed through without changing direction but a few bounced back.
The result indicated that the atom has a very small positively charged region with a dense mass at the centre.
Rutherford named the region ‘nucleus’. He also suggested that the electrons occupied the remaining space in the
atom and moved around the nucleus. gold atoms
beam of alpha
particles fluorescent
screen
beam
of empty space (electrons
alpha moving around)
very thin particles
gold foil
positively charged nucleus

source of alpha particles Most alpha particles pass through the gold foil
in the gold foil scattering experiment.
Rutherford’s gold foil scattering experiment

A.D. 1932
A.D. 1919
A.D. 1913
A.D. 1911

A.D. 1919
A.D. 1913 Discovery of proton by Ernest Rutherford
Atomic model by Niels Bohr Later, Ernest Rutherford proposed the existence of
‘proton’ inside the nucleus as a subatomic particle
Niels Bohr, a Danish scientist, further described the
with a positive charge.
atomic structure. He carried out some experiments
and suggested that electrons moved in an orbit
A.D. 1932
around the nucleus at certain distances.
Discovery of neutron by James Chadwick
electron moving
at a very high
orbit
speed
In 1932, James Chadwick, an English
scientist, discovered an uncharged
particle inside the nucleus. It is called
positively
charged ‘neutron’ (because it is electrically
nucleus neutral).

James Chadwick (1891–1974)

Niels Bohr (1852–1962) Bohr’s atomic model

Today, with the rapid development of science and technology, more and more discoveries disclosed the secret of
an atom.

alpha particle α粒子 orbit 軌道 bounce back 反彈 Niels Bohr 玻爾 17 5

gold foil 金箔 Ernest Rutherford 盧瑟福 scattering 散射
James Chadwick 查兌克
 II Microscopic world I

5.4 Atomic number and mass number

PowerPoint
Atomic number
The atomic number (symbol: Z) of an atom is the number of protons in
the atom. For example, a silver atom contains 47 protons. The atomic
number of silver is therefore 47.

Each element has its own unique atomic number. Suppose that the
number of protons in a silver atom is changed from 47 to 79. Then the
element would no longer be silver. It would become another element
(gold)!

Key point
Atomic number of an atom = number of protons in the atom

Mass number
Since the mass of electrons is very small compared with that of protons and
neutrons, the mass of an atom is nearly all due to protons and neutrons. For
this reason, the mass number (symbol: A) of an atom is the sum of the
numbers of protons and neutrons in the atom. For example, a sodium atom
(with 11 protons and 12 neutrons) has a mass number of 11 + 12 = 23.

Key point
Note 14 Mass number of an atom = sum of number of protons and number of N14
The number of electrons is not
taken into calculation of the
neutrons in the atom
mass number, as electrons
have negligible masses when
compared to protons and
neutrons. The atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) of an atom are usually
shown in a full atomic symbol as follows:

mass number
= number of protons + number of neutrons EXAMPLE

X He
A atomic mass number 4
symbol
Z atomic number 2
atomic number
= number of protons
= number of electrons of an atom

5 18 atomic number 原子序

full atomic symbol 詳盡原子符號
mass number 質量數 unique 獨一無二的
 5 Atomic structure

Problem-solving strategy 5.1 DSE2012(IA)15

DSE2014(IA)1
Deducing the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom with given atomic number and
mass number
Try it now
Deduce the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom of Deduce the number of protons,
35
chlorine, 17Cl. electrons and neutrons in an
40
atom of argon, 18Ar.
1 I dentify the atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) of the ➊ Atomic number of 1840Ar = 18;
atom. Write them down. 40
mass number of 18Ar = 40
35 35
atomic number of 17Cl = 17; mass number of 17Cl = 35

2 Number of protons in an atom ➋ 40

Number of protons in 18Ar = 18
= atomic number of the atom
 number of protons in 35
17Cl = 17

3 As an atom is electrically neutral, number of electrons in an ➌ 40

Number of electrons in 18Ar = 18
atom
= number of protons in the atom
 number of electrons in 35
17Cl = 17

4 Number of neutrons in an atom ➍ 40

Number of neutrons in 18Ar = 40 – 18
= mass number – atomic number = 22

 number of neutrons in 35
17Cl = 35 – 17 = 18

Class practice 5.5

A5.5
1. (a) Aluminium 1. A particular atom of an element (atomic number = 13) has a mass number
27
(b) 13Al
of 27.
(c) (i) 13
(ii) 13 (a) Name the element.
(iii) 27 – 13 = 14 (b) Write the full atomic symbol for the atom, showing the mass number
and atomic number.
(c) Give the number of (i) protons (ii) electrons and (iii) neutrons in the
atom.

2. Complete the following table.

Atomic Mass Number of

Element
number number protons neutrons electrons
Neon 10 20 10 10 10

Potassium 19 39 19 20 19
Gold 79 197 79 118 79

Iron 26 56 26 30 26

(Cont’d)

19 5
 II Microscopic world I

Assertion-reason question
(See the back inside cover for instructions.)

1st statement 2nd statement

16 16
3. The atomic number of O is 8. 8 An O atom contains 8 neutrons.
8 B
1 1
4. The mass number of H is 2.1 There is 1 neutron in a H atom.
1 D

5.5 Isotopes CE2002(I)6(b)(i)

CE2003(II)46
CE2007(II)29
CE2008(I)2(a)
CE2006(II)5
PowerPoint
What are isotopes?
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (i.e. same
atomic number). However, atoms of the same element may have different
numbers of neutrons (i.e. different mass numbers). These different atoms
of the same element are called isotopes.
Note 15
Many students are able to state CE1998(I)1(a) CE2008(I)2(a)
that the isotopes of an element
Key point CE2002(I)6(b)(i) DSE2012(IB)1(a)
have the same number of protons
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same N15
but different numbers of neutrons.
However, some fail to mention number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
‘isotopes are different atoms of the
same element’.

Learning tip Let us take hydrogen as an example. Not all of the atoms of hydrogen
The three isotopes of
are identical. Actually, there are three isotopes of hydrogen, as shown in
hydrogen have special
1
names — protium (1H), Table 5.5. They all have the same number of protons (i.e. same atomic
2
deuterium (1H) and number) but different numbers of neutrons. The three isotopes of
3
tritium (1H). 1 2 3
hydrogen are 1H, 1H and 1H.

Number of
Isotope
proton(s) electron(s) neutron(s)

1
1 H 1 1 0

2
1 H 1 1 1

Table 5.5 Number of protons, 3 1 1 2

1 H
electrons and neutrons in the three
isotopes of hydrogen.

5 20 deuterium 氘 (音：刀)
isotope 同位素
protium 氕 (音：撇)
tritium 氚 (音：川)
 5 Atomic structure

Relative abundance of isotopes

Most elements consist of more than one isotope. In most cases, one of the
isotopes is more abundant than the others in nature. See Table 5.6. The
relative abundance of an isotope refers to the proportion of that
particular isotope of an element in nature.

Atomic Mass Relative abundance of

Note 16 Element Isotopes N16
The relative abundance of isotopes number number isotopes in nature (%)
listed need not be memorized. 1
1 H 1 1 99.984
2
Hydrogen 1 H 1 2 0.016
3
1 H 1 3 very small percentage
12
6 C 6 12 98.892
13
Carbon 6 C 6 13 1.108
14
6 C 6 14 very small percentage
16
8 O 8 16 99.76
17
Oxygen 8 O 8 17 0.04
18
8 O 8 18 0.20
23
Sodium 11 Na 11 23 100
35
17 Cl 17 35 75.4
Table 5.6 Isotopes of some Chlorine 37
17 Cl 17 37 24.6
elements in nature.

In nature, only a few elements have just a single isotope. For example,
19
fluorine F is the only isotope of fluorine. On the contrary, a few elements
have many isotopes. For example, xenon has 30 isotopes.

XTRA
E Everyday chemistry
S

Radioactive isotopes in Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant

In Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
plant (in Japan), radioactive isotope
uranium-235 is used to generate
electricity. During the generation of
electricity, radioactive isotopes
iodine-131 and caesium-137 are
produced. On 11th March, 2011, a
serious earthquake occurred in
Fukushima. It damaged the reactors in Nuclear reactors in Fukushima after
the nuclear power plant and caused earthquake.
the leakage of high-energy nuclear
radiation. Nuclear radiation causes
various health problems.

relative abundance 相對豐度 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant 福島第一核電廠

leakage 泄漏
nuclear radiation 核輻射
radioactive 放射性的
21 5
 II Microscopic world I

Class practice 5.6

A5.6
1. (a) 3
1. Refer to Table 5.6.
16
(b) 8O (a) How many natural isotopes does oxygen have?
2. A and D are isotopes because they (b) Which is the most abundant isotope of oxygen?
have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons. 2. The numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in particles A to D are
shown in the following table.

Number of Number of Number of

Particle
protons neutrons electrons
A 7 7 7
B 12 12 10
C 11 12 11
D 7 8 7

Which of the above two particles are isotopes? Explain your answer.

CE2002(I)6(b)(iii)
CE2007(II)29
CE2008(I)2(c)
Note 17 Comparing properties of different isotopes
Isotopes have the same
electronic arrangement and
Isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons and
hence the same chemical N17
properties. However, many electrons in their atoms. Therefore, they have the same chemical
students misunderstand that
properties. However, they have different numbers of neutrons, so they
isotopes have similar chemical
properties. have different masses and hence slightly different physical properties.

XTRA
E Everyday chemistry
S

Uses of isotopes
Many naturally occurring isotopes are radioactive and they have many applications in daily life.

For preservation of food, For medical purposes, For archaeological uses,

cobalt-60 is used. It emits cobalt-60, iodine-125 and carbon-14 is used to determine
high-energy radiation to kill iodine-131 are used. They the age of carbon-containing
the microorganisms and pests damage cancer cells in human substances such as rocks, fossils
in fresh fruits and meats. body by emitting high-energy and antiques.
radiation.

Cobalt-60 can be used in food Iodine-131 can be used in cancer Carbon-14 dating can be used to
preservation. treatment. estimate the age of the fossil of fish.

5 22 carbon-14 dating 碳-14定年法 antique 古董

archaeological 考古的
pest 害蟲
preservation 保存
emit 射出
 5 Atomic structure

5.6 Relative isotopic mass and relative

PowerPoint atomic mass
Atoms are so light that ordinary units (such as kilogram or gram) are
unsuitable for measuring their masses (Figure 5.16).

Note 18
The mass of one hydrogen atom is N18
The mass of a hydrogen atom is written 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 673 g
here in a rather unusual way, so as to
impress students more. In practice, Figure 5.16 An atom is very light in mass.
–24
mass is expressed as 1.673 × 10 g.

Carbon-12 as standard
Scientists found a simpler way to express the mass of an atom. It is better to
express their masses relative to a reference standard. Scientists chose a
12
carbon-12 ( C) isotope, which has six protons and six neutrons, to be the
standard atom. Then they took the mass of one carbon-12 atom as exactly
12.00 units (atomic mass unit, a.m.u.). The masses of all other atoms are
compared with this reference standard to give their relative masses (Figure
5.17).

magnesium atom

carbon atom

helium atom

(a) (b)

Figure 5.17
12
(a) This magnesium atom has the same mass as two C atoms. The relative mass of this
magnesium atom is thus 12 × 2 = 24.
12
(b) Three helium atoms have the same mass as one C atom. The relative mass of a helium
1
atom is thus 12 × = 4.
3

atomic mass unit 原子質量單位 reference standard 參比標準

relative 相對的
23 5
 II Microscopic world I

Relative isotopic mass

By comparing the mass of one isotope of an element with the reference
standard, we obtain the relative isotopic mass (also known as isotopic
mass) of that particular isotope of the element.

12
On the C = 12.00 scale, the relative masses of a proton and a neutron
are both very close to 1. The relative mass of an electron is nearly 0. Thus,
the relative isotopic mass of an isotope is roughly equal to its mass number.
Note 19 Relative isotopic mass is a relative value. It carries no unit. N19
12
A C atom, consisting of 6 protons,
6 neutrons and 6 electrons, has a
relative mass of exactly 12, not 6 × Key point
(1.0074 + 1.0089 + 0.00055) =
12.1011. The difference in mass Relative isotopic mass  mass number
(called mass defect) is stored as
energy in the atom.

Relative atomic mass

Note 20
In general, if an element consists of n isotopes, there would be n different
Relative atomic mass is sometimes
shortened to atomic mass, which relative isotopic masses, one for each of the isotopes. However, there is only
also carries no unit.
one relative atomic mass for an element. The relative atomic mass of an N20

Concept check element is determined by:

✘ The relative atomic
• the relative isotopic mass and
mass of chlorine is
35.5 g. • the relative abundance

✔ The relative atomic of each naturally occurring isotope of the element.

mass is a relative CE2000(I)2(a)
value. It carries no The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of
unit. The relative
atomic mass of the relative isotopic masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that
12
chlorine should be element on the C = 12.00 scale. Relative atomic mass is also a relative
35.5.
value. It carries no unit.

For example, for an element consisting of three isotopes A, B and C:

Key point
Relative atomic mass = a% × MA + b% × MB + c% × MC
where a%, b%, c% = relative abundances of isotopes A, B and C
respectively
MA, MB, MC = relative isotopic masses of isotopes A, B and C
respectively

5 24 relative atomic mass 相對原子質量

relative isotopic mass 相對同位素質量
naturally occurring 天然存在的
weighted average 加權平均數
 5 Atomic structure

H20 Example 5.2 CE1998(I)1(b) CE2004(II)23 AL2009(I)3(b)(i) DSE2012(1B)1(b)

CE2003(II)12 CE2006(II)14 DSEPP2012(1A)1 DSE2013(1A)2
Calculating the relative atomic mass of an element
35 37
Chlorine consists of two naturally occurring isotopes, Cl and Cl, with relative abundances of 75.4%
and 24.6% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Solution
By approximation, relative isotopic mass = mass number
35
Relative isotopic mass of the Cl isotope = 35
37
Relative isotopic mass of the Cl isotope = 37
Relative atomic mass of an element
= weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of its naturally occurring isotopes
For an element containing two isotopes, relative atomic mass
= a% × MA + b% × MB
 relative atomic mass of chlorine
= 75.4% × 35 + 24.6% × 37
= 35.5

Self-test 5.2
Self-test 5.2
Relative atomic mass of boron = 10 × 19.7% + 11 × 80.3% = 10.8
10 11
Boron contains 19.7% of B and 80.3% of B. Calculate the relative atomic mass of boron.
Try Chapter Exercise Q28

H20 Example 5.3

CE2000(II)7 CE2010(II)8
Calculating the relative abundance of isotopes of an element CE2008(I)2(b)
79
Naturally occurring bromine (relative atomic mass = 79.9) consists of a mixture of two isotopes: Br
81
and Br. Calculate the relative abundance of each of the two naturally occurring isotopes of bromine.
Solution
79 81
Let the relative abundance of Br be y% and that of Br be (100 – y)%.
Relative atomic mass of an element
= weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of its naturally occurring isotopes
Relative atomic mass of bromine = 79.9 Self-test 5.3
63 65
Let the relative abundance of X be y% and that of X be (100 – y)%.
i.e. 79.9 = 79 × y% + 81 × (100 – y)% 63.5 = 63 × y% + 65 × (100 – y)%
7990 = 79y + 8100 – 81y 6350 = 63y + 6500 – 65y
 y = 75
 y = 55 (100 – y) = 100 – 75 = 25
63 65
(100 – y) = 100 – 55 = 45 Thus, the relative abundance of X is 75% and that of X is 25%.
79 81
Thus, the relative abundance of Br is 55% and that of Br is 45%.

Self-test 5.3
63
Naturally occurring element X (relative atomic mass = 63.5) consists of a mixture of two isotopes: X
65
and X. Calculate the relative abundance of each of the two naturally occurring isotopes of element
X.

25 5
 II Microscopic world I

Class practice 5.7

A5.7 1. What is the relative isotopic mass of
1. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 235 1 2 4 235
(e) We cannot tell from the given (a) 1 H (b) 1 H (c) He (d) U (e) 19 K
data because the mass number 2. Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes in nature. The relative
is not given.
2. Relative atomic mass of magnesium abundances of these isotopes are shown in the table below:
= 24 × 78.6% + 25 × 10.1% + 26 ×
24 25 26
11.3% Isotope Mg Mg Mg
= 24.3
85
3. Let the relative abundance of Q and Relative CE2002(I)6(b)(ii)
87 78.6 10.1 11.3
Q be y% and (100 – y)% abundance (%)
respectively.
85.5 = 85 × y% + 87 × (100 – y)% Calculate the relative atomic mass of magnesium.
8550 = 85y + 8700 – 87y
y = 75 3. Element Q has a relative atomic mass of 85.5. It consists of two isotopes
85 85 87
Thus, the relative abundance of Q Q and Q. Calculate the relative abundance of each of the two
87
is 75% and that of Q is 25%.
isotopes.

5.7 Arrangement of electrons in atoms

PowerPoint

Electronic arrangement
In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885–1962) (Figure 5.18), a Danish scientist, suggested
that the electrons in an atom move in orbits surrounding the nucleus of
the atom. These orbits are called electron shells.

Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, starting from

the one closest to the nucleus (i.e. the innermost shell).

Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons. See

Figure 5.18 Niels Bohr Figure 5.19.
(1885–1962) • First shell — a maximum of 2 electrons
• Second shell — a maximum of 8 electrons
Learning tip
If n is the shell number,
• Third shell — a maximum of 18 electrons
the maximum number of • Fourth shell — a maximum of 32 electrons
electrons a shell can
2
hold is 2n . For example,
the second shell (n = 2)
can hold a maximum of
2
2 × 2 = 8 electrons.
first shell – a maximum of 2 electrons
nucleus
second shell – a maximum of 8 electrons
third shell – a maximum of 18 electrons

fourth shell – a maximum of 32 electrons

Figure 5.19 Electrons in an
atom move in electron shells
surrounding the nucleus.

5 26 electron shell 電子層 (或電子殼)

orbit 軌道
innermost 最內的
surrounding 圍繞
 5 Atomic structure

The way in which electrons are arranged in different electron shells is

called electronic arrangement (or electronic configuration).

Rules for finding electronic arrangement DSE2012(1A)15

To find the electronic arrangement of an atom, we use the following rules:

1. Find the atomic number of the element. This is equal to the number of
protons, and hence the number of electrons present in an atom of the
element.

2. Place electrons into the electron shells one by one, starting from the
innermost shell. When a certain shell is ‘full’, any remaining electrons
would go into the next outer shell and so on, until all are placed.

Ways of representing electronic arrangement

Electronic arrangement by numbering CE2010(I)1(b)

Electronic arrangement may be shown by numbering. The number of

electrons is listed, starting from the first shell (innermost shell). The
numerals are separated by commas. For example, the electronic
arrangement of a sodium atom is 2,8,1 (Figure 5.20).

Electronic arrangement of sodium atom:

2, 8, 1
Number of 1st 2nd 3rd
electrons in: shell shell shell

Figure 5.20 Representing the electronic arrangement of a sodium atom by numbering.

Following the above rules and way of presentation, we can have the
electronic arrangements of the elements with atomic numbers 1–20 as
shown in Table 5.7.

electronic arrangement 電子排佈

electronic configuration 電子組態
remaining 餘下的
rule 規則
27 5
 II Microscopic world I

No. of electrons in electron shells Electronic

Atomic Number of
Element Symbol arrangement
number electrons 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Hydrogen H 1 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2

Lithium Li 3 3 2 1 2, 1
Beryllium Be 4 4 2 2 2, 2
Boron B 5 5 2 3 2, 3
Carbon C 6 6 2 4 2, 4
Nitrogen N 7 7 2 5 2, 5
Oxygen O 8 8 2 6 2, 6
Fluorine F 9 9 2 7 2, 7
Neon Ne 10 10 2 8 2, 8

Sodium Na 11 11 2 8 1 2, 8, 1
Magnesium Mg 12 12 2 8 2 2, 8, 2
Aluminium Al 13 13 2 8 3 2, 8, 3
Silicon Si 14 14 2 8 4 2, 8, 4
Phosphorus P 15 15 2 8 5 2, 8, 5
Sulphur S 16 16 2 8 6 2, 8, 6
Chlorine Cl 17 17 2 8 7 2, 8, 7
Argon Ar 18 18 2 8 8 2, 8, 8

Potassium K 19 19 2 8 8 1 2, 8, 8, 1
Calcium Ca 20 20 2 8 8 2 2, 8, 8, 2

Table 5.7 The electronic arrangements of the elements with atomic numbers 1–20 represented by numbering.

We should note that for potassium and calcium, the electronic

arrangements are not the same as expected (i.e. 2, 8, 9 for K; 2, 8, 10 for Ca).
The explanation is not to be discussed at this level of study.

Electronic arrangement by electron diagram CE2003(I)3(a)

Besides numbering, electronic arrangement can also be represented by an

electron diagram. In such a diagram, the nucleus is often represented by
the symbol of the atom. Electron shells are shown by circles around the
nucleus. Electrons are shown by dots or crosses.

5 28 electron diagram 電子結構圖 cross 交叉

dot 圓點
 5 Atomic structure

CE2002(II)1
Figure 5.21 shows the electron diagrams of atoms of some elements.
Note 21 N21
For easy drawing and counting, the
electrons (except those in the first H Li O
shell) can also be drawn in pairs.
Therefore, the electron diagrams of H Li O
oxygen and silicon can also be drawn
hydrogen lithium oxygen
as follows:
1 2,1 2,6

O
Si Na Si K
oxygen Na Si K
silicon

Figure 5.21 Electron diagrams sodium silicon potassium

of atoms of some elements. 2,8,1 2,8,4 2,8,8,1

Skill corner 5.1

Drawing an electron diagram to represent the atom of an element
Note the following points when we draw the electron diagram of an aluminium atom.

3 a Draw the electrons as either dots or crosses.

b Place the 2 electrons on opposite sides in
1 Write the symbol of the first shell.
the atom correctly.
4 Put the electron pairs on the sides,
Al top and bottom of the second shell.

2 Draw the electron

shells as circles. 5 Put the electron singly on
the sides, top or bottom of
the third shell.

A5.8
Key point
1. (a) 2 (b) 2,5 The way in which electrons are arranged in different shells is called
(c) 2,8,7 (d) 2,8,8,1
2. (a) (b) electronic arrangement.
Be C

(c) Class practice 5.8

S 1. Show the electronic arrangement of each of the following atoms by
numbering.
(d) (a) Helium (b) Nitrogen (c) Chlorine (d) Potassium
2. Show the electronic arrangement of each of the following atoms by
Ca electron diagram.
(a) Beryllium (b) Carbon (c) Sulphur (d) Calcium

singly 單個地
29 5
 II Microscopic world I

Key terms
PowerPoint

English term Chinese translation Page

1. atom 原子 7

2. atomic number 原子序 18

3. chemical symbol 化學符號 11

4. electron 電子 12

5. electron diagram 電子結構圖 28

6. electron shell 電子層 (電子殼) 26

7. electronic arrangement/electronic configuration 電子排佈/電子組態 27

8. isotope 同位素 20

9. mass number 質量數 18

10. metal 金屬 3

11. nucleus 原子核 12

12. neutron 中子 12

13. non-metal 非金屬 3

14. proton 質子 12

15. relative atomic mass 相對原子質量 24

16. relative isotopic mass 相對同位素質量 24

17. semi-metal/metalloid 半金屬/類金屬 6

18. subatomic particle 次原子粒子 12

5 30
 5 Atomic structure

Progress check
PowerPoint

Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.

Page
1. How do we classify elements into metals, semi-metals and non-metals based on their
4
physical properties?

2. What is an atom? 7

3. What is the relationship between element and atom? 8

4. What are the chemical symbols for common elements? 11

5. What are the three fundamental subatomic particles that make up an atom? 12

6. What are the relative charges and the relative masses of a proton, a neutron and an
14
electron?

7. What is the meaning of atomic number? 18

8. What is the meaning of mass number? 18

23
9. How do we interpret and use symbols such as 11Na? 18

10. How can we deduce the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms with given
19
atomic numbers and mass numbers?

11. What is the meaning of isotopes? 20

12. What is the meaning of relative isotopic mass? 24

13. What is the meaning of relative atomic mass? 24

14. How can we calculate the relative atomic mass of an element? 25

15. How can we represent the electronic arrangements of atoms by numbering? 27

16. How can we represent the electronic arrangements of atoms using electron diagrams? 29

31 5
 II Microscopic world I

Summary
PowerPoint

5.1 Classification of elements into metals, non-metals and semi-metals

1. Elements can be classified into metals, non-metals and semi-metals.

2. All metals conduct electricity. All non-metals (except carbon in the form of graphite) do not
conduct electricity. To tell whether an element is a metal or non-metal, a simple but effective way
is to test whether it conducts electricity.
(Refer to Table 5.1 on p.4 for some typical differences in physical properties between metals and
non-metals.)

5.2 Atoms

3. An atom is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that element.

4. An element is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atoms. Different elements have
different properties because they consist of different kinds of atoms.

5. Atoms of different elements have different sizes and masses.

6. Chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements. Chemical symbols of most elements
come from their English names.
(Refer to Table 5.2 on p.11 for chemical symbols of some elements.)

5.3 Structure of an atom

7. (a) An atom consists of three types of subatomic particles — protons, neutrons and
electrons.

(b)
Subatomic particle Relative mass Relative charge
Proton (p) 1 +1

Neutron (n) 1 0
1
–
Electron (e ) negligible ( ) –1
1837

(c) An atom has a very small and extremely dense centre called nucleus. The protons and
neutrons are in the nucleus.

(d) Electrons move around the nucleus at a very high speed.

(e) An atom is electrically neutral.

5 32
 5 Atomic structure

5.4 Atomic number and mass number

8. Atomic number of an atom = number of protons in the atom

9. Mass number of an atom = number of protons + number of neutrons in the atom

10. Full atomic symbol

mass number
= number of protons + number of neutrons EXAMPLE

X He
A Atomic mass number 4
symbol
Z atomic number 2
atomic number
= number of protons
= number of electrons of an atom

5.5 Isotopes

11. I sotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons (and
electrons) but different numbers of neutrons. Different isotopes of the same element have the
same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties.

5.6 Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass

12. Relative isotopic mass  mass number

13. Relative atomic mass of an element = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of all the
12
naturally occurring isotopes of that element on the C =
12.00 scale.

5.7 Arrangement of electrons in atoms

14. The way in which electrons are arranged in different electron shells is called electronic
arrangement.
(Refer to Table 5.7 on p.28.)

33 5
 II Microscopic world I

Concept map
PowerPoint

Complete the following concept map.

Gas Liquid Solid

can
conduct

Electricity Metal
exists as
can be
classified can be
as represented by
Semi-metal Element Chemical symbol

the smallest weighted

part is different average of
Non-metal
atoms of the masses of
same element all isotopes
ATOM Isotopes Relative
atomic
mass mass
consists of
of isotope

Relative
isotopic
Nucleus Electrons
mass

contains
same move around
number the nucleus in
as
Electrons
Protons Neutrons Electron shells

number of
protons in
sum of numbers of protons
an atom
and neutrons in an atom

_______
Atomic _______
Mass

number number

(Hints: atomic, chemical symbol, electrons, element, liquid, mass, metal, nucleus, protons, relative atomic
mass, relative isotopic mass, electron shells)

5 34
 5 Atomic structure

Chapter exercise
Fill in the blanks 9. In an atom, a proton
is positively charged,
an electron is negatively charged, while a
Section 5.1 neutron
metals
is neutral.
1. Elements can be classified into ,
semi-metals
non-metals and . Section 5.4
10. The atomic number of an atom is the
2. There are only two liquid elements:
bromine mercury number of protons in the atom.
and .
mass
metals 11. The number of an atom is the
3. All conduct electricity, while non-
graphite sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in
metals (except ) do not.
the atom.
Section 5.2
atom
Section 5.5
4. An is the smallest part of an Isotopes
12. are different atoms of the same
element which has the chemical properties of that
element which have the same number of
element. protons
(and electrons) but different numbers
element
5. An is a substance that is made up of neutrons.
of only one kind of atoms.
Section 5.6
6. Different elements have different properties 13. The mass of a carbon-12
isotope is chosen
because they consist of different kinds of as the reference standard to give the relative
atoms
. isotopic mass of a particular isotope of an
element.
7. Every element has a name and also a chemical
symbol . 14. The relative atomic mass of an element is the
relative isotopic masses
weighted average of the
Section 5.3
of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that
8. An atom is made up of an extremely dense centre 12
nucleus
element on the C = 12.00 scale.
called , inside which are protons
neutrons
and . Around the nucleus, there is Section 5.7
electrons
a relatively large space where are 15. Electrons in an atom move in orbits surrounding
found. the nucleus of the atom. These orbits are called
electron shells
.
electronic arrangement
16. The (or electronic
Practice questions configuration) of a sodium atom is 2,8,1.
Section 5.7 17. (b)
Li Mg Ar K
17. (a) Complete the following table:

Atomic Mass Number of Electronic

Atom
number number protons neutrons electrons arrangement
7
Li 3 7 3 4 3 2,1

24
Mg 12 24 12 12 12 2,8,2

40
Ar 18 40 18 22 18 2,8,8
39
K 19 39 19 20 19 2,8,8,1

(b) Draw the electron diagrams of the above atoms.

35 5
 II Microscopic world I

Multiple-choice questions 23. Which of the following combinations about an atom

with a mass number of 45 is correct?
Section 5.1
Number of Number of Number of
18. Which of the following elements is a semi-metal? protons neutrons electrons
A. Phosphorus A. 10 10 35
B. Boron B. 23 22 22
C. Aluminium C. 22 23 22
B
D. Lithium D. 20 20 20 C

19. Which of the following substances is a non-metal Section 5.6

liquid element at room conditions?
24. Which of the following statements concerning the
A. Bromine nucleus of an atom is/are correct?
B. Chlorine
(1) The nucleus of an atom contains protons and
C. Mercury
A
electrons packed tightly together.
D. Water
(2) The nucleus of an atom for a certain element is
Section 5.2 different from that for other elements.
(3) The nucleus of an oxygen atom is about 8 times
20. Which of the following is the correct chemical
heavier than that of a hydrogen atom.
symbol for copper?
24. In the nucleus of an oxygen
A. (1) only
A. Ca atom, there are 8 protons and
B. (2) only 8 neutrons.
B. Co
C. (1) and (3) only In the nucleus of an atom of
C. Cr 1 B
D D. (2) and (3) only 1H, there is 1 proton but no
D. Cu neutron.
69 71
25. Element X has two isotopes, 31X and 31X. If the relative
Section 5.3
atomic mass of X is 69.7, what is the relative
21. Which of the following statements about an atom
abundance of each of the two isotopes?
are correct?
69 71
X
31 31X
(1) An element consists of only one kind of atoms.
(2) Electrons are found outside the nucleus in an A. 10% 11%
atom. B. 50% 50%
(3) All atoms contain protons, neutrons and C. 65% 35%
C
electrons. D. 35% 65%

A. (1) and (2) only 69

25. Let the relative abundance of 31X be y% and that of 31X be
71

B. (1) and (3) only (100 – y)%.

C. (2) and (3) only 1 69.7 = 69 × y% + 71 × (100 – y)%
21. The atom of 1H has no
A 6970 = 69y + 7100 – 71y
D. (1), (2) and (3) neutron.
y = 65
69 71
Thus, the relative abundance of 31X is 65% and that of 31X is
Section 5.4
35%.
22. From the full atomic symbol of an isotope of
13
carbon 6C, it can be deduced that
A. all isotopes of carbon have 6 protons and 7
neutrons.
B. the relative atomic mass of carbon is 13.
13
C. the relative isotopic mass of 6C is 13.
13
D. an atom of the 6C isotope contains 13 electrons.
C
13
22. An atom of the 6C isotope contains 6 electrons instead
of 13 electrons.

5 36
 5 Atomic structure

26. (a) True. This is because there is no gaseous metal or semi-metal at room conditions.
Structured questions (b) False. This is because mercury is a liquid metal at room conditions.
(c) False. This is because carbon (graphite) is a non-metal which can conduct electricity./This is because
Section 5.1 pure semi-metals cannot conduct electricity at room conditions.
26. The statements below are about metals, non-metals and semi-metals. State whether each of them is true or
false and give your reasons.
(a) If the element is a gas at room conditions, it must be a non-metal.
26. (d) False. This is because some
(b) If the element is a liquid at room conditions, it must be a non-metal. non-metals (e.g. diamond and
graphite) have high melting
(c) If the element can conduct electricity, it must be a metal or a semi-metal. points and boiling points.
(d) If the element has a high melting point and a high boiling point, it must be a metal.
(e) If the element is malleable and ductile, it must be a metal. (e) True. This is because non-
metals are not malleable and
not ductile.
Section 5.5
27. The diagram below shows the nuclei of four atoms P, Q, R and S.

n=8 n=7 n=8 n=7

p=5 p=6 p=6 p=7

n = number of neutrons;
p = number of protons
P Q R S

(a) Which two atoms are isotopes of the same element? 27. (a) Q and R
(b) What is the name of the element in (a)? (b) Carbon
(c) Carbon-13 and carbon-14
(c) What are the names of the two isotopes in (a)? 13 13 14 14
(d) 5P, 6Q, 6R, 7S
(d) Write the full atomic symbol for each of the atoms P, Q, R and S.

Section 5.6
28. The nuclear fission in the reactor of a nuclear power plant can be represented by the following equation:
235 1 144 90 1
92 U + 0 n 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 2 0 n

In the reactor, the uranium-235 atom is bombarded by a neutron. As a result, the atom is broken down into
two smaller atoms, barium-144 and krypton-90, together with the release of two neutrons.

A nuclear power plant

Heat is produced in the above process. The heat produced is used to boil water into steam. The steam turns
the turbine blades to generate electricity in the nuclear power plant.

37 5
 II Microscopic world I

(a) What is the mass number of uranium-235? 28. (a) 235

1 (b) Neutron
(b) What subatomic particle does 0 n represent? (c) It has 56 protons, 56 electrons and 88 neutrons.
(c) How many protons, neutrons and electrons does a barium-144 atom have?
(d) Uranium has three isotopes in nature. The relative abundance of each of these isotopes is shown in the
following table:

Isotope uranium-234 uranium-235 uranium-238

Relative abundance (%) 0.0055 0.72 99.27

Calculate the relative atomic mass of uranium. 28. (d) Relative atomic mass of uranium
= 234 × 0.0055% + 235 × 0.72% + 238 × 99.27%
Section 5.7 = 238

29. Silicon is a semi-metal which has properties of both metals and non-metals. Pure silicon has very low electrical
conductivity. However, when a small amount of boron is mixed with it, the mixture conducts electricity quite
well. Silicon has become widely used in the electronics industry.
(a) Give ONE application of silicon in the electronics industry.
(b) The electrical conductivity of silicon increases when some impurities are added to it. Suggest another
way that can increase its electrical conductivity.
28 29 30
(c) Silicon has three isotopes in nature, 14Si, 14Si and 14Si. The relative abundance of each of these isotopes is
shown in the following table:

28 29 30
Isotope 14Si Si
14 Si
14

Relative abundance (%) 92.23 4.68 3.09

(i) What is meant by the term ‘isotopes’?

28
(ii) What is the relative isotopic mass of 14 Si?
(iii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of silicon.
(d) (i) State the meaning of the terms ‘atomic number’ and ‘mass number’.
(ii) Complete the following table.

Number of Number of Electronic

Atom
protons neutrons arrangement
28
14Si 14 14 2,8,4

29
14 Si 14 15 2,8,4

30
14 Si 14 16 2,8,4

29. (a) Making transistors/computer chips.

(b) The electrical conductivity of silicon can be increased by heating it.
(c) (i) Isotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
(ii) 28
(iii) Relative atomic mass of silicon
= 28 × 92.23% + 29 × 4.68% + 30 × 3.09%
= 28.1
(d) (i) Atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the atom.
Mass number of an atom is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the atom.
(ii) (See table.)

5 38