ORIGINS OF DIPLOMACY:

City states of ancient Greece:

- Divided into different small city states like sparta, Athens and Macedonia
- Focused of resolving disputes between other city states
- Later developed relations with Persia and Rome
Han Dynasty China:
- Groundbreaking era in the history of imperial China’s foreign relations
- Diplomat Zhang Quain helped China make relations with other states
- Was imprisoned, but once released he gave China useful information
Byzantine Empire:
- First international intelligence agency called the bureau of Barbarians
- Byzantine empire was surrounded by so many other bigger civilizations that there main challenge was to
keep good relations with them
- This was because they had no soldiers so if war ever broke out they would surely loose
- Diplomats had special privileges at the time
Renaissance Italy:
- Split into separate states each had their own interests and objectives
- Rome, Florence, Venice, Milan and Ferrara
- Each was ruled by their own powerful family and each wanted something the other possesed
- Known for espionage, bribery and deception
- They started with permanent diplomatic missions, diplomatic reporting and privileges
- Promoted free travel between city states
- First diplomatic mission was in 1455 when a group of diplomats represented the Duke of Milan in Genoa
Ancient India:
- Actual texts existed on the matter of diplomatic negotiations and how kings should manage their relations
- Mauryan empire
- Envoys sent to other kings courts residing for an extended period of time and suggestion that a wise king
will build alliances and tries to checkmate his adversaries

DIPLOMATIC INSTITUTIONS
Embassy: Permanent diplomatic mission or building in which the diplomats do their works. Embassies are also
where people from the respective country go for bureaucratic procedures. An embassy represents the “soil” of its
country on foreign land, any violations of law within it will be considered a criminal act against the country that
owns the embassy.
Consulate: Similar to diplomatic offices but they focus on the business aspect, A synonym for an embassy,
where the consul (another synonym for ambassador) will work and live.
Mission: A diplomatic mission is a state representing itself in another country
Asylum: An asylum is where people seeking refuge from their own country are moved to. Usually granted by a
foreign power, asylum seekers will stay here until they’ve been allowed to move/live elsewhere.
Diplomatic immunity: A form of legal immunity granted to diplomats travelling abroad that protects from any
sort of legal prosecution by the host country. Essentially a free “get out of jail” card, however the diplomat is still
susceptible to being expelled or prosecuted by the country of origin.
Diplomatic bags:Literally a bag, pouch or container given certain legal protections. Diplomatic bags usually
contain correspondence between a diplomatic mission and it’s home government. The legal protection entails the
bag to prevention from being searched, confiscated, or in anyway mistreated in the process of delivery.
Rezidentura: Russian embassy, also for hiding spies

DIPLOMATIC OFFICES:

Ambassador: Single representative of a foreign state to another. Highest ranking diplomat within a foreign
country.
Envoy: A messenger or representative on a diplomatic mission, ranking below the ambassador.

Minister: A head of a government department and a diplomatic agent, again below an ambassador, representing
a state in a foreign country.

Consul: An official who works and lives in a foreign country, given the duty of protecting and promoting the
citizens and interests of their government.

Secretary: Someone employed by a diplomatic office (usually an embassy or consulate) to manage

correspondence, make appointments, keep records and perform other official duties.

Counselor: A senior officer in the diplomatic service

Charge d’affaire: When an ambassador is on leave or unable to work, the charge d’affaire (literally translating to
“charged of matters”) will head the embassy and carry out the duties of the ambassador.

APPROACHES TO DIPLOMACY:
Gunboat:
- Type of coercive diplomacy to support foreign policy
- Through the naval power
- The superior power threatens to declare war or act aggressively if the terms are not met
- A famous example of this was in the run-up to the First Opium War, in which Britain threatened to
bombard and invade Chinese Coastal cities if their terms for unchecked opium trade wasn’t met.
Coercive:
- Persuasion in negotiations backed up by a threat of violence
Preventive:
- An action to prevent disputes from arising between nations
- Example: UN peacekeeping mission in Macedonia
Appeasement:
- Making decisions with an aggressive power to avoid war with them
- The most common example of this was when Britain decided to appease Nazi Germany in 1938 by
allowing it to take over the Sudetenland (modern-day Czechoslovakia)
Paradiplomacy:
- International relations/activities conducted by the regional government not national, pursuing their own
interests
- With the start of globalization this is becoming more influential on the international scale
Soft power:
- Persuasive and non coercive approach to international relations
- Do not involve threats
Hard power:
- A coercive and forceful approach to international relations
- Like gun boat diplomacy
Nuclear:
- Sets down rules for nations as to their development of nuclear weapons and how many they can make
- It mainly sets down rules for nations as to their development of nuclear weapons and their ability to
proliferate (multiply) their arsenals.

Counterinsurgency:
- Prevention of extremists like terrorists
- Use of negotiation between them to avoid any harmful actions
Public:
- Manipulating opinions of the public within a foreign country to support the interests of one's own
government
Dollar:
 - Used in the USA
- William Howard Taft
- It tells that America will guaranty loans for foreign countries
- The use of countries financial power to extend its international influence.
Cyber:
- Diplomacy conducted on social media
- Convincing people
- Like how trump used it in his elections
Zero-sum:
- Creating circumstances that are great for you but bad for the other
- One example of this can be found in the Treaty of Versailles, wherein the Triple Entente gained money,
while Germany suffered a loss of it.
Third neighbor:
- Mongolia promoted trade with everybody but China and Russia since they were growing powers
- As such, help from other foreign powers was necessary should either China or the USSR try to exploit
Mongolia’s market on mineral extraction.

ADDITIONAL TERMS TO KNOW:

Prozenos: A citizen hosts a foreign ambassador at his own expense in return for honorary titles
Paiza: A tablet carried by mongol officials and envoys to signify certain privileges, To attract foreign or overseas
merchants and talents, the Great Khans gave them paiza exempting them from taxes and allowing them to use
relay stations.
Plenipotentiary: Somebody who has complete power over something
Peacekeeper: A military force or organization to maintain or restore peace
Non state actors: Individuals or organizations that hold political influence over people but aren’t apart of a
governmental organizations, like apple
Alliance: relationship between 2 or more people that have come to an agreement that benefits both
Summit: A meeting or conference of diplomats
Embargo: Official ban on trade with a country
Persona non grata: A person who isn’t welcome or allowed to enter a country
Extraterritoriality: example: Embassies, military bases, they aren’t allowed to be prosecuted
Sanctions: Diplomatic sanctions: when a country cuts ties with another, Economic: Trade is reduced
Self determination: The right to determine who rules you
Polarity: Distribution of power in an international level. Any way in which power is distributed within the
international stage. Be it superpowers such as the USA and Russia, or with seemingly less powerful countries
such as African or South American ones.
Realpolitik: Ethical not moral decisions
Ultimatum: Last demand after you go for the coercive approach

NOBLE PACTS AND TREATIES:

Amarna letters

WHEN ~14th century

WHO Ancient Near East and Egypt
WHAT a body of 14th century correspondence between the rulers of the Ancient Near East and Egypt- the
earliest examples of international diplomacy (written on clay tablets), mentioning diplomatic marriage, friendship
statements and exchanged materials

Treaty of Nerchinsk
WHEN 25 May 1858
WHO Russian Empire, Chinese Qing Dynasty
WHAT A border treaty and peace settlement between Russia and the Manchu Chinese empire-
China stopped Russia’s expansion. By the treaty’s terms, Russia lost access to large masses of land but gained
the right of passage to Beijing for its trade caravans
WHERE Nerchinsk, Russia

Peace of Westphalia

WHEN 24 October 1648

WHO 109 parties involved in the war in the Holy Roman Empire including France, Spain, Holy Roman Empire,
Venice, Sweden, Dutch Republic (Protestant and Catholic Church)
WHAT brought an end the Eighty Years' War between Spain, Netherlands and Germany's 30 year involvement.
WHERE Osnabrück and Münster, Westphalia, modern-day Germany
WHY to seek peace within the Holy Roman Empire, ended the war of religion and span and netherlands war
OTHER Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern
state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty

Abuja Treaty (also known as the African Economic Community Treaty)

WHEN adopted in 1991 by the African Union (AU), enforced in 1994.

WHO Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi
WHAT established the African Economic Community (AEC), aimed to establish a single African currency by 2023
WHY cooperation and integration among African countries was becoming increasingly important in economic,
social and cultural aspects. This was indispensable to the accelerated transformation and sustainable
development of the African continent. It also further aims to raise the standard of living for Africa’s people and
increase harmony amongst member states.

Treaty of Utrecht
WHEN March and April, 1713
WHO Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy, Dutch Republic
WHAT A series of individual peace treaties signed by the forces of the War of the Spanish succession, with the
aim to preserve the power balance of Europe. It allowed Philip to take the Spanish throne in exchange for
dethroning the French throne completely, along with ensuring France and Spain would not merge in the near
future.
WHERE the Dutch city of Utrecht

Treaty of Versailles
WHEN end of WW1, 1919
WHERE Hall of Mirrors, Versailles Palace, France
WHO “Big Three”
- Clemenceau: from France, which suffered the most war loses. He strongly wished that Germany would be
punished severely
- Lloyd-George: from the UK. He was more lenient on Germany as he wished for economic revival so the
two countries could trade. However he was insistent on having the strongest navy in Europe, so he
wanted terms in the treaty restricting the size of Germany’s naval forces
- Wilson: president of the USA. Being a non-European state, Wilson had a more optimistic and idealistic
outlook, wanting the treaty to be based on his Fourteen Points. He wished to be as lenient on Germany as
possible.
WHAT A Germany had little to say in the setup, and ended up paying high reparations,territorial losses (Alsace-
Lorraine, the Saar Basin, Eupen, Malmedy, and much more),demilitarisation of the Rhineland, restrictions on the
army and weapons, and getting the blame for starting the war (Article 231, War Guilt Clause). A League of
Nations was set up to enforce and uphold this treaty.
WHY to negotiate a “just” peace at the end of the first world
war after Germany signed the armistice and decided to seek peace
One of the most important treaties in history that ended World War 1 on July 18,1919.

Paris Peace Accords

WHEN 27 January 1973

WHERE Paris
WHO North Vietnam, South Vietnam, United States of America, Provisional Revolutionary Government
WHAT reunification of Vietnam was to be carried out “step by step through peaceful means”, and the USA would
replace any of South Vietnam’s weapons used for
Defence against Northern Vietnamese aggression
WHY to establish peace in Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War

Antarctic Treaty
WHEN 1 December 1959
WHERE Washington DC, United States
WHO Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand,Norway, South Africa, UK, US, USSR
WHAT negotiated terms on the use of Antarctica as it is the only continent un inhabited by humans. Seven
countries got partial territorial claim out of this treaty

Khitomer Accords
WHEN 2293 (Star Trek)
WHERE originally scheduled to be on Planet Earth, but changed to Camp Khitomer dueto the assassination of
Chancellor Gorkon from Klingon
WHO Klingon Empire / United Federation of Planets
WHAT the first peace treaty between the Klingon Empire and United Federation of Planets
WHY the explosion of the Klingon moon Praxis caused severe ecological damage on the Klingon homeworld

Treaty of Tordesillas
WHEN 7 June 1494
WHERE Tordesillas
WHO Portugal and Castile
WHAT divided trading and colonising rights for all newly discovered lands of the world between Portugal and
Castile to the exclusion of other European countries
WHY to make trade fair
OTHER the treaty was ignored by many countries

Paris Climate Agreement

WHEN 22 April 2017
WHERE New York
WHO 175 countries out of 196
WHAT it aimed to
1- keep warming "well below 2 degrees Celsius";
2- rich countries provide USD $100 billion by 2020 as a "floor";
3- specialisation where MEDCs take the lead in reducing GHGs;
4- aim for GHG emissions to peak ASAP, preferably by 2050;
5- burden sharing where countries help each other in terms of providing finance;
6- review mechanism every 5 years;
7- averting, addressing, minimising losses from natural disasters
WHY to attempt to reduce climate change
OTHER (RESULT) 3 countries withdrew and/or refused to sign/

Sugauli Treaty
WHEN 2 December 1815
WHERE Sugauli, India
WHO Gurkha Chiefs of Nepal and the British Indian government
WHAT The treaty determined the boundary line of Nepal. Nepal claimed the territory of
Tarai
(low lands)
OTHER (RESULT): Nepal remained independent but received a British ambassador.

Nuclear Non- Proliferation treaty

WHEN 1970 - 1995
WHERE Russia, UK, US in UN HQ in NYC in 1995
WHO 190 countries involved- all countries except India, Israel, North Korea, South Sudan and Pakistan
WHAT the treaty is uniquely unfair, telling non nuclear states to forgo making nuclear weapons while allowing
nuclear countries to keep their weapons. There were three pillars to the treaty: non-proliferation, disarmament
and peaceful use of nuclear energy
WHY to prevent the spread of nuclear technology and the production of nuclear weapons in all countries but
especially the stronger ones
OTHER the treaty was extended indefinitely without condition in 1995 at UN headquarters in New York

Douglas Treaties (aka Victoria Island Treaties/ Fort Victoria Treaties)

WHEN 1850-1854
WHERE Colony of vancouver Island
WHO indigenous groups on Vancouver Islands and colonies of Vancouver Islands
WHAT a person named Douglas bought land on Vancouver, Canada 14 times and all treaties signed each of the
times became a part of the Douglas Treaties. People sued this because there were a lot of terms and conditions
added after the signing
OTHER Douglas became practically broke after buying 14 territories so he stopped after that

Institution of accords

Congress of Vienna
WHEN 1814-1815: After Napoleon’s defeat in 1814
WHERE Vienna, Australia
WHO GB, Russia, Germany, Austria
WHAT a meeting between national leaders in Europe talking about the rearrangements of borders in Europe, as
well as the discussion of human rights issues (eg. slavery, German Jew’s rights)
WHY Following the defeat of Napoleon, the 4 greater powers in Europe met together to talk about how to resolve
territorial disputes arising from Napoleon’s defeat
OTHER The congress nearly tore apart and broke down over the splitting of poland but through comprises, the
nations managed to stay together. THIS ONLY STAYED FOR 40 YEARS BECAUSE THE PERSPECTIVE OF
THE CITIZENS WERE IGNORED

Congress of Berlin
WHEN 1878
WHERE Berlin, Germany
WHO Russia, GB, France, AH, Italy, Germany(Prussia)
WHAT Dealt with resolving the territorial outlines detailed in the Treaty of San Stefano in the Balkan area
WHY after the Russo- Turkish war, Russia made the Ottoman empire sign the treaty of san stefano, which
violated promises Russia had previously made with Britain, hence prompting Britain to get involved with this
treaty and revise it by the congress of Berlin
OTHER these arrangements impacted the Balkans, since it did not consider their will to self determination

Conference of Ambassadors
WHEN Jan 19201931/35 (dates vary, as there is no official end date, its presence simply became too low to
detect since 1925 after the Locarno Treaties of peace)
WHO France, Great Britain, USA, Italy, Japan, Belgium (later)
WHAT Organisation within the Allied powers’ to uphold the peace treaties and resolve territorial conflicts between
countries
WHY Following WW1, it helped to discourage war (later grouped under LoN with similar objective)
CASE STUDY Corfu Incident 1923, dispute between Italy & Greece, showed failure of
the Conference of Ambassadors when they succumbed under Mussolini’s pressure

League of Nations:
WHEN 1920-1949
WHERE est. at Paris Peace Conference
WHO A total of 63 nations have joined LON
- Council has veto power
1. GB
2. France
 3. Italy
4. Japan
5. Germany
6. USSR
7. Some occasional countries that are selected for certain periods of time to represent the nations
- Assembly: The rest of the nations
WHAT
- Constitution of peace aiming to resolve conflicts by peaceful means rather than violence, condemning war
whilst promoting global demilitarisation
- Also dealt with human rights issues and slavery
- Bases on US president Woodrow Wilson's 14 points
- Main flaws: No army, required total agreement on issues/decisions, council’s veto power
WHY Established as part of the Treaty of Versailles after WW1 to prevent a similar war from sparking (obviously
failed)

United nations:
WHEN 1945
WHERE NYC (HQ): Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi
WHO 51 members (1945)- 193 members (2011)
WHAT International organisation aimed at promoting international cooperation and peace, also promoted equality
between nations, the principle of self determination, tackling human rights issues
WHY To replace in the ineffective LON, UN is basically LON reincarnated after WW2, with improved
constitutional laws and structure after learning mistakes from the past LON

ASEAN:
- Association of SouthEast Asian Nations
- 1967
- In Bangkok, Jakarta (HQ)
- WHO: Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Brunei,
Cambodia
- It is and Organisation between 10 SE Asian Nations seeking socio-economic cooperation and collective
security, holds yearly ASEAN summit since 2001 discussing about their current issues
- WHY initially established out of fear of communism in Vietnam and need for economic development
G20
- Group of 20
- WHEN 1999
- WHERE Meeting venues hosted by G20 members, different each year
- WHO 20 reps from different major global economies (19 countries + EU)
1. Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, France, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan,
Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the UK and the US
- WHAT Head of states discussing matters regarding the economic development in nations around the
world, but in recent years, the topics have changed like climate change
- WHY emerged as a result of the G7/8 summit realising the need to include heads of states when
discussing and deciding on global policies to help the world develop
- EXTENSION QUESTIONS: Compare and contrast G7/8 summit and G20
- Why just 20 reps? Why not 195 like the UN
NATO
- North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
- WHAT: intergovernmental military alliance around collective and mutual defence by member states
towards eternal aggressors
- WHO: 29 North American and European countries
1. Original 12 states: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, the UK and USA
2. Additional: Greece, Turkey, West Germany, Spain Czech republic, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria,
estonia, Latvia etc.
- WHY: Devised to “keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans Down
- OTHER: because of the treaty of Brussels
 - The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the global total. Article 5 of
the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an
armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks
-
OPEC:
- Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
- WHAT: an intergovernmental organisation accounting for 44% of global oil production and 73% of known
reserves
- WHO: 14 wes Asian and African nations that export oil
1. Original 5: Venezuela, Irán, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia
2. Additional 9: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, UAE
3. Ex member: Indonesia
- WHY: to coordinate and unify petroleum policies and stabilise oil markets
- OTHER:
1. Has been criticised of being anti- competitive cartel
Arab league
- WHAT: a regional organisation of Arab states
- WHO: 22 arab states in and around North Africa, Horn of Africa and Arabia
- WHY: “draw closer the relations between member States and coordinate collaboration between them, to
safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests
of the Arab countries.”
- OTHER: Syria’s membership has been suspended, has an anti-extremism force and a common market
Commonwealth nations
- The british commonwealth
- WHAT: intergovernmental organisation of mostly former British Empire territories, most of which has since
gained independence
- WHO: 53 former British Empire territories
- WHY: dates back to decolonisation of the British Empire; member states are not otherwise connected, but
united by history, language, culture, values of democracy etc. under British rule
- OTHER: Member states have no legal obligation to each other
APEC
- Asia Pacific economic cooperation
- WHAT: an economic forum for member economies promoting free trade through the Asia-Pacific Region
- WHO: 21 Pacifim Rim member economies
- WHY: It was established in 1989 in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies
and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the world; to defuse fears that highly industrialized
Japan (a member of G8) would come to dominate economic activity in the Asia-Pacific region; and to
establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe.
African Union:
WHAT: Continental union replacing the organisation of African Unity
WHO: 55 countries on African continent
WHY: to socio economically develop, protect and defend, unite, democratise and promote cooperation of
member states.
OTHER: made up of the assembly, executive council, permanent reps, committee, and economic, social and
cultural council

European Union:
WHAT: political and economic union that has developed an internal single market
WHO 28 member states in Europe
WHY: to maintain common policies on trade and commerce as well as regional development across Europe,
ensure free movement of people, goods and capital
OTHER: Originated from the European Coal and steel community, Study brexit!!!

FAMOUS DIPLOMATS AND PEACEMAKERS

Niccolo Machiavelli
• BACKGROUND
- Born in Florence, 1469
 - Regarded as one of the Fathers of Modern Political Sciences/Theory
- Famous works: The Prince, The Discourses on Livy
- Main theory: an effective leader is strict and pragmatic, where the ends justify the means
Otto von Bismarck
• Background
- Born in Prussia, 1815; died in Germany, 1898 o Known as the “Iron Chancellor” o Prime Minister of
Prussia (1862-1871), Chancellor of Germany (1871-1890)
• Unification of Germany
- Bismarck led orchestrated battles against other European powers (e.g. Dutch, Austria) to reclaim land of
German-speaking people o In the Franco-Prussian War, France was easily defeated by the Prussian
forces o The signing of the Treaty of Frankfurt at Versailles included the unification and formation of a new
Reich (Germany) under King Wilhelm I
• Question: How had the Treaty of Frankfurt differed from the ones signed by the Dutch/Austrians? Did this lead
to different consequence in later years (per say 1918)?

Henry Kissinger
• Background
- Born in Germany, 1923 o Escaped Nazi Germany with family under the persecution of the Jews o
Secretary of State to Richard Nixon, National Security Advisor to Gerald Ford
• Detente
- Eased tensions between the Cold War superpowers - USA & USSR o Signing of SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation
Treaty) I & II to restrain the arms race going on between the 2 nations o Eventually signed the ABM (Anti-Ballistic
Missiles) System → regulated the intercontinental missiles on both sides
• China
- Resumed communications and diplomatic relations between USA & China since the takeover of the
communists o Made a secret trip to Beijing in 1971 following the success of the Ping-Pong Diplomacy
• Vietnam
- North and South Vietnam o Awarded joint-Nobel Peace Prize after negotiation
• Shuttle Diplomacy
- Simply put, it’s like having a middle person transferring messages between two people who have gotten
into a big argument
- Kissinger (USA) played the middle-man in the Arab-Israeli War

Eleanor Roosevelt
• BACKGROUND (1884-1962)
- Full name: Anna Eleanor Roosevelt o Husband (and fifth uncle): Franklin D. Roosevelt
• WHO WAS SHE?
- Longest-serving First Lady of the USA (1933-1945)
- First US delegate to UN General Assembly
- First chair of UN Commission on Human Rights
- Often spoke for her husband (who was later in life paralysed)
▪ Publicly disagreed with him in politics often: it was this outspokenness that made her unique (and controversial)
at the time o Advocate for women’s and civil rights
• CONTRIBUTIONS
- Pressured USA to join UN

K. R. Narayanan
• BACKGROUND (1921-2005)
- Full name: Kocheril Raman Narayanan
- Of the Dalit/Outsider caste: part of the “coconut-pluckers” according to the caste system
• WHO WAS HE?
- Tenth President of India o First Dalit President of India
- (pre-presidency) Ambassador to Japan, the UK, Thailand, Turkey, PRC, China, USA
• CONTRIBUTIONS
- Set several new precedents (apart from first Dalit President)
▪ First President to vote while in office
▪ Married a woman of foreign origin
- Transparency in government
- Reminder of social and economic injustices

Thomas Jefferson
• BACKGROUND (1743-1826)
- American founding father o Family: rich Southern farmers who owned many slaves
• WHO WAS HE?
- US Minister to France o First Secretary of State o 2nd Vice President of the United States o 3rd President
of the United States
• CONTRIBUTIONS
- Purchased the Louisiana Territory o Authored the Declaration of Independence o (Ineffective and
unpopular) embargo on American shipping during Napoleonic Wars
Kim Dae-jung
• Born on January 6 1924, died on August 18 2009
• Was the President of South Korea from 1998 to 2003
• Was the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient, and the only Korean Nobel Prize recipient in history. He is
sometimes referred to as the, “Nelson Mandela of South Korea.”
• Kim was almost killed in August of 1973, when he was kidnapped from his hotel in Tokyo by KCIA agents in
response to his criticism of President Park’s yushin program; that granted near-dictatorial powers.
• When he returned to South Korea, he was banned from politics and was imprisoned in 1976. However, his
political rights were restored in 1979.
• In 1980, Kim was arrested and sentenced to death as he was suspected to help organize a coup by Chun Doo-
hwan. Kim did not receive the death sentence, but was instead exiled to the US, where he taught in Harvard
University as a visiting professor.
• When Kim became President later in 1998, he pushed for economic reform and restructuring. The economy
pushed from 5.8% in 1998 to become 10.2% in 1999.
• Has head a policy of engagement with North Korea, now termed as the Sunshine Policy. He worked for the
reunification of North and South Korea.
Oscar Arias
• Born on September 13 1940
• Was the President of Costa Rica from 1986 to 1990
• Received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1897 for his efforts in ending the Central American Crisis. He received it for
his work towards signing the Esquipulas II Accords; a plan intended to promote democracy and peace on the
Central American isthmus during a time of great turmoil.
• Was the recipient of the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism and a trustee of Economists for Peace and
Security.
• In 2003, was elected to become the Board Director of the international Criminal Court Trust Fund for Victims.
• Arias was born into a higher upper-class family, descendants of Ferdinand III of Castile and Henry II of England.
• Arias has received over 50 honorary degrees including doctorates from Ivy League Schools.
• Arias promoted a neoliberal economic model and is often regarded as one, however he is a member of a
nominally social democratic party.
• Created the Central American Parliament in an attempt of integration in Central America.
• Arias reintroduced standardized academic tests to primary and secondary schools in Costa Rica.
• Costa Rican constitution has a clause forbidding former presidents to run again for presidency, however,
ignoring that clause, Oscar Arias ran for the second time.
• He switched Costa Rica’s diplomatic recognition from the Republic of China to the People’s Republic of China.

Zhou Enlai
• Born on March 5 1898, died on January 8 1976
• Although he studied abroad, upon his visit to China, he participated in the May Fourth Movement
acknowledging communist policies.
• Enlai joined the China Communist Party (CCP) from abroad, and formed a team of young communist expatriate
Chinese students.
• Became a popular and influential CCP figure, where he organized a strike in 1926.
• Formed friendship and firm political allies with Mao Zedong. He participated in the Long March of 1934, where
afterwards emerged as a party leader alongside Mao.
• After the communist victory in 1949, Zhou became premier and foreign minister of the People’s Republic of
China.
• Supported Mao Zedong’s policies during the 1950s, including his policy regarding the Great Leap Forward.
Zhou Enlai continued to become a strong implementing role in Mao’s economic reforms.
• Because Zhou Enlai was a skilled negotiator and an canny political operature, he was able to negotiate visits to
China by US leaders, Henry Kissinger and Richard Nixon.

Mikhail Gorbachev
• Born on March 2, 1931
• In 1921, he became a delegate to the Communist Party Congress.
• In 1985, he was elected general secretary.
• Recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1990, and in the same year, became Soviet Union’s very first president.
While being the president, Gorbachev promoted a lot for peaceful international relations; both with foreign powers
and among the country.
• In 1991, Gorbachev founded the Gorbachev Foundation and he continues to remain politically and socially
active.

Samantha Power
• Born on September 21, 1970
• Is an Irish-born American academic, author, political critic and diplomat who served as the United States
Ambassador to the United Nations from 2013 to 2017
• She began her career as a journalist (war correspondent) covering the Yugoslav Wars.
• From 1998 to 2002, she served as the Founding Executive Director of the Carr Center for Human Rights Policy,
where she later became the first Anna Lindh Professor of Practice of Global Leadership and Public Policy.
• She was the senior adviser to Senator Barack Obama until March of 2008, when she resigned from his
presidential campaign after referring to Hillary Clinton as “a monster.”
• She rejoined his team, and Obama chose her to chair a newly formed Atrocities Prevention Board. During her
time in the office, she focused on issues such as United Nations reform, women’s rights and LGBT rights,
religious freedom and religious minorities, refugees, human trafficking, human rights and democracy.
• She is viewed to be a key figure in Obama’s administration in persuading the president to intervene militarily in
Libya.
• Won a Pulitzer Prize in 2003 for her book, “A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide.”
• She was also awarded the 2015 Barnard Medal of Distinction and the 2016 Henry A. Kissinger Prize.

Ban Ki-Moon
• Born on June 13 1944
• Ban Ki-Moon is a South Korean diplomat who was the eighth Secretary-General of the United Nations from
January 2007 to December 2016
• Prior to becoming the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon served as a career diplomat in South Korea’s
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations
• As the UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon was responsible for major reforms on peacekeeping and UN
employment practices.
• Has strong views on Global Warming, pressing the issue repeatedly with U.S. President George W. Bush. He
has even helped persuade Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir to allow peacekeeping troops to enter Sudan.
• He is considered to be One of the Most Powerful People ranking in 32nd - being the highest ranking among
South Koreans.
• Ban Ki-Moon was awarded Top 100 Global Thinkers for his achievement in making the Paris Agreement, a
legally binding treaty less than a year after it was adopted.

Dag Hammarskjöld
• Born on July 29 1905, died on September 18 1961
• Was a Swedish diplomat, economist and author who served as the second Secretary General of the United
Nations from April 1953 until his death in a plane crash in September 1961
• At his appointment as Secretary General for the UN, he was considered to be youngest to have ever held the
post (being that he was 47 years old).
• He is one of four people to have been awarded a posthumous (after death) Nobel Prize, and was the only
United Nations Secretary to have died while in office
• He was killed in a DC-6 plane crash, on his way to ceasefire negotiations during the Congo Crisis
• There are many conspiracies surrounding his death, the first being that his plane was shot down by either the
CIA, MI6, Belgian Mining Company and/or any mining companies that profited from the war he was trying to stop.
• Considered to be one of the best secretary-generals of all time in the UN, and was even called, “the greatest
statesmen of our century.”
• During his time in the office, he helped alleviate the economic problems post World War II and was a delegate
to the Paris Conference that established the Marshall Plan.
• He also tried to smoothen relationships between Israel and the Arab States.
• He visited China in 1955 to negotiate the release of 11 captured US pilots who had served in the Korean War.
• In 1956 he established the United Nations Emergency Force.

U Thant
• Born on January 22 1909, died on 25 November 1974
• Was a Burmese diplomat and the third Secretary General of the United Nations, serving from 1961 to 1971. U
Thant refused to serve third term, thus retiring in 1971.
• He was the first non-European to hold the positions, holding the office for a record of 10 years and one month.
• During the political climate in Burma, U Thant held moderate views. He is known for his calm and unassuming
demeanor.
• He was appointed as Secretary General in 1961 when his predecessor, Dag Hammarskjold died in an air crash.
• In his first term, he facilitated negotiations between U.S President John F. Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita
Khrushchev during the Cuban Missile Crisis
• U Thant ordered for Operation Grandslam, which ended the secessionist insurgency in Congo.
• In his second term, U Thant publicly criticized the American conduct during the Vietnam War.
• Oversaw the entry of newly independent African and Asians states into the UN.

Ambassador Spock
• Star Trek character, extremely famous throughout the Sci-Fi universe.
• Ambassador for the Federation of United Planets and the Klingon Empire, helping to ease strained relations
between the two.
• Later on in the series, Spock became an ambassador to the Romulan Star Empire
• Involved in the unsuccessful attempt to save the capital planet of the empire (Romulus) from being consumed
by a Supernova.

Colin Powell
• 1937 (81 years)
• A man of many jobs, all of which were in a way related to diplomacy and politics. These were:
o US National Security Advisor (1987-1989) o Commander of US Army Forces Command (1989) o Chairman of
the Joint Chief of Staffs (1989-1993). o 65th Secretary of State, serving the George W. Bush administration from
2001
to 2005, becoming the first American African to serve in such a position
• During his time as the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff, Powell helped the United States lead a coalition force
against Iraqi troops who had invaded Kuwait in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.
• In his term as Secretary of State, Powell unsuccessfully tried to get another coalition to combat reports of Iraqi
weapons proliferation yet later revealed his sources were inaccurate and likely untrue.
• One of his most notable legacies was the Powell Doctrine, a concept of warfare wherein a nation utilizes
overwhelming force to minimize casualties and maximize success.

António Guterres
• Currently Secretary-General of the United Nations- formally elected by the UN General Assembly in 2017
• Portuguese politician and diplomat
• Other previous titles include:
- Prime minister of Portugal
- United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
- President of the Socialist International o Secretary-General of the Socialist Party
- Leader of the Opposition (Carnation Revolution)

HOW WERE DIPLOMATS INVOLVED IN DIPLOMACY:

JULY CRISIS
• Interrelated diplomatic and military escalations among the major European powers in the summer of 1914
• Eventually led up to the breakout of the first World War
• Archduke Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne) was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a
Serbian and Yugoslav partisan
• Austro-Hungary viewed the South Slav irredentist movements promoted by Serbia as a threat to the unity of the
country
• On 5 July, Kaiser Wilhelm II issued his famous “blank cheque” to Austria-Hungary- they could proceed as they
saw fit, and Germany would back them if Russia intervened
• On 23 July, almost one month after the assassination, the Serbian government received an ultimatum from
Austria-Hungary. In it was a set of ten firmly worded demands, plus a requirement for the Serbs to respond in
agreement within 48 hours. Winston Churchill, then in charge of Britain’s Royal Navy, called the ultimatum “the
most insolent document of its kind ever devised”.
• Serbia immediately sought the counsel of the Russians. Tsar Nicholas II and his ministers offered to publicly
condemn the ultimatum, but refused to offer any military guarantees
• Austro-Hungarian emperor Franz Josef declared war on Serbia on 28 July

Cuban Missile Crisis

• 1962- tensions were high between the superpowers at the time, during the Cold War
• 13-day political standoff over the installation of Soviet missiles just 90 miles from US shores
• People thought that a nuclear war would break out
• Disaster was avoided when the U.S. agreed to Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev’s offer to remove the Cuban
missiles in exchange for the U.S. promising not to invade Cuba. Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove U.S.
missiles from Turkey.

Fashoda Incident
• The climax of imperial territorial disputes between Britain and France in Eastern Africa in 1898
• A French expedition to Fashoda on the White Nile sought to gain control of the Upper Nile river basin and
thereby exclude Britain from the Sudan
• The French party and a British-Egyptian force met on friendly terms, but back in Europe, it became a war scare
• The British held firm as both empires stood on the verge of war with heated rhetoric on both sides
• Under heavy pressure the French withdrew, securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the area.
• The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states acknowledging British control over
Egypt, while France became the dominant power in Morocco.

Great Game
• Started in 1813
• A political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the nineteenth century between the British
Empire and the Russian Empire over Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in Central and Southern Asia
• Existed for majority of the 19th century
• Began on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough, the President of the Board of Control for India, tasked
Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, to establish a new trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara
• Britain intended to gain control over the Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a protectorate, and to use the
Ottoman Empire, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between
both empires- this would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a
port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean
• Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone
• The end of the Great Game is considered to be on 10 September 1895 when the Pamir Boundary Commision
protocols were signed
One China Policy
• U.S. policy of diplomatic acknowledgment of China’s position that there is only ONE Chinese government
• U.S. recognizes and has formal ties with China rather than the island of Taiwan
• China sees Taiwan as a breakaway province to be reunified with the mainland one day
• Fundamental bedrock of Chinese policy-making and diplomacy
• Distinct from One China principle → China insists Taiwan to be an inalienable part of one China to be reunified one day
• Washington maintains a “robust unofficial” relationship with Taiwan
- Continued arms sales
• Taiwan’s government claims it is an independent country = “Republic of China”
• Any country that wants diplomatic relations with mainland China must break official ties with Taipei → Taiwan’s
diplomatic isolation from the international community
• End of Chinese civil war in 1949- Communists defeated Nationalists (Kuomintang)
- Nationalists retreated to Taiwan - created own government
- Communists began ruling mainland as People’s Republic of China
- Both sides said they represented all of China
• China and U.S. saw a mutual need to develop relations beginning in 1970s → U.S. and other countries cutting ties with
Taipei in favor of Beijing
• U.S. remains Taiwan’s most important security ally
• U.S. established formal diplomatic ties with Beijing in 1979 under President Jimmy Carter → U.S. had to sever ties with
Taiwan and closed its Taipei embassy
• U.S. can benefit from formal relations with China (biggest foreign lender and top trade partner) while quietly
continuing to maintain strong ties with Taiwan

Middle East Qatari embargo

• Also known as the 2017-18 Qatar diplomatic crisis
• Several countries abruptly cut off diplomatic relations with Qatar om June 2017
- Saudi Arabia
- UAE
- Bahrain
- Egypt
• Imposed a “air, land and sea blockade” on Qatar
• Cited Qatar’s alleged support for terrorism
• Criticised Qatar’s relationship with Iran
• On 27 July 2017, Qatari foreign minister Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani told reporters that Egypt, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Bahrain were showing "stubbornness" to Qatar and had not taken any steps to
solve the crisis
• Al Thani added that the Security Council, the General Assembly and "all the United Nations mechanisms" could
play a role in resolving the situation
• On 24 August 2017, Qatar announced that they would restore full diplomatic relations with Iran

Zimmerman Telegram
• A message from the German foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmermann, to the German ambassador to Mexico
proposing a Mexican-German alliance in the case of war between the U.S. and Germany
• Was intercepted and deciphered by British intelligence
• Zimmermann instructed the ambassador, Count Johann von Bernstorff, to offer significant financial aid to
Mexico if it agreed to enter any future U.S.-German conflict as a German ally
• Germany also promised to restore to Mexico the lost territories of TX, NM, and AR
• U.S. President Woodrow Wilson learned of telegram’s contents on February 26
• Proposed to Congress that the U.S. should start arming its ships against possible German attacks, authorized
State Dept. to make public the Zimmermann Telegram
• Germany has already triggered America with its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare and its continued
attacks against American ships
• Public opinion in the U.S. now swung firmly toward American entrance into WWI

South China Sea disputes

• 1⁄3 of global maritime traffic, $5 trillion in annual trade, 6 claimant nations
• The geographic commons of SE Asia’s navigable rimland- 3.5 million square km of underlying bedrock contain
oil and natural gas deposits
• The territorially disputed region may be the most strategically important waterway of the 21st century- lucrative
fisheries and supply routes that carry 80% of China’s crude imports
• Sea is bound to the north by China → 95% of the region cite ancient maritime records
• Waters have been vital to the economic survival of neighboring Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines
• South China Sea shipping lanes provide access to trade-intensive waters of the Indian Ocean
• Many nations have urged Beijing to abide by the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea- maritime zones of
control based on coastlines
- U.S. often relies on the international agreement to settle territorial disputes
- China has refrained, invoking intertemporal laws based on deep historical record
- China views UN-backed codes of maritime governance as incompatible with domestic laws → instruments of
Western hegemony designed to undercut its expanding influence as a world power
• Low-level skirmishes between Chinese naval patrols and civilian fishing fleets from neighboring countries could
spark international conflict
• Waterway promises remain a fulcrum upon which the geopolitics of international trade pivots

XYZ Affair
• A diplomatic incident between France and America in the late 18th century that led to an undeclared war at sea
• France went to war with Great Britain while America remained neutral
• U.S. and Britain signed the Jay Treaty- resolved several longstanding issues between the two nations
• French were infuriated by Jay’s Treaty- violated earlier treaties between the U.S. and France → seized a substantial number
of American merchant ships
• President George Washington sent Charles Pinckney as the U.S. minister to France- government refused to
receive him
• President John Adams dispatched a three-member delegation to Paris later in an effort to restore peace
between the two countries
• American diplomats tried to meet with France’s foreign minister, Charles de Talleyrand
• Talleyrand put them off and eventually had three agents inform the U.S. commissioners that in order to see
them they first would have to pay him a bribe and provide France with a large loan
• Caused an uproar in the U.S. and prompted calls for war
• Adams handed members of Congress over with names of French agents replaced with the letters X, Y, and Z
• Congress authorized American ships to attack French vessels → undeclared naval war that came to be referred to as the
Quasi-War, settled w/ Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine)
U-2 Incident
• Occurred during the Cold War in 1960
• A United States U-2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace
• The aircraft, flown by pilot Francis Gary Powers, was performing photographic aerial reconnaissance when it
was hit by an S-75 Dvina (SA-2 Guideline) surface-to-air missile and crashed near Sverdlovsk
• Initially the United States government lied about the plane's purpose and mission, but was forced to admit to
spying when the Soviet government revealed the captured pilot and remains of the U-2 including spying
technology and photos of military bases in the Soviet Union taken by the aircraft.
• This incident was a great embarrassment to the United States, and proved yet again that the Soviet-American
relationship was deteriorating

Christmas Truce
• Christmas Day 1914 during WWI
• Holiday celebrations that took place in the trenches and included gestures of goodwill between enemies
• Pope Benedict XV suggested a temporary hiatus of the war for the celebration of Christmas
• Soldiers in the trenches declared their own unofficial truce
• Many German and British troops sang Christmas carols to each other across the lines
• Allied soldiers even heard brass bands joining the Germans in their joyous singing
• German soldiers emerged from their trenches and approached the Allied lines across no-man’s-land → called out “Merry
Christmas” in enemies’ native tongues
• Allied soldiers feared it was a trick, but saw Germans unarmed → climbed out of their trenches and shook hands with the
enemy soldiers
• Men exchanged presents of cigarettes and plum puddings and sang carols and songs
• Documented case of soldiers from opposing sides playing a game of soccer
• Used time to retrieve bodies of fellow combatants who had fallen within the no-man’s- land between the lines
• One of the last examples of the outdated notion of chivalry between enemies in warfare
• Never repeated but served as heartening proof that the soldiers’ essential humanity endured

Pig and Potato War

• Between the UK and the US
• 1859 confrontation over their borders in the San Juan islands between Vancouver Island and the mainland
• Was triggered by the shooting of a pig
• This dispute was a bloodless conflict

the Falkland Islands

• April 1982: troops from Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, which were under British colonisation
• Argentina had long claimed internationally that these islands were their territory, but Britain would not let go of
their colony
• Margaret Thatcher, British prime minister, sent a fleet of 127 ships with a landing force 8000 miles to protect the
islands
• The war ended with Argentine forces surrendering at Port Stanley

Partition of India
• The division of British India in 1947
• Accompanied the creation of Pakistan and India, two independent dominions
• Today:
- Dominion of India: Republic of India
- Dominion of Pakistan: Islamic Republic of Pakistan and People’s
Republic of Bangladesh
- Displaced over 14 million people along religious lines

SELECTED READINGS
The Practice of Diplomacy (“The Art of Negotiation” to “Courage” p. 7-29) | Francois de Callieres
It was in this book that the first known principles of diplomatic conduct and procedure were listed. Mainly the art
of negotiation and the power a diplomat must have to defy the interests of other nations. It is still looked back on
as one of the key cornerstones of diplomacy and how it should be done.
Remarks on Russia | Samantha Power
Samantha Power, a former US Ambassador to the UN, gave this speech in her final tenure in January of 2017. In
the speech, Power denotes that Russian and US interests have been aligned for much of history, referring to the
recent Syrian conflict and World Wars as evidence. However, her speech then turns to harsh criticism of how the
modern-day Russia, under Vladimir Putin’s leadership, has deteriorated and drifted away from the alliances with
the US the country once had. She calls Russia as a threat to the US Government and politics and urges all
member nations of the UN to stand with America against the Eastern European country. A rather rousing speech,
as it is so rarely seen in history (at least since 1950) that a politician outright slanders another country on public
television. Now we must see how Putin’s administration will address her remarks.
Blood and Iron (excerpt) | Otto von Bismarck
Delivered by the iron chancellor himself, the Blood and Iron (Blut und Eisen) speech by Otto Von Bismarck was
delivered on the 30th of September 1962. It came in response to the Prussian House of Representatives
(essentially the congress at the time) refused a bid for increased military spending submitted by King Wilhelm I.
Bismarck appeared in front of the House’s Budget Committee and stressed the need for military readiness to
solve the German Question (a debate throughout the 19th century regarding how best to unify the separate
German states). It was during the end of his speech that he earned his nickname as the Iron Chancellor. Here it
is: "The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power [...] Prussia must
concentrate its strength and hold it for the favorable moment, which has already come and gone several times.
Since the treaties of Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches
and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided—that was the great mistake of 1848 and
1849—but by iron and blood."(During 1848 and 1849 there were multiple unsuccessful German revolutions in
uniting the area). Thus the Prussian states were then united in their goal for a unified Germany. It would be
shortly after this speech that Bismarck began to go about reclaiming “Prussian” territories from other nations, by
declaring war on them. This included Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark and Alsace-Lorraine from the French.
An Independent Diplomat | Carne Ross
In the world of international politics, some developing and small countries have no say in votes or other matters,
their say considered insignificant or their inability to produce diplomats overwhelming. This is where Carne Ross
comes in, a former British Foreign Office worker, he now runs a nonprofit organization called the Independent
Diplomat. The Independent Diplomat offers freelance diplomatic representation to small, developing and
unrecognized nations in the confusing tangle of international negotiations.