PASSAGE 1

Mapping the Passage

¶1 describes the mechanism of lightning formation and notes that scientists hope to
someday control it.
¶2 introduces two competing theories of cloud electrification, convection and
precipitation, and describes the older theory of precipitation.
¶3 describes the convection model of cloud electrification.

1) What is the author‘s main purpose? To describe the competing theories on cloud
charge and to describe how they might help to control lightning.
(D) fits well
(A): Out of Scope. The author doesn‘t discuss recent breakthroughs, and only one
of the theories presented has evidence described.
(B): Faulty Use of Detail. Though this is mentioned in the passage, it‘s not the main
idea of the passage.
(C): Distortion. The author presents two competing theories, but doesn‘t endorse
one or the other or argue that they‘re inaccurate.
(D): The correct answer
(E): Out of scope. The author never states his preference for any theory.

2) Go back to the referenced line numbers to read about breakdown potential. The
passage says that lightning occurs after the ―breakdown potential‖ is reached. Only
A catches this cause-and-effect relationship.
(A): The correct answer
(B): Opposite. The breakdown potential is required for lightning to occur, but it‘s
not a characteristic of the lightning itself.
(C): Out of Scope. The author doesn‘t mention the distance between the earth and
cloud.
(D):Opposite. As with (B), this is a quality of the lightning rather than a
precondition for it.
(E): Takes the meaning of breakdown‘ too literally

3) Though scientists differ on the causes of cloud electrification, you can deduce from
this fact alone that they believe that cloud electrification exists. By definition, then,
even the scientists who differ on the causes must both agree with (C), that there‘s
a charge difference between cloud and ground.
(A): Faulty Use of Detail. While scientists who argue for the convection model in ¶3
believe this, not all scientists do.
(B): Faulty Use of Detail. This is a part of the precipitation argument in ¶2.
(C): The correct answer
(D): Opposite. This is a potential way to stop lightning from forming and also a test
of the precipitation hypothesis as described in ¶2.
(E): The passage doesn‘t really connect moisture content with lightning.

4) Review ¶3 to review the convection theory. The main tenet of the convection model
is that water droplets capture ionized gas molecules which are transported in
updrafts and downdrafts. With an eye to the paragraph, look for a choice that
conflicts with or is not part of the theory. (D) is part of the precipitation theory
described in ¶2 and doesn‘t factor into the convection theory.
(A): Opposite. This is mentioned in line 39.
(B): Opposite. This is mentioned in ¶1 and is the basis for both theories.
(C): Opposite. As described in ¶3, this must be true in order for the ionized gas
particles to be transported.
(D): The correct answer
(E): Opposite. This is mentioned in ¶3
PASSAGE 2
Mapping the Passage
¶1 notes that the population drop after a project is completed makes problems worse.
¶2 describes the reasons that money is scarce for infrastructure.
¶s3 and 4 describe the causes of modern boomtowns and introduce problems caused
by the growth.
¶5 describes social problems and their negative impact on the project that caused the
problems in the first place.

1) Where are consequences of poor planning mentioned? While the author discusses
them throughout the passage, there‘s a particular focus in ¶s3-5. RN I is mentioned
explicitly in line 33 and expanded on in ¶5. RN II is mentioned in line 41. Note that
at this point, all the answer choices except for (D) are eliminated, so you can save
time by not evaluating the last statement! RN III is discussed in the context of the
―us against them‖ mentality described in the second half of ¶5.
(A): Opposite. As described above.
(B): Opposite. As above.
(C): Opposite. As above.
(D): The correct answer
(E): Opposite. As above.

2) An ―All...EXCEPT‖ question, so either eliminate or look for an off-scope answer

choice. (B) is the only statement not suggested in the passage as a cause for lack
of services. Although resentment among "old timers versus persons brought to the
community by the boom" (¶5) can occur, there‘s no reason why the lack of support
from long-time residents would lead to a shortage of schools, housing, etc.
(A): Opposite. This is the topic of ¶1.
(B): The correct answer
(C): Opposite. An energy project is one of the types of projects the author
mentions at the beginning of the passage as causing all the problems listed in
the passage.
(D): Opposite. This is discussed throughout ¶2.
(E): Opposite. This is discussed throughout ¶2.

3) What does the author think about the traditional systems of taxation as described
in ¶2? Predict: The author thinks that it leads to a ―critical problem.‖ (B) is the only
choice that reflects that worry about the effects of too few taxes.
(A): Distortion. Though the author thinks that the inefficient taxation is a problem,
there‘s no hint of outrage, which is far too extreme.
(B): The correct answer
(C): Out of Scope. There‘s nothing to suggest that the author is at all astonished by
the taxation programs.
(D): Opposite. The author thinks that the problem is ―critical,‖ which suggests that
the tone is anything but complacent.
(E): The author does not mock anything in the passage
PASSAGE 3
Mapping the Passage
¶s 1 and 2 describe the Berkeley group's discovery of the iridium layer and its
significance to dinosaur extinction.
¶3 discusses conflicting theories for the cause of iridium deposition.
¶s4 and 5 elaborate on various theories that an asteroid or comet was responsible for
the iridium layer.
¶6 presents Alvarez‘s mechanism for extinction: debris from impact blocked sunlight,
impeded photosynthesis, and harmed the dinosaurs‘ food chain.

1) Read the phrase in context. The author argues that the discovery of the iridium
layer revolutionized theories about dinosaur extinction. What is true about these
theories? Immediately afterwards the author says that they ―had centred on the
assumed gradual climatic change.‖ The implication is that the iridium layer
suggests a fast climatic change. (D) is therefore correct: it‘s likely that the
discovery will change the time frame that scientists had used.
(A): Out of Scope. The author doesn‘t discuss any geographic angles of the
theories.
(B): Distortion. Though theories about the length of time over which the extinction
occurred may have changed, the author notes that the iridium layer was found
in ―a period roughly contemporaneous with the disappearance of the dinosaur,‖
which suggests that the date of extinction was already well-established.
(C): Out of Scope. The author doesn‘t suggest that this is an assumption of
traditional theories, and if it was, it wouldn‘t change: the impact theory, at
least as described by Alvarez, says the same thing.
(D): The correct answer
(E): Ice age is not within the scope of the passage.

2) A detail question. Review the Berkeley groups‘ hypothesis: lots of material was
deposited in a very short span of time, suggesting a quick extinction. Any support
that they have must be in the form of the iridium evidence listed in the first two
paragraphs. RN I doesn‘t pass the test: fossils are mentioned in ¶1, but not in the
context of marine strata. RN II, however, repeats the fact that the group compared
the iridium strata with the nearby strata from the late Cretaceous and early
Cenozoic. Only (D) remains as an answer choice, and there‘s no need to look at RN
III. RN III has to be true from the information in the passage: the Berkeley group
compared their findings with marine rocks from various other locations.
(A): Opposite. As described above.
(B): Opposite. As above.
(C): Opposite. As above.
(D): The correct answer
(E): Opposite. As above.

3) Review ¶3: Why are isotopes important? Predict: They rule out the possibility that
the iridium deposits were caused by a supernova. (D) says the same in slightly
vaguer terms.
(A): Out of Scope. The passage doesn‘t discuss any such attempt to estimate the
age of the iridium layer.
(B): Out of Scope. The isotopic information is useful only to determine that the
iridium wasn‘t extrasolar, not to determine what type of object from within the
solar system hit or how extensive the damage was.
(C): Faulty Use of Detail. Alvarez has a hypothesis that does this, but it doesn‘t rely
at all on the isotopic data.
(D): The correct answer
(E): ‗Allergy‘ is outside the scope of the passage
Mapping the Passage
¶1 describes PCBs and what industries and products made use of them.
¶2 describes PCB toxicity, the ban on PCBs, and the problem that PCBs remain in the
environment.
¶3 describes the historical context of chemical dumping and clean-up.
¶4 describes PCB pollution in the Hudson River.
¶5 notes that the fate of PCBs after dredging has received little attention.
¶6 describes competing views over clean-up: the EPA wants to dredge PCBs, while
corporations and some citizens argue that this will do more harm than good.

1) A Roman Numeral inference question with little information to go on in the

question. RN I appears in three out of the four answer choices, so evaluate it first.
What in the passage would provide information about the relative weights of PCBs
and water? If the solution to removing PCBs from the river is to dredge, then PCBs
must be at the bottom of the river, which means that they must be heavier than
water. Eliminate (D). There‘s no suggestion that PCBs are toxic to fish; just the
opposite! If ―fish consumption remains the most potent route of PCB exposure,‖
that must mean that the fish are relatively healthy (at least until eaten). RN III
goes against the main thrust of the passage: if PCBs were biodegradable, there
would be no need to dredge at all. (A) must be correct.
(A): The correct answer
(B): Opposite. As described above.
(C): Opposite. As above.
(D): Opposite. As above.
(E): Opposite. As above.

2) A nastily-worded question. Be sure to take the time to figure out exactly what it‘s
asking. Differences between the EPA and the other two groups are mentioned in
¶6. The question asks how the EPA differs on the basis of its recommendation for
clean-up. The EPA bases its recommendation on the belief that dredging will reduce
contamination and may revitalize commercial fishing. Predict where the difference
isn’t: it‘s not on environmental concerns, because the company and the residents
also base their argument on environmental benefit. Neither the company nor
residents are associated with commercial fishing; this is therefore a valid
difference. (A) fits.
(A): The correct answer
(B): Opposite. Presumably reduced contamination will further residential interests,
which the residents clearly also believe since some oppose dredging on the
belief that it will increase contamination.
(C): Opposite. Even if the EPA is concerned with the environment as a whole, for
which there‘s no basis in the passage, it‘s arguable that the residents have a
similar environmental concern.
(D): Opposite. This is a reason that residents who oppose dredging, not the EPA,
cite.
(E): Incorrect as described above

3) Why are individuals prohibited from eating fish from contaminated areas of the
Hudson? Review the mechanism described in ¶2: PCBs increase in concentration as
they move up the food chain, and so eating fish from contaminated areas would
increase the PCB concentration in the person eating the fish. It can be inferred that
the fish ban is in place to prevent this from happening; (C) fits.
(A): Distortion. Though not eating the fish may reduce the rate of increase in PCB
concentration, there‘s no indication that simply avoiding contaminated fish will
reduce PCB concentration overall.
(B): Distortion. As above, though not eating the fish will reduce the rate of
increase, this doesn‘t mean that it will eliminate the increase altogether;
there are still other possible sources of contamination.
(C): The correct answer
(D): Distortion. Simply reducing the rate of increase won‘t necessarily eliminate all
risk factors for cancer and developmental problems, which could come from
any number of sources, non-fish-borne PCBs included.
(E): Health insurance premium outside the scope of the passage