2018 13th IEEE International Conference on Industry Applications Mo5TrackA.

A Review of the Main Methods to trace the I-V

Characteristic Curve of PV Sources
Rafael Espino Campos, Elson Yoiti Sako, Marcos Vinicios Gomes dos Reis, Marcelo Gradella Villalva
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering (FEEC)
Department of Systems and Energy (DSE)
University of Campinas (UNICAMP)
Campinas, Brazil
respinoc.154@gmail.com, elsonyoiti8@gmail.com, mgdosreis9@gmail.com, marcelo@fee.unicamp.br

Abstract—This paper presents the main methods that the I-V characteristic curve of PV sources.
are used to obtain the characteristic curves of photovoltaic
sources. Given the importance of the I-V curve, the general
characteristics of an equipment used for these goal are de-
scribed. A review of the studies and developments is presented,
grouped according to the type of variable load used. Finally,
it is shown a comparative analysis among the presented
methods. The objective is to highlight the advantages and
limitations for the most used variable loads under different
situations.
Index Terms—I-V curve, Variable Load, PV module, Re-
view

I. INTRODUCTION
In 2017, at least 98 GW of solar photovoltaic (PV)
capacity was installed globally, either in grid-tie or off-
grid systems, which would be equivalent to the in-
stallation of more than 40,000 solar panels every hour
during that year [1]. Considering the huge number of
panels installed, as well as the tendency to increase Fig. 1. I-V and P-V curves of a PV module and its main operating
this number, it is becoming increasingly necessary to points.
use specific measurement equipment, either to perform
on-site tests, to verify the operation of the PV system
or solve problems that may occur throughout their life II. METHODS FOR CHARACTERIZING
cycle. In addition, the rapid expansion of PV installation PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
and the preference to generate more energy using less In order to have an accurate IV curve of the PV
space have led to the growth of new and more efficient module, variable loads are typically used which allow
equipment and technologies. Also important it is the the scanning of all operating points of the PV module,
development of more specialized equipment that can meet having as a starting point the short-circuit current until
the new requirements. the open-circuit voltage. Each operating point is defined
A PV source does not have constant output voltage by a current and voltage value [3].
or current, because these parameters are dependent Generally, the equipment for this end has a variable
on each other and determined by the power converter load, an acquisition and conditioning block for analog
connected to their terminals [2]. Therefore, the best way signals and a processing and control block. Moreover
to characterize it is to draw its I-V characteristic curve other external components such as temperature and
(current as a function of voltage), since it shows all irradiance sensors could be used. In addition, to display
possible operating points of the PV source, representing the data or have control of the equipment, it is also often
its behavior under certain conditions of temperature and used a graphical interface on a computer. Figure 2 shows
irradiance. In addition, from this curve, it is possible to a general sketch of these devices.
obtain the representation of the P-V characteristic curve So far, many researches have been done that show
(power as a function of voltage), where it is observed different methodologies to characterize and trace the I-V
the maximum power supplied by the source under these curve of modules, strings or PV arrays. These procedures
conditions, being the operating point of greatest interest. differ in the form of acquisition and sampling of the data,
Figure 1 depicts I-V and P-V curves, highlighting the the type of variable load or the control equipment used,
most important operating points. among others. This work presents an overall analysis
The objective of this work is focused on the review and of the main methodologies in which they were grouped
comparison of the most common methods used to trace together according to the load used, as in [3], [4]. The
978-1-5386-7995-1/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE 24 ISBN 978-1-5386-7995-1
 Fig. 2. General diagram of an I-V curve tracer.

variable loads considered are: variable resistive load, DC- Similarly, a set of resistors (seven resistors), each
DC converter with resistive load, electronic load and associated with an IGBT, was used in [8], but the
capacitive load. They are described in the following configuration cited allowed the combinations to select the
sections. resistors independently or connected in series, measuring
a total of 257 measuring points. The control of the
A. VARIABLE RESISTIVE LOAD developed circuits was based on a microcontroller and
Ideally, it would be possible to plot the perfect char- designed for the monitoring of PV array. While in [9],
acteristic curve of a PV source using a potentiometer only six resistors were used, which are activated inde-
embracing all values between R = 0 and R ≈ ∞, as pendently and in sequence through relays from digital
shown in Figure 3. But in reality, there is no variable components of the control, showing the simplicity of
resistance with these characteristics and the power dis- the implementation of this method to obtain sufficient
sipated by the resistor would limit the characterization detailed curves of low power PV modules. In Fig. 4 two
by the equipment. Another relevant factor would be the configurations for resistor selection are shown.
variation of the resistance value, since it would have
to be done manually, making it difficult to obtain the
same measurements in different tests with the same
time interval between measurements. However, a variable
resistance could be used to test low-power solar cells and
under controlled conditions as in [5], whose tests were
done in a solar simulator.

Fig. 3. Simulation of a variable resistance, considering a good

dispersion of points.

Fig. 4. Settings for selection of resistors, a) in parallel and b) in

One variation of this method that it is more optimized series.
involves using an array of resistors with fixed values
which are selected according to the switching sequence
in order to form the characteristic curve. In [6] a set of B. DC-DC CONVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
resistors were used, each of which had a relay, in order to A DC-DC converter is an electronic circuit capable
obtain combinations, connecting them independently or of changing the value of the DC voltage of its input
in parallel, also considering a relay for the short-circuit to another voltage level, depending on the pulse width
condition. In [7] it is shown in more detail that with 15 modulation (PWM) of the control signal. In addition, in
resistances it was possible to have a total of 48 different general, these circuits have a high efficiency, transferring
measurement points, chosen to obtain a good distribution most of the input power to the output. Thus, if a PV
of points around the knee of the curve. module is connected to the input of the converter and
25
a resistive load is fixed to its output, as shown in Fig.
5, it is possible to vary the output power by varying
the voltage, causing a change in the current and voltage
values at the module, thus obtaining its characteristic
curve. Therefore, the converter and the fixed resistance
can behave as a variable resistor whose value can be
controlled by the control signal of the converter.

Fig. 6. Operating points of a PV source for different values of duty

cycles for the DC-DC converter.

Fig. 5. DC-DC converter with resistive load to trace the I-V curve. higher power converter. However, the technique that uses
the interleaved mode depends on a more robust circuitry.
In [10], a prototype was developed based on a DC-
In [16], eight topologies of DC-DC converters based on
DC converter that had two modes of operation. In the
Buck-Boost stage were evaluated and compared, looking
first mode, the converter had the function of a Buck,
for the most adequate as a function of the current and
being used to measure the characteristic curves of PV
voltage input ripple, the power that has to support
sources. The measured data were stored in memory and
the components that compose them, the size of the
a feedback control method was used. Whereas, in the
magnetic components and the input-output insulation. It
second mode, the converter had the function of a Boost,
is again shown that the SEPIC and Cuk topologies are
being used to emulate the behavior of the PV source
the most appropriate. In [17]–[20] the SEPIC topology
from the previously measured data. The results obtained
was again selected. In [19] it was proposed to monitor
considering the first mode, were useful to know the best
and operate autonomously in-line with the inverter in an
configurations for PV systems.
installation, simulations are being carried out showing
In [11] a comparison was made between the equivalent
its ability to draw the I-V curve under ideal conditions
input resistors of the DC-DC converters, in order to
and with shading. While in other cases it has been
be used in the plotting of the characteristic curve of
and implemented for low power applications, showing
a PV module. It was mentioned that the Buck-Boost
experimental results which agrees with the theoretical
converter or some derived topologies (Zeta, Cuk and
analysis done previously.
SEPIC) are capable of sweeping the entire curve of the
In [21], it was proposed to use the Buck topology to
module, validating it with simulation results. Similar
test different types of sources, highlighting the ability
analyzes were also carried out in [12], [13] but it mentions
of this circuit to emulate a variable load and generate
the importance of canceling the possible ripples in the
the characteristic curve of a solar panel. But with this
current provided by the module caused by the converter,
topology it was necessary to use a low-pass filter at the
showing the advantages of the SEPIC and Cuk topologies
input of the converter to suppress unwanted ripple at
in relation to the small ripples in the input current.
the PV module. While in [22]–[25] the use of the Boost
It also mentions that the SEPIC topology is the most
topology was considered, where the simulations of the
convenient among them, due to some advantages in its
proposed circuits under uniform irradiance and partial
implementation. Figure 6 shows the operating points of
shading, as well as the tests of the circuits that were
a PV source for some duty cycles of a DC-DC converter
implemented, showed satisfactory results. In addition, in
with SEPIC topology, as well as the plotted curve.
[25] it highlights the use of this topology without the need
In [12], the theoretical analysis and the design of the
of other external devices, because this converter is usually
SEPIC topology were done, pointing to the use of coupled
used in photovoltaic systems to trace the maximum power
inductors, which under certain conditions guarantee a
point and control the battery charge.
zero ripple in the current, and presenting simulation
results that confirm the analysis done. While in [13],
C. ELECTRONIC LOAD
this converter was implemented, obtaining good results
in low power. It also proposes the use of converters An electronic load is a semiconductor device that
in parallel to be able to work with larger powers. can be controlled electronically by applying convenient
In [14], [15] simulations were made of four converters voltage or current values between its control terminals in
connected in parallel, but with two control modes, the order to achieve a desired current through it. Transistors
interleaved mode and the synchronous mode. Getting are the most common devices for these purposes, mainly
better results in the first mode, because it exhibits lower the BJT, MOSFET and IGBT, shown in Figure 7.
ripple amplitude and smaller amount of harmonics in Although they are mostly used as fast switching devices,
the input current, even being smaller than for a single they can also behave as a variable resistor.
26
 photovoltaic modules or low power strings, considering
the option of using an IGBT transistor for larger voltage
photovoltaic systems. In this case, an isolated control
circuit is designed to be useful for both types of transis-
tors, using a DC-DC converter. In addition, since only
a MOSFET is used, in [29] it is also considered the safe
operating area of the device, where it can be observed
Fig. 7. Main types of electronic loads. the maximum power supported by the component during
a certain interval of time, emphasizing that these devices
can dissipate high powers for a short time. Figure 9 shows
In [26], a variable load based on a MOSFET transistor, the maximum safe operating area of a MOSFET and
which supports high voltage, in series with a resistance of IGBT.
a convenient value, was used in order to dissipate a part of
the power of the tested photovoltaic modules, but without
affecting the points of interest of the IV curve that could
be covered by the transistor (near the maximum current).
In this case, an analysis was made of the operating points
of the photovoltaic module and the MOSFET, obtaining
useful equations for its control, being done through the
voltage. It is also mentioned that many of these devices
can work smoothly in parallel to increase the current
range, whereas to increase the voltage range and to work
in series, more complex circuits need to be implemented.
In Figure 8 it is observed the intersection of the operating Fig. 9. Safe operation area of the IRFP260N MOSFET (on the
points of the device and the PV panel when the value of left - from [31]), and the IGBT STGWA25H120DF2 (on the right
- from [32])
the resistance in series is zero.
Similarly, in [30], [33]–[36] MOSFET devices were
used again to develop low cost prototypes used in the
characterization of photovoltaic modules in a short time,
doing experimental tests and emphasizing mainly the
ease of control of this device, which is done through
analog signals, with the discharge of a capacitor and the
use of a PWM signal with a low pass filter. In addition in
[34] a theoretical analysis of the response of the control
system was made, obtaining a good distribution of points
in the characteristic curve. Already in [37], a prototype
was made similar to those previously mentioned, but
using an IGBT device.
D. CAPACITIVE LOAD
Fig. 8. Characteristic curve of the MOSFET and the PV module. The capacitor is an element capable of storing electrical
energy. If this component is initially discharged and
In [27], BJT power transistors connected in parallel a voltage is applied at its terminals, its charge will
and in cascade (Darlington combination) were used so gradually increase to a certain value proportional to that
that they could handle high currents, being controlled voltage, behaving as a short circuit at the beginning of
by a single transistor, making small variations of the this process and as an open circuit at the end, as shown
current in the base of this one. In addition, each transistor in Figure 10. This characteristic was used in [38], where
was associated with resistors necessary for its proper a transient analysis of the charge of a capacitor was
functioning and the whole circuit was connected in series performed using a photovoltaic generator, obtaining a
with a battery capable of withstanding high currents in direct relationship between the capacitance value (which
order to power the transistors when the voltage of the influences its size) and the process time (stabilization
photovoltaic source was low. While, in [28] a prototype time).
was developed that uses four MOSFETs connected in In the designed circuit was considered a resistance
parallel, but in this case without dissipation through a to discharge the capacitor and switches to change state
resistor. The device has been selected according to the between the charge and the discharge, being controlled
internal resistance in active state and the power that can by a computerized system. A portable device designed for
dissipate. It is also mentioned advantages that this device measurements of photovoltaic array has been developed
has over the BJT. in [39], making use of a similar circuit, but adding
Similarly, electronic circuits based on this device were a DC source, used to preload the bank of capacitors
also developed in [29], [30] to make measurements of with a negative voltage, thus compensating the voltage
27
 results, where it shows that the capacitor sizing also
depends on the maximum current and voltage of the
photovoltaic array, and mentions that this method can
be used to draw the characteristic curve of systems of
any size. It also emphasizes that the parasitic capacitance
and the inductance of the photovoltaic generator produce
oscillations in the load current signal, causing the loss of
the initial portion of the curve, but a sufficiently high
capacitance value can mitigate these effects. In addition,
Fig. 10. Curves of current and voltage in the capacitor initially it points out that the sizing is different for modules
discharged, using as a source a photovoltaic module. of different technologies, needing capacitors with better
characteristics for those of high efficiency.
It is also proposed to use this method to obtain
drops and allowing the short-circuit point to be obtained.
the maximum power point of a photovoltaic system.
While, in [40]–[42], similar developments were made using
Considering that the generation source has been removed
IGBT or MOSFET devices to make the switches in an
from the circuit, the short charge period of the capacitor
appropriate sequence. The developed prototypes were
is sufficient to perform the I-V curve scan. However, it is
tested under natural light and under different shading
highlighted in [46] the ease of control of this method and
conditions, except in [41], which was tested in a solar
the possibility of developing a system directly integrated
simulator with different values of irradiance. Figure 11
to a photovoltaic plant, obtaining the I-V curve in real
shows the configurations described.
time without interrupting the operation of the plant.
III. COMPARISON OF THE METHODS
In the majority of the previously mentioned papers,
the irradiance and temperature measurements were also
considered, whose values were obtained from solarimetric
station or using different types of sensors. The current
and voltage from the PV module depend strongly on
those measurements. Therefore, a general characteristic
of the I-V curve equipment is related to the time
required to completely trace the curve since it has to
be short enough to avoid significant variations of these
environmental parameters. However, there is a track
speed limit for certain technologies, especially for high-
efficiency cells, which can not be arbitrarily scanned in
a fast way [47].
In relation to current and voltage measurements, dif-
ferent types of sensors, circuits or modules were used,
which depended on the measuring range of the electrical
parameters, as well as the conditioning circuit used to
Fig. 11. Capacitive load configurations, a) with resistance for
discharge. b) with voltage source for the preload and resistance present the data or for control purposes in case with
for discharge. feedback. While in the case of control, this was also
done in many different ways, most using the computer
In [43], a flexible system composed of two types of through an interface, but also using digital circuits or
variable loads, an electronic load (MOSFET) and a taking advantage of the flexibility of a microcontroller.
capacitive load (two capacitors connected in series) was In addition, in some cases, insulated components have
developed in order to make measurements of photovoltaic been used for added safety.
modules and high voltage strings, respectively. Where For the analysis, different variable loads were consid-
the results of the experimental tests were satisfactory. ered, with the photovoltaic module and other components
While in [44] a proper circuit for photovoltaic strings being the same for all cases. In addition, in order to
was implemented and it was observed that the capacitor differentiate the advantages or limitations of the loads
loading time varied according to the number of modules used, characteristics related to the measurement capacity
that composed the strings, which made it difficult to of the equipment, portability, cost and adaptability were
predict the time between measurements. In addition, considered.
the system lost accuracy when the current was low,
that is, under shadowing conditions or low irradiance, as A. MEASUREMENT CAPACITY
the equipment was not suitable to operate under these In relation to the voltage, current or power range of the
conditions. photovoltaic module to be analyzed, the latter quantity
In [45] a similar analysis was made to [38] with usually limits or defines the use of the most suitable
a greater mathematical rigor, but it obtained similar variable load. For low power, it is possible to use any of
28
 TABLE I
Comparative table of the variable loads.

Capacity of measurement Portability Cost Adaptability

Resistive load Low Low Low Medium
DC-DC converter with resistive load Low Medium Medium Low
Electronic load Medium High Medium High
Capacitive load High Medium High Medium

the 4 types of variable loads described, considering that case of the variable resistive load, the good dispersion
the measurements are made quickly and the components of the measurement points will depend on the amount
used, such as the variable load and the switches used, of resistances of the arrangement and the combinations
could dissipate these low powers without inconvenience. that can be obtained with them. While with a capacitive
But for larger and larger powers, the dimensions of load, although it is also possible, as the value of the
the components would have to be larger, or shorter capacitance is projected in function of the maximum
measurement times could be considered. electrical parameters of the photovoltaic source, it will
For high powers, it is convenient to use the capacitive work better in this range, because it is not possible to
load, since it is a component that stores energy, and can control the time that the curve sweeps (charging the
then dissipate it in a simple resistance without difficulty. capacitor). Table I shows a summary of the above.
But, the capacitor and the switch used in the charging
process would have to be dimensioned appropriately. IV. CONCLUSION
An electronic load could also be used because the only A review of the main methodologies used to trace
component to be scaled would be it. But in this case the I-V curve of a photovoltaic source was made. The
the smallest measurement time should be considered, so comparison of these methodologies was based on very
as not to exceed the maximum power that the selected relevant characteristics, related to measurement capacity,
component could withstand. portability, cost and adaptability of the equipment, and
In the case of variable resistive load, the sizing would can be considered in future developments.
have to be done with all the resistors used, as well as
the switches that accompany each of them. Meanwhile, Acknledgement
through a DC-DC converter, the output resistance will This work was supported by CNPq, CAPES, FAPESP
dissipate most of the power. However, as efficient the con- (Process No. 2016/08645-9), CPFL (ANEEL/PA3032),
verter is, its components, such as inductors or switches, and BYD Energy Brazil (MCTIC-PADIS).
will dissipate some of that power. In addition, some
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