Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 45

3
AIRPORT SITE SELECTION AND RUNWAY
SYSTEM ORIENTATION
Tony Kazda and Bob Caves

3.1. SELECTION OF A SITE FOR THE AIRPORT

The construction of a new aerodrome or an enlargement of an existing one repre-

sents extensive investments and building works. It is therefore necessary to design
the entire aerodrome project for a long time period. The maximum possibilities of
the airport development in the proposed locality should be considered, within the
limits of the airport’s critical constraints. As well as ensuring that the capacity and
operational requirements are met safely, the issues concerning the airport and its
surroundings should be considered, particularly the impact of the airport on the
nearby population and environment. The locality selected for the airport and orien-
tation of the runway system should facilitate long-term development, and provide
flexibility for future airport expansion at the lowest cost in terms of money and
social impacts. The locality assessment should take a complex design approach to
consider not only all parts of the airside such as the runway and taxiway system but
also the location of terminals, their future expansion and the airport access system
and their interfaces.

The advent of the jet era meant a substantial increase of noise impact from air
transport on the neighbouring communities and significant runway extensions
because of jet engine characteristics. Jet aircraft had also more demanding geometric
characteristics. This resulted in greater airport land take and the need to extend
airports beyond their original boundaries. Subsequent conflicts between airports
and adjacent urban areas called for longer planning horizons. To assist states in
planning the expansion of existing international airports and construction of new
ones, the Council of ICAO on March 1967 approved a proposal for a Manual on
Master Planning (ICAO Doc 9184). The prime objective of master planning is to
determine the ultimate site capacity and then to protect it from the consequences of
ill-considered development of facilities on the airport and from encroachment of
incompatible land uses around the airport which might restrict either its physical
expansion or result in traffic limits due to environmental impacts.
46 Airport Design and Operation

The ICAO manual defines inter alia the planning horizons: short term — three to
five years in advance — provides the basis for actual development work, while med-
ium term forecast (from 5 to 20 years, usually in five-year intervals for convenience)
bridges the gap to the long term and provides interim information on probable sub-
sequent phases of development. Similar time horizons are defined in other literature,
for example IATA Airport Development Reference Manual refers to a ‘projection
period’ for forecasting and recommends for traffic forecasts short term (≥1 year ≤5
year projection) and long term (>5 year ≤30 year projection) periods. As good prac-
tice many airports accepted a 20-year planning horizon as ‘long’ and sometimes it is
still used by some states. De Neufville refers to ‘ultimate vision’, that is, a current
view of the possible future a long time in the future, for example 20 years’.

The concept of ultimate limits to airport development is also included in the ICAO
and FAA manuals but it is often overlooked. Referring to ICAO Doc 9184, ade-
quate land should be acquired or protected to provide for possible ultimate runway
development, including protection of approaches and provision for associated visual
and radio navigation (non-visual) aids. According to FAA AC 150/5070-6B, 5-, 10-
and 20-year time frames are typical for short-, medium- and long-term forecasts;
nevertheless some studies may want to use different time frames.

At some airports it may be necessary to look beyond the 20-year time frame to pro-
tect the airport from incompatible land-use development. However, planning
beyond the 20-year period should be general in nature and in much less detail than
that for the short or even mid-term development. For example, if planning for a
future runway, the master plan might only indicate the general location and poten-
tial length of the runway.

Airport planning practices differ significantly between countries and reflect histori-
cal experience, methods of airport financing, legal framework, political system and
many other factors. For example, US airport operators prepare their plans in line
with the national funding agency requirements as they can only get funds from the
Federal Government for projects that are in the National Plan (the NPIAS).
Furthermore, projects only get into the NPIAS if they are included in an approved
master plan.

Planning airports for 20
30 years ahead could be appropriate in some states.
However, in countries where the planning process requires public hearing proce-
dures, it can seriously delay airport development, for example by environmentalist
groups who can join local inhabitants to organise resistance to airport development,
sometimes called NIMBY which is an acronym for the ‘Not In My Back Yard’, or
even BANANA — ‘Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anything’. For
example, it took 23 years to get the final building permission for Munich Airport.
To plan for ‘ultimate limits of airport development’ might be proper for well-
established democracies with a high standard of living with strong regulatory autho-
rities and good control of corruption, as in those countries discussions on airport
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 47

development could take many years. Some airports adopting an ‘ultimate vision’
development concept protect possible future airport expansion by acquiring large
land areas at a time when it was possible, for example Paris-Charles de Gaulle
Airport. On the other hand it would be useless to prepare a long-term airport devel-
opment plan for a country with an authoritarian regime where fundamental deci-
sions could be taken within a few hours without involvement of the public. The
optimum planning horizon depends on a number of factors which are unique for
any particular state or even region and include not only standard of living but also
population density, price of land and regional stability.

Selection of a suitable site for more airport capacity should begin with an assess-
ment of any existing airport and its site. It is almost always easier to modify an
existing airport than to create a new one on land that has previously had a different
land use. The assessment is made in the light of the prospective passenger market,
its growth rate and any limitation of the growth resulting from, for example a
demographic shift of population. Therefore the prognosis of the growth of a num-
ber of passengers and volume of air cargo in the catchment area of the airport is
one of the key elements in planning the airport development. The methodology of
forecasting traffic is considered in Chapter 2.

After the proposed airport’s size and layout has been approximately determined by
a preliminary study, possible sites for the development of the airport are assessed in
several steps, the principal ones being:

✈ approximate determination of the required land area

✈ assessment of the factors affecting the airport location
✈ preliminary selection of possible localities from maps
✈ survey of individual sites
✈ assessment of impacts on the environment
✈ revaluation of the selection of possible sites
✈ production of site layout drawings
✈ estimate of costs, revenues and discounted cash flow
✈ final selection and assessment of the preferred site
✈ a final report and recommendations.

The same procedure is followed in principle when assessing the development of an

existing airport, though some of the steps may be omitted. The number, location
and orientation of the runways and of the taxiway system should meet the following
criteria:
48 Airport Design and Operation

✈ the availability (the usability factor) of the runway system should be acceptable,
considering the losses which would result from the unavailability of the airport
✈ obstacle restrictions defined by the obstacle clearance limits should be respected
✈ ideally, the final capacity of the runway system should meet the predicted
demand in the typical peak hour traffic in the far future
✈ the site selected for the airport should be considered not only from the viewpoint
of obstacle clearance limits and environmental requirements but also from the
viewpoint of achieving a functional layout of the aerodrome facilities
✈ the airspace capacity and procedures assessment with respect to type of airport
operation and to other airports in the vicinity
✈ the ground transport access to the airport and the urban development plans in
the airport vicinity should be efficient and sustainable
✈ the site should be in accordance with local and regional land-use plans.

3.2. USABILITY FACTOR

The ease with which acceptable usability of the airport can be provided depends on
meteorological conditions in the selected locality and the topography of the site.
The usability factor is defined in Annex 14, Volume I, Chapter 3 as: ‘The percentage
of time during which the use of a runway or system of runways is not restricted
because of the crosswind component’. It can therefore be provided most economic-
ally by optimising the runway directions relative to the prevailing wind directions.
The actual runway orientation is the result of a compromise between the usability
and other factors. The sensitivity of an aircraft to crosswind depends mainly on the
aircraft mass and the type of undercarriage. The greater the aircraft mass, the faster
it tends to fly and the less sensitive it is to the crosswind. The crosswind limits speci-
fied in the Annex 14, for example 20 kt in the case of aircraft whose reference field
length is 1500 m or over, should be considered as indicative only and are quite con-
servative. Modern code letter D or higher aircraft are able to operate with crosswind
as high as 30 kt depending also on the runway braking action (see Section 8.4.4).
Airports for large aircraft should therefore be able to meet the usability require-
ments without resorting to more than one direction, but the design will also be influ-
enced by the length of runway to be provided, the associated difficulty of levelling
the site, the location of areas of population, the existence of sites that encourage
birds and the obstacle clearance requirements. In any case, it is usually necessary for
a large airport also to cater for the needs of smaller aircraft, so it will often be neces-
sary to install short cross runways to provide adequate usability for them.

According to Annex 14 requirements the number of runways at the airport and their
orientations should provide at least a 95% usability factor for the types of aircraft
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 49

which are intended to use the aerodrome, presuming very conservative crosswind
capability of the aircraft. However, this should be considered as an absolute mini-
mum for airports with scheduled transport. A basis for calculation of the usability
factor are the data on percentage occurrence of the wind of the given direction and
speed for a period of at least five years. The statistical data are usually published in
the form of a table (see Table 3.1), or in the form of a wind rose.

Table 3.1: Wind distribution statistics by direction and speed in 0.1%

meteorological station — Bratislava M.R. Štefánik airport.
P
Wind speed/ N NE E SE S SW W NW Calm
direction
Calm







123 123
1
2 40 82 52 31 25 23 23 65 341
3
5 45 45 34 37 26 16 19 111 333
6
10 39 3 5 15 16 4 9 90 181
11
15 4 0
0 1 0 1 15 21
16
20






1 1
>20









P
128 130 91 83 68 43 52 282 123 1000
Source: Šoltı́s (1982).

Determination of the usability factor may be made by several methods. It is best to

choose a method which is likely to underestimate the usability rather than the
opposite.

For a rapid assessment, the transparency method is frequently used (Figure 3.1).
The statistical data on percentage occurrence of the wind of each combination of
direction and speed are plotted in the form of a compass rose. The value of percen-
tage occurrence is recorded in a window which corresponds to the direction and
speed of the wind. The width of the overlaid transparency is equal to twice the
maximum allowable crosswind speed.

The transparency is turned in such a way that it covers the maximum of the percen-
tage wind occurrences. The same method may be repeated for each additional run-
way until the combined coverage meets the required usability factor of the runway
system. The whole process is then repeated for other maximum crosswind criteria.
50 Airport Design and Operation

D
m irec

ay
ain ti
ru on o

nw
ar of
nw f

ru
nd n
c o tio
y
ay

ax

se irec
vm
360

D
ax
vm
45

270

90

225

180
12,3 % CALM 0 ~ 1 m/s

Figure 3.1: Determination of the usability factor — transparency method,

Bratislava M.R. Stefánik airport.

For a more exact evaluation of the usability factor, it is convenient to use the Durst
method. The basis of this method is a rectangular co-ordinate system (Figure 3.2).
Directions of a compass rose are developed in the x-axis and speeds of the wind in
the y-axis. In the created fields the percentage wind occurrence and speed are
recorded. The following function is plotted into the grid:
1
f = v⋅
sin α

where v is the maximum value of the crosswind and α is the angle which is formed
by the runway axis with particular directions of the compass rose.

In the direction of the runway axis, the function increases to infinity and the usabil-
ity factor is limited by the maximum value of the headwind. The function is continu-
ous within each wind data interval. The lowest point of the function is actually the
value of the maximum crosswind (α = 90°). In the direction of the runway the func-
tion grows to infinity and the usability is limited by the value of maximum head
wind for particular type of aircraft and operational conditions. For example for
B 737 when conducting a dual channel Cat II or Cat III landing predicated on
autoland operations the max headwind is 25 knots. When the numerical values
under the function are summed, the usability factor of the runway, or of the runway
system, is given.
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 51

Figure 3.2: Determination of the usability factor — Durst method, Bratislava

M.R. Stefánik airport.

However, sometimes it is not possible to optimise runway orientation with respect

to the prevailing winds either due to the presence of obstacles, urban areas in the
vicinity of airport or other environmental reasons. Airport operations could be
often limited in those cases or require special procedures or qualifications of air
crew (Figure 3.3).

3.3. EFFECT OF LOW-VISIBILITY OPERATIONS

Large airports are expected to continue to operate in poor weather but it is impor-
tant to consider the occurrence of low visibility and low cloud base ceilings on the
way the airport operates. The occurrence of Category II or III visibility (Table 3.2)
represents a significant qualitative change as a consequence of considerably lowered
abilities of the pilots, air traffic controllers and other persons involved to maintain
the procedures and an expeditious flow of air traffic with a visual reference. A
change from Category I to II and any lower category entails more than just the
provision of the visual and non-visual navigation aids. Performing operations
under low-visibility conditions depends also on the system of air traffic control, elec-
trical systems back-up, meteorological equipment and services, surface movement
52 Airport Design and Operation

guidance and control systems, runway incursion protection measures, security and
emergency procedures and apron management. It requires also a change of the sys-
tem of airport control and of the attitude of all the airport staff to fulfilling their
duties. It is necessary to augment the system of airport operation quality control
and Safety Management System (SMS) when operating in these lower visibility
conditions.

Figure 3.3: Sometimes it is not possible to optimise runway orientation due to

orography — Funchal airport. Photo: Z. Kazdova.

It must be emphasised that lowering the weather minima is more an economic

than a technical problem today. Category II or III equipment and operations
represent significant costs for airports and airlines. However, in most cases it is the
only way to guarantee the reliability of operations during the whole year without
significant disruptions. Diversions are expensive both for airports and airlines. For
airports it is the loss of landing, parking, handling and passenger fees and a bad
image of the airport. For airlines there are direct costs resulting from passenger
compensations, other costs as a consequence of disruptions to the fleet planning
and also a bad image for the airline. Sometimes, even if it appears sensible for an
airport, some aircraft operators may not wish to upgrade their avionics or their
pilot qualifications. On the other hand, many operators may only agree to operate
at the airport if Category II or III is available to guarantee the regularity of flight
operations.
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 53

Table 3.2: Precision approach categories.

ICAO FAA EASA

CAT I DH 200 ft ≤ DH 200 ft ≤ DH 200 ft ≤ DH
RVR 550 m ≤ RVR 1800 ft ≤ RVR 550 m ≤ RVR
800 m ≤ VIS 550 m ≤ RVR
1400 ft ≤ RVR with
special equipment
authorisation
CAT II DH 100 ft ≤ DH 100 ft ≤ DH < 200 ft 100 ft ≤ DH
< 200 ft < 200 ft
RVR 300 m ≤ RVR 1200 ft ≤ RVR < 2400 ft 300 m ≤ RVR
350 m ≤ RVR < 800 m
CAT III A DH No DH or No DH or DH < 100 ft DH < 100 ft
DH < 100 ft
RVR 175 m ≤ RVR 700 ft ≤ RVR 200 m ≤ RVR
200 m ≤ RVR
CAT III B DH No DH or No DH or DH < 50 ft No DH or
DH < 50 ft DH < 100 ft
RVR 50 m ≤ RVR 150 ft ≤ RVR < 700 ft 75 m ≤ RVR
< 175 m 50 m ≤ RVR < 200 m < 200 m
CAT III C DH No DH No DH
RVR No RVR No RVR limitation
limitation
Source: ICAO (2010, 2012c); FAA (2012); Commission Regulation (EU) (2012).

In some cases the selection of a site has been made without considering poor visibi-
lity conditions, thinking that the ground equipment would ensure the required regu-
larity and allow for the aircraft to land under any conditions. However, the lower
the operational minima, the bigger the capital and operational costs incurred. The
ground equipment designed for operation under the conditions of the ICAO
Category II or III are not only more expensive but also substantially more compli-
cated and demanding for maintenance. The runway can be out of service during
maintenance, so the total availability of the runway can be further reduced if there
is 24-hour operation. Also, during poor visibility operations, the runway system
capacity decreases considerably. However, the lower the minima, the less frequently
do those poorer weather conditions occur (Figure 3.4).
54 Airport Design and Operation

400 383

350
Occurance [hours per year]

300

250

200

150
95
100

50 34
0 3
0
< 50 < 175 < 300 < 550 < 1900
RVR [m]

Figure 3.4: Occurrence of low-visibility conditions [hours/year] — Bratislava

airport 2005. Source: Krollova (2005).

When an assessment of the runway equipment is made, it is necessary to determine

the extent to which it is cost effective to lower the minimum. The decision is usually
based on the prevailing meteorological conditions during the peak hours and the
expected number of diverted flights gained or lost. For example at many busy
Mediterranean airports it is quite usual that they have only non-precision approach
runways as most of their traffic is concentrated to the summer season with good
meteorological conditions. Therefore, when selecting a site for an airport with inter-
national or scheduled traffic, it is necessary to pay attention to an assessment of
weather conditions, including occurrence of reduced visibility and low cloud base,
and the associated costs and benefits.

For determination of the usability factor including the effect of low visibility, the
Antonı́n Kazda method may be employed.1 The method evaluates the usability
factor in two steps:

1. Evaluation of the usability factor including the effect of crosswind if the visibility
or the runway visual range is greater or equal to 550 m.
2. Evaluation of the usability factor considering the RVR limits without taking
the wind into account if the visibility or the runway visual range drops below
550 m.

Note: If historic data of RVR measurement are not available then visibility data might
be used. In this case a critical value of 400 m should be employed. This value is based

1. Kazda (1988).
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 55

on the general assumption that runway visual range is 1.5 times greater than the
visibility.

This two step method may be employed because of a mutual dependency of the
occurrence of low visibility and low velocity winds, that is ‘when there is a fog, no
strong wind blows’, has been effectively proven with a high probability.

The evaluation of the usability factor with the wind effect may be performed by any
of the known methods, for example the Durst method described above.

For evaluation of the usability factor taking account of the runway visual range lim-
its, the method of least squares, the approximation of accumulated occurrences of
visibility by the means of a polynomial, is employed. The method allows the usabil-
ity factor to be evaluated with respect to the visibility limits in an arbitrary season
and a time interval of a day, and may describe the time dependency (daily and
yearly) of occurrences of low visibility.

The resultant usability of the aerodromes is the sum of the loss of usability due to
the wind effect and the loss of usability due to the runway visual range limits.

According to Annex 14 Volume I, the ICAO precision approach runway categories

are defined by decision height (DH) and runway visual range (RVR), or visibility in
case of Category I (see Table 3.2). The criteria in ICAO, FAA and EASA standards
are slightly different. ICAO standards Annex 6, Operation of Aircraft, Part I
International Commercial Air Transport — Aeroplanes are accepted worldwide,
but additional requirements or other differences could be found for instance in
FAA Order 8000.94: or in the Commission Regulation (EU) No 965/2012, that is
EASA. Category II weather minima permit manual landing, but it does not mean
that automatic landings cannot be made. Aircraft avionics have improved signifi-
cantly over the years by leveraging new and existing aircraft technologies. Some
airlines practice to fly manual approaches up to Category III A using Head up
Guidance System (HGS), for example Lufthansa City Line since 1994 on their CRJ
fleet. During the approach procedure the auto pilot has to be switched off at
1000 feet at the latest and the captain continues manual approach with Category III
A minima to landing. The Head up Display allows also for low visibility take offs
since the minima with HGS is 75 metre RVR due to LOC based guidance projected
into the pilots field of vision. In any case the decision height or RVR cannot be
lower than specified limits. ICAO defines the decision height (or altitude) and the
runway visual range as:

Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH) is the specified altitude or height in
the precision approach or approach with vertical guidance at which a missed
approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach
has not been established.
56 Airport Design and Operation

Runway visual range (RVR) is the range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the
centre line of a runway can see the runway surface markings or the lights delineating
the runway or identifying its centre line (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: Part of RVR equipment in touchdown zone (ILS GP antenna behind).
Photo: A. Kazda.

According to the European Guidance Material on Aerodrome Operations under

Limited Visibility Conditions, EUR Doc 013 4th ed. (September 2012), Low-
Visibility Procedures (LVP) are required for approach and landing operations in
Category II or III weather conditions or for departures in RVR less than a value of
550 m (Table 3.3). Precision approaches during Category I conditions do not
require Low-Visibility Procedures. However, procedures for Reduced Aerodrome
Visibility Conditions (RAVC) must be introduced whenever conditions are such
that all or part of the manoeuvring area, depending on the size of the aerodrome,
cannot be visually monitored from the control tower (PANS-ATM Chapter 7,
7.12.1). This again means that the design, that is airport layout — tower position
and its height, can significantly affect the airport operation.

For the description of different conditions of visual control of traffic from the con-
trol tower and of the pilots to avoid other traffic four different visibility conditions
are specified from Visibility Condition 1 through to Visibility Condition 4. The
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 57

transition from Visibility Condition 1 to Visibility Condition 2 occurs when meteor-

ological conditions deteriorate to the point that personnel of control units are
unable to maintain control over traffic on the basis of visual surveillance and in
practice defines the entry to RAVC.

Table 3.3: The relationship between ICAO visibility conditions.

MET Visibility ATC Pilot

conditions
ATC controls
Aerodrome Visibility Pilot taxis
aerodrome ground
specific Condition 1 and avoids
movements visually
other traffic
Visibility visually
Reduced Aerodrome Visibility

Condition 2
Visibility
equivalent to Pilot unable
RVR < 400 m Visibility ATC unable to to avoid
Conditions

Condition 3 control some/all of other traffic

manoeuvring area visually
visually
Visibility Pilot unable
RVR ≤ 75 m to taxi
Condition 4
visually

Source: ICAO (2012b).

For many regional airports with only moderate traffic a so-called ‘full’ Category I
(runway equipped with inset centre line lights) may represent a good solution before
introducing any lower category, as the difference in operational limits between
Category I and II is only 250 m of RVR but the investment and operational costs of
Category I are significantly lower. Under EASA — Commission Regulation (EU)
965, take-off on a runway where the RVR is less than 400 m is also considered as a
low-visibility operation, in this case the Low-Visibility Take-Off (LVTO). In some
states it is mandatory to conduct a so-called guided take off if RVR is 125 m or less
(150 m for Cat D aircraft). In this type of operation a guidance system provides
directional guidance information to the pilot during the take-off. However, the pilot
may request to conduct a guided take off at any time. The ILS localiser guidance
signal must be protected for these types of operation.

For Category I operations and non-precision approaches, RVR measurements must

be provided in the touchdown zone. For Category II a second, mid-runway position
must be equipped for RVR measurements and for the majority of Category III
operations it is also required at the final third of the runway.
58 Airport Design and Operation

In fact, the critical value for a pilot in the final stages of approach and during flare
is not RVR but the slant visual range (SVR). Slant visual range is the range over
which a pilot of an aircraft can see the markings or the lights as described in the
RVR definition. The pilot’s ability to obtain visual reference in low-visibility condi-
tions is further constrained by the front section of the aircraft, the cockpit cut-off
angle. Minimum visual segments at DH are established for each precision approach
category. Typically the values are 225 m for Category II with manual landing, 90 m
for Category II with automatic landing and 60 m for Category III. In Category III
conditions a pilot can see the runway lights only about 5 seconds before touchdown.
The relationships between SVR, DH, cockpit cut-off angle and the visual segment
are defined by a formula (Figure 3.6):

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SRV = ðv þ ðh cot wÞÞ2 þ h2

where v is visual segment; h is pilot’s eye height above the ground; and w is cockpit
cut-off angle = down vision angle − pitch angle.

PILOT EYES TO
GEAR 20 ft (6.1m)
4º PITCH
HORIZON

W
20º DOWN
VISION
ANGLE
100 ft (30 m)

SVR 250 m
W

VISUAL SEGMENT 90m OBSCURED SEGMENT 127m

Figure 3.6: Visual ground segments and cut-off angle — landing approach.
Source: Airbus Industry.

The main objective of Category II or III operations is to guarantee the same level of
safety as during other operations, but in lower visibility and more adverse weather
conditions. The desired level of safety is achieved (at the airport) by controlling:

✈ physical characteristics of runway, runway strip and the terrain before threshold
✈ obstacle clearance criteria
✈ visual aids (runway marking, lighting systems)
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 59

✈ non-visual aids (ILS or MLS facility)

✈ RVR measurements
✈ ATC procedures
✈ airport maintenance procedures.

The details of particular airport systems or equipment with respect to the low-
visibility procedures are discussed in the relevant chapters (e.g. Chapters 15 and 16).

Before the safety assessment study itself, the runway, runway strips and taxiway sys-
tem layout must be examined for obstacle clearances. The most stringent area is
inside the obstacle-free zone (OFZ). It is defined in ICAO Annex 14 as the airspace
above the inner approach surface, inner transitional surfaces, and baulked landing
surfaces and that portion of the strip bounded by these surfaces, which is not
penetrated by any fixed obstacle other than a low-mass and frangibly mounted
obstacle required for air transportation purposes (Figure 3.7). During Category II or
III operations, taxiing or aircraft holding for take-off must also be kept out of
the OFZ.

INNER TRANSITIONAL
A A

INNER TRANSITIONAL

INNER APPROACH BAULKED LANDING

B

INNER TRANSITIONAL

SECTION A-A

INNER HORIZONTAL

INNER TRANSITIONAL BAULKED LANDING

SECTION B-B

Figure 3.7: Inner approach, inner transitional and baulked landing obstacle
limitation surfaces. Source: Annex 14, Volume I.
60 Airport Design and Operation

During low-visibility operations it is of paramount importance to ensure the move-

ment areas’ sterility against incursions in order to guarantee safety of aircraft opera-
tions and the highest quality of guidance signals for automatic landings. In most
cases, Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) or, only at a few airports, Microwave
Landing Systems (MLS) are used for navigation guidance (see Chapter 17). Apart
from the technical parameters of the navigation installation, the quality of signals is
guaranteed by protecting critical and sensitive areas.

The ILS signal can be reflected and distorted by structures at the airport and its
vicinity but also by fixed or moving objects like vehicles, flying or taxiing aircraft or
even pedestrians. Many potential conflicts can be eliminated by restrictions on the
number and the type of movements. The ILS critical areas must be protected at all
times while the ILS sensitive areas, which are larger than the critical areas, should
be kept clear during Category II or III operations to protect the signal against inter-
ference caused by moving objects. The dimensions and the shape of critical and sen-
sitive areas depend on the terrain and objects around the airport and in the
approach area, as well as on the parameters, configuration and the type of ILS. At
an airport licenced for Category II and III operations they are marked on taxiways
as CAT II/III holding points. The MLS critical and sensitive areas are much smaller
than those for ILS operations and in fact they place no restrictions on aircraft taxi-
ing or taking-off, or on other movable objects.

During low-visibility ILS operations the runway capacity is mainly constrained by

the need to protect ILS critical and sensitive areas. To ensure guidance signal integ-
rity it is necessary to provide appropriate spacing between two successive landing or
departing aircraft. Landing clearance is normally given to an aircraft on approach
when the ILS localiser sensitive area is clear, usually when the aircraft on approach
is not closer than two nautical miles from touchdown. The runway capacity can be
further restricted during Category III operations because pilots need more time to
exit the runway and critical areas, and air traffic controllers may need to ensure an
additional longitudinal separation for an approaching aircraft.

MLS has smaller critical and sensitive areas around the runway. This removes some
runway operational and capacity restrictions. Spacing between aircraft can be smal-
ler and is determined by the rule that the preceding landing aircraft is clear of the
so-called ‘MLS Landing Clearance Trigger Line’. The MLS Landing Clearance
Trigger Line is not marked on the airport movement areas but only on a controller’s
display, for example surface movement radar or A-SMGCS (Figure 3.8). However,
aircraft spacing can never be less than the wake turbulence separation minima.

Ground operations of aircraft and ground equipment during limited visibility condi-
tions are more demanding as visibility decreases. During low visibility operations,
that is during Category II or III operations, special procedures must be activated
against movement area incursion by vehicles or personnel. Safeguarding the airside
sterility is assisted by security fencing around an airport and by strictly controlled
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 61

access points. The airside sterility is needed not only to protect the guidance signals
in critical or sensitive areas but also to ensure safety of aircraft taxiing, landing or
taking-off.

MLS LANDING CLEARANCE TRIGGER LINE

RWY

Figure 3.8: MLS landing clearance trigger line. Source: ICAO Doc 13.

At busy airports, surveillance of the manoeuvring area by a surface movement

radar, A-SMGCS or multilateration surveillance systems is also required. At air-
ports with light or medium traffic density, surface movements control on a system
of well segregated taxiways could be based on procedural methods. The required
equipment and procedures for ground movement control depend on the aerodrome
operating minima and the extent of the possible conflicting traffic, the size and com-
plexity of the manoeuvring area and the movement rate required. For Category II
or III operations all personnel involved must be properly trained and regularly
tested under real or simulated low-visibility conditions. This includes knowledge
of the airport layout, radio-telephony and emergency procedures. All vehicles enter-
ing the manoeuvring area must obtain an authorisation from the control tower and
they must maintain a permanent two-way radio communication. Special attention is
given to the rescue and fire fighting personnel training for low-visibility operations
(see Chapter 19).

Preparation for low-visibility procedures starts when the visibility decreases to a

predetermined limit, and it is expected to fall further. The initiation criteria are
defined in the airport LVP manual and is based on the prevailing meteorological
and operational conditions, for example when the visibility falls below 1200 m or
the cloud ceiling is below 300 ft. LVP must be running at the latest before the
weather falls below Category I limits. However, if the weather deteriorates rapidly,
the procedures could be started at higher limits depending on the operational experi-
ence and how long the preparation phase usually takes. The initiation and termina-
tion of low-visibility procedures are decisive from the operational point of view and
they are critical for predetermining the optimum airport capacity. Most problems
can occur during these phases. In particular at busy airports the capacity restrictions
can have an impact long after the LVP are terminated. Close co-ordination between
the airport operator, meteorological office, air traffic control and air traffic flow
management is necessary to minimise delays and a smooth return to full capacity
62 Airport Design and Operation

after the termination of LVP. At large airports with a considerable share of long-
haul flights the commencement of low-visibility procedures can start more than 12
hours in advance.

3.4. CONTROL OF OBSTACLES

In the complex orographical conditions of mountainous countries, the appropriate

runway orientation to minimise the crosswind is often coincident with the orienta-
tion designed with regard to obstacles. This is likely because the direction of the pre-
vailing winds often coincides with the centre line of a valley. Even so, the obstacle
limitation surfaces may well be penetrated by obstacles. Development at many air-
ports, particularly extending the runway, is often difficult because of obstacles. The
defined obstacle-free airspace is an inseparable part of each aerodrome and should
permit the intended aircraft take-off, approach, landing and operation in the aero-
drome circuit to be conducted safely. According to Annex 14 Volume I, obstacles
are defined as all fixed (temporary or permanent) and mobile objects, or parts
thereof, that are located on an area intended for the surface movement of aircraft or
that extend above a defined surface intended to protect aircraft in flight.

The airspace round the airport is defined by a system of obstacle limitation surfaces.
The characteristics of obstacle limitation surfaces are specified on the basis of types
of airports (transport, general aviation, heliports, etc.) and are related to the
intended use of the runway in terms of take-off, landing and the type of approach
(non-instrument approach, non-precision or precision approach).

In cases where operations are conducted to or from both directions, then the func-
tion of certain obstacle limitation surfaces or parts of them may be nullified because
of more stringent requirements of other lower obstacle limitation surfaces.
Dimensions and slopes of obstacle limitation surfaces were derived from the perfor-
mance characteristics of the various types of aircraft and from the statistical prob-
ability of deviations of the aircrafts’ trajectories relative to the intended flight path.
Characteristics of obstacle limitation surfaces correspond to the requirements of the
regulations for flight operations, air traffic control, and aircraft airworthiness. Even
in the most extreme foreseen position of the aircraft, the prescribed minimum hori-
zontal and vertical distance of the aircraft from obstacles should be maintained.

Usually the significance of any object in the airport surroundings is assessed by two
separate groups of basic criteria. The first one refers to the obstacle limitation sur-
faces for the particular runway and its intended operation. Annex 14 Aerodromes,
Volume I, Aerodrome Design and Operations is used in many states as a legal and
technical basis for this kind of assessment. The objective of the obstacle limitation
surfaces is to define the airspace around aerodromes to be maintained free from
obstacles so as to permit the intended aircraft operations at the aerodromes to be
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 63

conducted safely and to prevent the aerodromes from becoming unusable by the
growth of obstacles around the aerodromes.

The second set of criteria relates to the Procedures for Air Navigation Services —
Aircraft Operations (PANS
OPS) Doc 8168 Volume II Construction of Visual and
Instrument Flight Procedures. Surfaces defined by this standard guarantee obstacle-
free airspace for instrument and visual flight procedures by specifying minimum
safe heights/altitudes for each segment of the procedure. The limits depend on the
installed navigational equipment, its type and position and also on the speed of an
aircraft (see Table 6.1). Some states use also other criteria and practices in line with
their national standards and recommended practices, building code or other bylaws.

The system of obstacle limitation surfaces as presented in Annex 14, Volume I,

Chapter 4. ‘Obstacle restriction and removal’ also serves to advise a local authority
of the height limits for new objects that might otherwise restrict or endanger the
operations of aircraft in the future. If there is a potential conflict, the relevant
Aviation Authority should be consulted.

For non-instrument runways, for instrument approach runways and for Category I
precision approach runways, the following system of obstacle limitation surfaces
has been specified (Figure 3.9):

✈ conical surface
✈ inner horizontal surface
✈ approach surfaces
✈ transitional surfaces
✈ take-off climb surfaces.

SLOPE OFF TAKE-OFF

CONICAL SURFACE CLIMB & APPROACH
SURFACE
HEIGHT OF
HORIZONTAL
SURFACE

INNER HORIZONTAL SURFACE

TRANSITIONAL SURFACE
PLANNED RWY
EXTENSION

TAKE-OFF CLIMB &

APPROACH SURFACE

RWY STRIP LENGTH

RWY STRIP WIDTH

Figure 3.9: Obstacle limitation surfaces.

64 Airport Design and Operation

The most significant differences in characteristics between these classes of runway

are related to the dimensions and slopes of the take-off climb and approach sur-
faces. The necessary data may be found in Annex 14 Volume I Aerodromes.

The system of obstacle limitation surfaces for precision approach runway Category
II and III is supplemented by:

✈ inner approach surface

✈ inner transitional surfaces
✈ baulked landing surface.

These three surfaces define the so-called obstacle free zone for operations which are
conducted in the low visibility conditions and strictly limit the existence of all fixed
objects other than low-mass and frangibly mounted objects required for air naviga-
tion purposes. The dimensions and slopes of all the relevant surfaces for precision
approach Category II or III are specified in Table 3.4. The determinants for asses-
sing the consequences of a certain obstacle penetrating a surface are the type of
operation on the runway in question, the position of the obstacle (which surface is
obstructed by the obstacle, the distance from the runway threshold/end and how
much it obstructs it) and character of the obstacle (hills, aerial transmission line
poles, buildings, road profile, etc.).

As a reaction to increased regular use of helicopters in civil aviation, ICAO pub-

lished Annex 14, Volume II, Heliports. Specifications on obstacle restriction and
removal are given in Chapter 4 of these Standards and Recommended Practices. In
the case of ground level heliports, the system of obstacle limits is similar to surfaces
defined in Annex 14, Volume I, but it respects the specifics of helicopter operations.
For non-instrument final approach and take-off area (FATO),2 two obstacle limita-
tion surfaces are established:

✈ take-off climb surface

✈ approach surface.

For a precision (Figure 3.10) or a non-precision approach FATO two other surfaces
are defined:

✈ transitional surfaces
✈ conical surface.

2. Final approach and take-off area (FATO) is a defined area over which the final phase of
the approach manoeuvre to hover or landing is completed and from which the take-off man-
oeuvre is commenced. FATO is similar to the Runway Strip of ‘classic’ aerodromes.
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 65

Table 3.4: Parameters of obstacle limitation surfaces for precision Category II or

III RWY.
Surface Dimensions

Conical
✈ Slope 5%
✈ Height 100 m

Inner horizontal
✈ Slope 45 m
✈ Height 4000 m

Inner approach
✈ Width 120 m
✈ Distance from THR 60 m
✈ Length 900 m
✈ Slope 2%

Approach
✈ Length of inner edge 300 m
✈ Distance from THR 60 m
✈ Divergence 15%

First section
✈ Length 3000 m
✈ Slope 2%

Second section
✈ Length 3600 m
✈ Slope 2.5%

Horizontal section
✈ Length 8400 m
✈ Total length 15,000 m

Transitional
✈ Slope 14.3%

Inner transitional
✈ Slope 33.3%

Baulked landing surface

✈ Length of inner edge 120 m
✈ Distance from threshold 1800 m
✈ Divergence 10%
✈ Slope 3.33%

Take-off climb
✈ Length of inner edge 180 m
✈ Distance from RWY end 60 m
✈ Divergence 12.5%
✈ Final width 1200 (1800) ma
✈ Total length 15,000 m
✈ Slope 2%
a
1800 m when the intended track includes changes of heading greater than 15° for operation conducted in IMC, VMC by night.
66 Airport Design and Operation

The total length of approach surface is 10,000 m for a 3° standard precision

approach FATO, or 8,500 m for a 6° approach. In the case of a non-instrument and
non-precision FATO, the approach surface dimensions are based on a multiple of
helicopter rotor diameters.

15%
25%
90 m

1800 m

EXTENDED CENTRE LINE

OUTER EDGE
10,000 m

PROFILE FOR 3° APPROACH

HORIZONTAL
3% (1:33.3)
2.5% (1: 40) 150 m

3000 m 2500 m 4500 m

Figure 3.10: Approach surfaces for precision approach FATO — 3° approach.

Source: Annex 14, Volume II.

The general opinion is that everything that exceeds specified limits around an
airport is an obstacle and must be banned. It might be true, but not always.
Another common view is that if an object does not penetrate a defined surface,
the object is not considered to be an obstacle. This also might be true but also
not always. The principal problem is that no two airports and no two obstacles
are alike. Because of this it is not possible to give a simple rule for an objective
assessment. To consider all aspects of the problem, most states require an aero-
nautical study as a prerequisite for obstacle assessment. The Aviation Authority
may still allow operations on the basis of a study, often using the ICAO Collision
Risk Model.

To evaluate the effect of obstacles on precision instrument approach operations

(ILS, MLS or GNSS), the following obstacle assessment procedure is generally
accepted: when ICAO Annex 14 obstacle assessment surfaces are penetrated,
Obstacle Assessment Surfaces (OAS) as defined in ICAO Doc 8168 Volume II are
used in lieu of ICAO Annex 14 surfaces. When even OAS are penetrated, the
Collision Risk Model (CRM) is utilised. However, in the latter case, the complete
obstacle situation in the vicinity of the aerodrome has to be fully transformed into
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 67

the CRM format, as the risk corresponding to each individual obstacle contributes
to the cumulative risk of the approach.

There is no common world-wide methodology for obstacle assessment in the vicinity

of airports and states are using different practices for this purpose. ICAO issued
Doc 9137-AN/898/2 Airport Services Manual, Part 6 — Control of Obstacles as
guidance material. This manual contains a detailed examination of the control of
obstacles at an aerodrome but it also reviews some states’ practices.

Figure 3.11: If the obstacle cannot be removed (here terrain and houses in the
transition surface), an exemption may be granted. However, it can result in airport
operation restrictions or special requirements for crew qualification and training.
Photo: A. Kazda.

Obstacles in the take-off climb and approach surfaces and in the transitional sur-
faces are assessed most stringently. The construction of new obstacles or extensions
of existing ones shall not be permitted if they would penetrate the Annex 14 sur-
faces. It is, however, not always possible to eliminate the occurrence of obstacles
(Figure 3.11). Then it is necessary to determine special procedures such as offset
approach or take-off trajectory, or to install special equipment for the runway, or to
68 Airport Design and Operation

limit the runway operation with higher visibility and ceiling operating limits as well
as marking and lighting the obstacles.

If the obstacles only penetrate the conical surface or the inner horizontal surface,
less stringent criteria are used. Even in that case, for an assessment of a specific
obstacle, the location and character of the obstacle are important.

It is necessary to investigate whether the obstacle is shielded by an existing immova-

ble object, or to prove by an aeronautical study that the object would not adversely
affect the safety or the regularity of operations of aircraft.

Some objects may be considered particularly dangerous and should be removed or

at least marked even if they do not obstruct any obstacle limitation surfaces. They
are, in particular, isolated tall objects such as chimneys, poles and posts, or aerial
high and extra-high tension transmission lines in the approach and take-off climb
surfaces. The Aviation Authority may order removal (e.g. trees) or marking (e.g.
aerial high tension transmission line — Figure 3.12) of any object that might
according to an aeronautical study endanger aircraft on the movement area or in
the air. The object should generally be removed by its owner, not by the aerodrome
operator. Obstacle marking of objects which extend to a height of 150 m or more
above ground elevation is compulsory.

Figure 3.12: Marking of high voltage lines. Photo: T. Kazda.

 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 69

3.5. OTHER FACTORS

The orientation of take-off and landing runways is always linked with the air-
space requirements. In fact, there are usually few options for runway and taxiway
layout solutions. Therefore, in planning an airport, the take-off and landing run-
ways and taxiways are usually designed first. The capacity of the runway system
is a limiting factor for further development of the largest airports. In many cases,
further expansion of the airport is impossible due to public opposition. Even if
approval is eventually given, it may take decades to build an airport or even an
additional runway.

The capacity of the terminal airspace and of the runway system of the airport may
be assessed with computer simulations, analytical models or handbook methods.
There are several different simulation models and each of them has some special fea-
tures. The most known are the following:

The Airport and Airspace Simulation Model (SIMMOD™), was validated by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as a standard analysis tool for airport
planners, airport operators, airline companies, airspace designers and air traffic con-
trol authorities for airport and airspace operations.

Total Airspace and Airport Modeller (TAAM) was developed by Preston Aviation
Solutions (a Boeing Company subsidiary) in cooperation with the Australian Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA). TAAM is a large scale fast-time simulation package for
modelling entire air traffic systems. It can be used for ATM analysis and feasibility
studies or for planning purposes. The advantage of this tool is that it can simulate
complete gate-to-gate operations and in more detail than comparable models, but at
considerable expense.

The Airport Machine is a simulation tool from the Airport Simulation International
(ASI) company. It can be used for detailed simulations of movement areas operations.
It is based on a node-link structure similar to that of SIMMOD, and it covers all air-
craft activities from a few minutes before landing until a few minutes after take-off.

The Total AirportSim was developed by IATA. It is designed for simulations of the
whole airport operations including passenger terminal, gate, apron, runway and air-
space. It provides realistic results. The model is designed to offer a comprehensive
solution that covers a wide variety of demand/capacity and level of service applica-
tions for the simulation of aircraft and passenger flows.

Rams Plus solution is a product from ISA Software. This company is a part of the
ISA Research Group, which offers ATM analysis to customers like FAA and
EUROCONTROL. The RAMS Plus gate-to-gate system has two main parts, the
Airside and the Groundside, which function together in the same environment to
provide a global macro/micro gate-to-gate view of the air traffic system.
70 Airport Design and Operation

It is also possible to carry out simulations of parts of the manoeuvring area using
for example Monte Carlo techniques. The crucial factor, whether the models are
simple or comprehensive, is the quality of the data used for calibrating the model,
for example runway occupancy time by type of aircraft and meteorological condi-
tion. The budget is another factor. Some of the tools can take weeks to load all
the airport data, even after the prolonged process of capturing the operational
data.

Figure 3.13: Typical phased development of airport. Source: ICAO Airport

Planning Manual.

FAA Airfield Capacity Model is a handbook method for assessing the runway and
the manoeuvring areas. According to the FAA, it is possible to define the runway
capacity as the maximum number of movements within an hour once the tolerable
delay has been defined. It tends to give better estimates of capacity for operations
similar to those in the United States.

The magnitude of an acceptable delay differs at individual aerodromes. From the

maximum number of movements in an hour, it is possible to derive the daily and
yearly capacity of the runway system. Figure 3.13 illustrates how ICAO suggests
that capacity should be enhanced with the growth of the airport in terms of the
number of movements in a year. It should be emphasised that this was developed
for US airports. With different economic environments, operational practices and
mixes of traffic the runway capacity might well expand more slowly.
 Airport Site Selection and Runway System Orientation 71

Figure 3.14: Hourly capacity and annual service volume. Source: ICAO Airport
Planning Manual.

Figure 3.14 illustrates how the capacity varies with the runway configuration. On
one runway with an optimum layout of taxiways and with a sufficient capacity of
the apron, it is possible to reach up to 250,000 air transport movements in a year, as
at London Gatwick in 2013, even using Instrument Flight Rules (IFR).

The decision to construct another runway depends not only on the annual runway
capacity but also on the magnitude of the peak hour traffic and the type of
72 Airport Design and Operation

operation (‘hub and spoke’ or ‘point to point’), as well as on an assessment of other

factors which, if they occurred, would bring about a complete shut down of an air-
port with one runway. These might be an accident, an unlawful act of intervention
in an airport or an aircraft, winter maintenance of the runway, etc.

The design of systems of taxiways is dealt with in Chapter 6.

At many airports there are some operational limitations for example night ban or
other restrictions. These night curfews cause further intensification of peak hour
traffic. The pressure is quite intense for some major hubs and, in some cases, at
secondary airports which are located in very densely populated areas. In many cases
it was inadequate land-use management which allowed urban expansion around
airports, resulting in an increase of the number of people significantly exposed
to aircraft noise. Operational airport restrictions result largely in response to the
pressures and concerns highlighted above. As of mid-2012, approximately 250
domestic and international airports worldwide imposed some form of night time
operational restrictions. Of the 161 international airports, 66% are located in
Europe, 16% in North America, 8% in Asia/Pacific, 5% in Latin America and the
Caribbean, 3% in Africa and 2% in the Middle East.3 There are also limitations of
the number of movements to limit the level of air pollution as in Zürich and
Stockholm’s-Arlanda, and other administrative limitations. Chapter 20 of this book
deals with the problems of environment protection and ecological limitations.

3. ICAO (2013d).