FLUID MECHANICS I

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. Fluid Properties
a. Definition of fluid and its classification
b. Concept of continuum.
c. Properties of the fluid.
 Density and Specific volume
 Specific weight
 Specific gravity
 Viscosity
Fluid
 A substance that deforms continuously when acted on
by a shearing stress (force tangent to surface) of any
magnitude.
 A shearing stress (force per unit area) is created
whenever a tangential force acts on a surface
 Solids will initially deform when acted on by a shearing
stress, but they will not continuously deform ‘flow’.
 Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste,
behave as a solid if the applied shearing stress is small,
but if the stress exceeds some critical value, the
substance will flow. (rheology). Such material are called
Bingham plastic

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Characteristic Values of Fluids

• Size
• Speed
• Pressure
Characteristic Values of Fluids
Fluid Characteristics
 We will not study the molecular structure of fluids
 Characterize the behavior by considering the average, or macroscopic, value of
the quantity of interest, where the average is evaluated over a small volume
containing a large number of molecules.
 For example, Velocity indicated at certain point will be an average velocity of
the molecules in small volume
 Continuum
For Gases: Spacing order 10−6 mm,
For liquids Spacing order 10−7 mm.
Molecules Intensity (No of molecules)
For gases of 1018 per 𝑚𝑚3
For liquids 1021 per 𝑚𝑚3
 Assumption, all the fluid characteristics (pressure, velocity, etc.) vary
continuously throughout the fluid medium—that is, we treat the fluid as a
continuum
Characteristic Description
• Qualitative aspect
• Quantitative aspect
• Qualitative aspect serves to identify the nature, or type, of the characteristics (
such as length, time, stress, and velocity) .
• Quantitative aspect provides a numerical measure of the characteristics.. The
quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by which various
quantities can be compared which various quantities can be compared
• Qualitative description is given in terms of certain primary quantities, such as
Length,L, time, T, mass, M, and temperature, θ. The primary quantities are also
referred to as basic dimensions.
• These primary quantities can then used to provide a qualitative description of any
other secondary quantity: for example, area≒ L2, velocity ≒ Lt-1 , density ≒ ML-3.

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Dimension, Dimensional Homogeneity,
and Units
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System of Dimensions
• Mass[M], Length[L], time[T], and
Temperature[θ] …MLT system

• Force[F], Length[L], time[T], and

Temperature[θ] …FLT system

• Force[F], Mass[M], Length[L], time[T], and

Temperature[θ] …FMLT system

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Dimensions Associated with
Common

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 Dimensionally Homogeneous
• All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous
• The dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those
on the right side, and all additive separate terms have the same dimensions.
• General homogeneous equation: valid in any system of dimensions.
• Restricted homogeneous equation : restricted to a particular
system of dimenions.

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 Systems of Units
• In addition to the qualitative description of the various quantities of
interest, it is generally necessary to have a quantitative measure of
any given quantity.
• For example, if we measure the width of this page in the book and
say that it is 10 units wide, the statement has no meaning until the
unit of length is defined.
• If we indicate that the units of length is a meter, and define the
meter as some standard length, a unit system for length has been
established.
• A unit must be established for each of the remaining basic quantities.

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Systems of Units

• British Gravitational System: B.G. BG system and SI system are

• International System: S.I. widely used in engineering

• English Engineering: E.E.

• In 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the

international organization responsible for maintaining precise
uniform standards of measurement, formally adopted the
International System of Units as the international standard.
• This system, commonly termed SI, has been widely adopted
worldwide and is widely used in the United States.
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 Analysis of Fluid Behaviors
• Analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics necessarily
includes statement of the basic laws governing the fluid
motion
• The basic laws, which applicable to any fluid, are:
• Conservation of mass
• Newton’s second law of motion
• The principle of angular momentum
• The first law of thermodynamics
• The second law of thermodynamics

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Analysis of Fluid Behaviors

 NOT all basic laws are required to solve any one problem.
 On the other hand, in many problems it is necessary to bring into the
analysis additional relations that describe the behavior of physical
properties of fluids under given conditions.
 Many apparently simple problems in fluid mechanics that cannot be
solved analytically.
 In such cases we must resort to more complicated numerical
solutions and/or results of experimental tests.

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Fluid Properties

 Density
 Specific weight
 Specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Vapor pressure
 Surface tension

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Fluid Properties
 Density
◦ The density of a fluid, denoted by 𝜌 (lowercase Greek rho), is its mass per unit
volume.
◦ It is highly variable in gases and increases nearly proportionally to the pressure
level.
◦ Most liquid flows are treated analytically as nearly “incompressible.”
◦ The density of water at 60 °F is 1.94 slugs/𝑓𝑡 3 or 1000 kg/𝑚3 ”
◦ The large numerical difference between those two values illustrates the
importance of paying attention to units!

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Fluid Properties
 Specific weight
◦ The specific weight of a fluid, denoted by 𝛾 (lowercase Greek gamma), is its
weight per unit volume.
◦ Just as a mass has a weight W = mg, density and specific weight are simply
related by gravity:
𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
◦ The units of 𝛾 are weight per unit volume N/m3.
◦ In standard earth gravity, g = 9.807 m/s2, the specific weights of air and water at
20°C and 1 atm are
 air (1.205 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 11.8 N/m3
 water (998 kg/m3)(9.807 m/s2) = 9790 N/m3

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 Fluid Properties

 Specific gravity
◦ Denoted by SG, it is the ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid,
water (for liquids), and air (for gases):

◦ For example, the specific gravity of mercury (Hg) is SGHg 13,580/998 = 13.55.

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 Viscosity
 The properties of density and specific weight are
not sufficient to define the flow behavior
 The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its
resistance to gradual deformation by stress. For
liquids, it corresponds to the informal notion of
"thickness". For example, honey has a higher
viscosity than water
 A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is
known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.
Viscosity

 No Slip condition
◦ As a fluid flows near a solid surface, it
"sticks" to the surface, i.e., the fluid
matches the velocity of the surface.
◦ Dye injected at the bottom of a
channel through which water is
flowing forms a stagnant layer near
the bottom due to the no-slip
condition.
◦ As the dye filament is moved away
from the bottom, the motion of the
water is clearly apparent.
◦ A significant velocity gradient is
created near the bottom.

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Shear thinning and Shear thickening
Viscosity (Fluids)
 The two fluids shown look alike (both are clear liquids and
have a specific gravity of 1)
 The very viscous silicone oil is approximately 10,000 times
more viscous than the water.
 Viscosity (Solids)
 Boundary Conditions
◦ The bottom plate is rigidly fixed
◦ Upper plate is free to move
◦ Force P is applied at the top plate
 AB would be rotated through the small
angle δ𝛽, to the new position AB`
 Small angular displacement, δ𝛽 called
the shearing strain, is proportional to
the shearing stress, that is developed in
the material.
 Viscosity (Fluids)
 Consider a fluid between two very
large parallel plates separated by a
distance ℓ.
◦ Lower plate is stationary
◦ Upper plate is moving with a velocity
‘V’.
 Shear stress is τ = F/A.
 Using the no-slip condition, u(0) =
0 and u(ℓ) = V,
◦ The velocity profile and gradient are
u(y)= V(y/ℓ) , and
du/dy=V/ℓ
 Viscosity (cont’d.)
dβ ≈ tan(dβ ) = da/ℓ
dβ = Vdt/ℓ
The velocity gradient is constant
du/dy = V/ℓ
dβ = (du/dy)dt
du/dy = dβ /dt
Since τ ∝ 𝒅β/𝒅𝒕
τ ∝ 𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒚, or
τ = μ 𝒅𝒖/𝒅𝒚
 μ is the dynamic or absolute viscosity. Its has
units of kg/m–s, Pa–s, or poise.
 Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of absolute
viscosity to density of the fluid, ν = μ /ρ. Its units
are m2/s and stoke.
◦ 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s
Capillary Tube Viscometer
 The capillary tube viscometer involves the laminar flow of a
fixed volume of fluid through a capillary tube
 The time required for the fluid to pass through the tube is a
measure of the kinematic viscosity of the fluid
 Newtonian Fluid

 Fluids for which the shearing stress

is linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain (also referred to as
rate of angular deformation) are
designated as Newtonian fluids
 Shear thickening
 A mixture of water and corn starch, when placed on a flat surface, flows as a
thick, viscous fluid.
 When the mixture is rapidly disturbed, it appears to fracture and behave more
like a solid.
 The mixture is a non-Newtonian shear thickening fluid which becomes more
viscous as the shearing rate is suddenly increased through the rapid action of the
spoon.
Non-Newtonian vs. Newtonian Fluid
 Non-Newtonian vs. Newtonian Fluid
Non-Newtonian Fluid
 For shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate—the harder the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it
becomes. For example, latex paint does not drip from the brush because
the shear rate is small and the apparent viscosity is large.
 For shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity increases with
increasing shear rate—the harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous
it becomes. Common examples of this type of fluid include water–corn
starch mixture
 Bingham plastic, which is neither a fluid nor a solid. Such material can
withstand a finite, nonzero shear stress, the yield stress, without motion
(therefore, it is not a fluid), but once the yield stress is exceeded it
flows like a fluid (hence, it is not a solid). Toothpaste and mayonnaise
are common examples of Bingham plastic
Gas vs. Liquid
 Gas vs. Liquid
Example
A dimensionless combination of variables that is important in the study
of viscous flow through pipes is called the Reynolds number, Re,
defined as ρVD/μ where ρ is the fluid density, V the mean velocity, D
the pipe diameter, and μ the fluid viscosity. A newtonian fluid having a
viscosity of 0.38 N·s/m2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows through a
25-mm-diameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 m/s. Determine the value
of the Reynolds number using (a) SI units, and (b) BG units.

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Example

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Example
The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two
sides, parallel plates is given by the equation

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Example

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 Viscosity vs. Temperature
• For fluids, the viscosity decreases
with an increase in temperature.
• For gases, an increase in
temperature causes an increase in
viscosity.
• Why? molecular structure.

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Viscosity vs. Temperature
 The liquid molecules are closely spaced, with strong
cohesive forces between molecules, and the resistance to
relative motion between adjacent layers is related to these
intermolecular force.
 As the temperature increases, these cohesive force are
reduced with a corresponding reduction in resistance to
motion. Since viscosity is an index of this resistance, it
follows that viscosity is reduces by an increase in
temperature.

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 Viscosity vs. Temperature
• In gases, the molecules are widely spaced and intermolecular
force negligible.
• The resistance to relative motion mainly arises due to the
exchange of momentum of gas molecules between adjacent
layers.
• As the temperature increases, the random molecular activity
increases with a corresponding increase in viscosity.

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 Ideal Gas Law

• Gases are highly compressible in comparison to fluids, with changes

in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and temperature
through the equation

• The ideal gas equation of state is a model that relates density to

pressure and temperature for many gases under normal conditions

• The pressure in the ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute

pressure which is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.
• The standard sea-level atmospheric pressure is 14.6996 psi (abs) or
101.33kPa (abs)

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 Example
A compressed air tank has a volume of 0.84 ft3. When the tank is filled
with air at a gage pressure of 50 psi, determine the density of the air and
the weight of air in the tank. Assume the temperature is 70 °F and the
atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi (abs).

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