The Effect of Heat-Setting Conditions on the Performance

Characteristics of Warp Knitted Spacer Fabrics

Gözde Ertekin, PhD, Arzu Marmarali

Ege University, Department of Textile Engineering, İzmir, İzmir TURKEY

Correspondence to:
Gözde Ertekin email: gozde.damci@ege.edu.tr

ABSTRACT
Spacer fabrics can be produced by using weaving or In the production of warp knitted spacer fabrics,
nonwoven techniques besides warp and weft knitting especially polyester multifilament and monofilament
processes. Warp knitted spacer fabrics are produced yarns are used as surface layers and spacer yarn,
by using polyester multifilament and monofilament respectively. These fabrics are taken from the
yarns for surface layers and spacer yarn, respectively. knitting machine in the form of closed structures.
After knitting process, surface layers of these fabrics After knitting process, the warp knitted spacer fabrics
are in the closed form. Then these fabrics are are normally subjected to a heat-setting treatment in
subjected to a heat-setting treatment in order to order to increase the structural stability and to
increase their structural stability and to achieve an achieve a determined open form. It is necessary to
open form with holes. In this study, it is aimed to point out that heat-setting of a spacer fabric is not
investigate the effect of heat-setting conditions on the easy to be processed because it is difficult to firmly
performance characteristics of the warp knitted catch the two selvages of the spacer fabric on a
spacer fabrics. Mass per unit area, thickness, air conventional heat-setting machine. In order to solve
permeability, compressibility, dimensional stability this problem, the selvages of both sides of spacer
and compression set properties were measured and fabrics were knitted without spacer yarns. Ye et al.
evaluated statistically in order to determine the mentioned that to extend these fabrics to the desired
effects of heat-setting conditions such as temperature, width during heat-setting process was difficult,
duration of heat-setting and stretching (the tension because of longer underlaps of the spacer yarns or
applied to the samples during heat-setting) on the higher thickness or weight of spacer fabrics [2].
performance characteristics. The results revealed that,
heat-setting process has significant effect on all Fabrics produced from synthetic fibres or from
measured performance characteristics of the samples. blends containing such fibres are subjected to a range
After heat-setting process, air permeability and of different heat treatments during the various stages
compressibility values increases while mass per unit of their production. Heat-setting is the most
area and compression set values decreases. important one, since it gives the product the desired
characteristics to make it suitable for further
INTRODUCTION processing and use by the consumer [3]. Karmakar
Spacer fabrics are three dimensional textile structures explained heat-setting as a heat treatment by which
consisted of two parallel knitted fabrics connected by shape retention, crease resistance, resilience and
a yarn layer called as spacer yarn. The spacer yarn elasticity are imparted to the fibres. It also brings
plays an important role of fabric’s special changes in strength, stretchability, softness,
characteristics. With these special properties like dyeability and sometimes on the colour of the
compression and impact resistance, high material [4]. According to Gacén et.al., heat-setting
breathability, high elastic recovery characteristic, improves the properties of the textile substrate
spacer fabrics offer a lot of possibilities in various (improves shrinkage resistance, removes any creases,
application areas such as medical textiles, automotive guarantees level dyeing and improves the fabric
textiles, geotextiles, protective textiles, sportswear handle) [3]. Militký states in his study the purpose of
and composites. It is possible to produce these fabrics the heat-setting process supported by Mukhopadhyay
by weaving or nonwoven techniques besides warp and Gacén et al. as stabilization of fibre dimensions,
and weft knitting processes. Knitting technology relaxation of internal stresses in the fibre and creation
especially warp knitting technique is the most or stabilization of the crystalline structure [3,5,6].
commonly known and applied technology for the The heat-setting process, which assists in improving
production of spacer fabrics [1]. the morphology of the fibre, is determined by the

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
temperature, duration of heat-setting, the tension PLA and PET fabrics has been significantly reduced
applied to the substrates during heat-setting and the after dyeing, drying, heat-setting and softening
medium of heat-setting (air, solvents or water) [7]. processes [16]. Jiang et al. investigated the process of
Even a slightest variation in heat-setting conditions, warp knitting mesh for hernia repair and also its
namely temperature, time and tension influence the mechanical properties. They tried various heat-setting
setting effect on the mechanical behaviour of fabrics, conditions and they found that the pushing strength is
regardless of the system used. Basically, heat-setting up to 540N after heat-setting, and 10% higher than
involves the interaction between time and the fabric before heat-setting. The widthwise
temperature, the influence of temperature being more shrinkage in 100°C for 60 minutes is down to 1.5%
important than that of time. The tension at which from 6% before heat-setting. At the same time, the
heat-setting is applied is also an important variable of lengthwise shrinkage is decreased from 4% before
this process [3].The structural and morphological heat-setting to 0.65%. In addition, other advantages
changes due to heat-setting are presented in the are obtained from the heat-setting, improving in the
review by Gupta [8]. handle and increasing in the softness of the fabric
[17]. Idumah and Nwachukwu studied the effect of
Various researchers proposed the heat-setting time of heat-setting and wet processes on the tensile
conditions of polyester fabrics with different values. properties (fabric extension, linearity of load
According to Karmakar, polyester goods are pre-set extension, tensile energy and tensile resilience) of
with hot air on pin stenters for 20-40 sec at 180- PLA and PET fabrics using the KES-FB [7]. Yang
210°C according to the type, density and weight of and Kan examined the effect of heat-setting
the material, with minimum tension on the goods to parameters (treatment time, treatment temperature,
control the dry heat stability less than the accepted and tension) on shrinkage after dyeing and colour
1% shrinkage [4]. Gacén et al. mentioned that, heat- yield of PLA knitted fabric. The results revealed that
setting of polyester (PET) fabrics is usually applied at lower shrinkage and higher colour yield can be
temperatures between 160 and 220°C, and times achieved when: heat-setting time=60 s; heat-setting
within the range of 30-120 seconds [3]. Idumah and temperature=130°C; and tension=0%. After that, the
Nwachukwu stated that, for PET, heat-setting occurs PLA knitted fabric was treated under the optimum
at temperatures of 130-140°C in steam or 190-220°C heat-setting condition and was dyed with 1% depth
in dry air in the presence of some tension and since disperse dye, which produced a better dyeing result.
Tg of PET is approximately 80°C, heat-setting of However, the handle of the heat set PLA knitted
PET above its Tg would allow the polymer structure fabric became stiffer and more resistant to shearing
to attain dimensional stability [7]. The general movement and had worse drape and bending
expectations to determine the heat-setting conditions recovery ability, while the appearance became
are that polyester fabrics are effectively fluffier and rougher [18]. Borhani et al. investigated
dimensionally stable if it is set at a temperature of 30- the influence of some parameters such as the kind of
40°C higher than the temperature to which the fibre is spacer threads and also heat-setting under drawing on
subjected to expose during subsequent processes so moisture transport properties of spacer fabrics. They
as to ensure the fabric attains dimensional stability [4, found that, heat-setting under drawing affects the
7, 8]. fabric dimensional properties and heat-setting under
drawing of spacer fabrics increases the porosity and
The effect of different setting treatment (heat-setting, air permeability of sample while decreases the
presetting, vacuum steaming process) on the thickness and mass per unit area of sample. The heat-
physical, mechanical and dyeability properties of set sample with higher porosity and air permeability
different yarn types were examined by various has higher moisture transfer [19].
researchers [9-15]. Avinç et al. studied a
mathematical model to compare the handle of In this study, it is aimed to investigate the effect of
polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene terephthalate heat-setting conditions on the performance
(PET) fabrics throughout finishing steps. They characteristics of the warp knitted spacer fabrics.
measured low stress tensile, shear, bending, Mass per unit area, thickness, air permeability,
compression and surface properties by using the compressibility, dimensional stability and
KES-FB. The results revealed that the mechanical compression set properties were measured and
and surface properties as well as handle of PLA and evaluated statistically in order to determine the
PET fabrics change significantly after different effects of heat-setting conditions such as temperature,
finishing stages. The difference between handle of duration of heat-setting and stretching (the tension
applied to the samples during heat-setting) on the
performance characteristics.

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
EXPERIMENTAL
Fabric Production diameter was used as spacer yarn to connect two
Spacer fabrics were knitted on a Karl Mayer RD 6 outer layers. Yarn and machine details are listed in
double-needle bar raschel machine equipped with six Table I. The distance between the needle bars of
yarn guide bars (GB). While a 150D/48x4 polyester machine was set at 12.5 and 15 mm to produce the
PTY and 300D/72x3 polyester PTY multifilaments samples in two thicknesses. Surface and cross-
were used to create the top outer and bottom outer sectional views of a fabric before and after heat-
layers. A polyester monofilament of 0.243 mm in setting process are given in Figure 1.

TABLE I. Yarn and machine details.

Layers Guide bars Chain notation Threading Yarn

2-2 / 2-2 / 0-0 / 0-0 / 2-2 / 2-2 / 0-0 / 0-0 /
GB1 2-2 / 2-2 / 1-1 / 1-1 / 3-3 / 3-3 / 1-1 / 1-1 / Half PES PTY 150D/48x4
Top layer
3-3 / 3-3 / 1-1 / 1-1 //
GB2 0-1 / 1-1 / 1-0 / 0-0 // Full PES PTY 300D/72x3
0.243 mm polyester
GB3 Half
Spacer 0-1 / 0-1 / 1-0 / 1-0 // monofilament
yarn 0.243 mm polyester
GB4 Half
0-1 / 0-1 / 1-0 / 1-0 // monofilament
GB5 0-0 / 0-1 / 1-1 / 1-0 // Full PES PTY 300D/72x3
Bottom 1-1 / 2-2 / 2-2 / 0-0 / 0-0 / 2-2 / 2-2 / 0-0 /
layer GB6 0-0 / 2-2 / 2-2 / 1-1 / 1-1 / 3-3 / 3-3 / 1-1 / Half PES PTY 150D/48x4
1-1 / 3-3 / 3-3 / 1-1 //

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 1.(a, d) Surface views of a sample before and after heat-setting process, (b, e) cross-section views along the course direction before and
after heat-setting process, (c, f) cross-section view along the wale direction of a sample before and after heat-setting process.

Brückner (Vn-Sfp-24/6-Q99) heat-setting machine samples during heat-setting was arranged so that the
was used in order to increase the structural stability final width of the samples will be 110 and 160 cm
and to achieve a determined final width (stretching). while the width of unset fabrics which refers to the
The samples were horizontally (course-wise) pinned fabric width after knitting process was 60 cm. After
on the sliding aluminium frame pins and heat set at heat-setting, the fabric samples were allowed to cool
the temperatures of 150°C and 180°C for time down at room temperature for 24 hours. Details of
durations of 1.8 and 3min. The tension applied to the heat-setting process were given in Table II.

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
The performance characteristics of heat-set samples The dimensional stability of a fabric determines
and unset samples referred to fabric taken from the whether a fabric has the potential to retain its original
knitting machine were compared and analysed shape and remain stable, indicating it will not bubble
statistically. or sag over time, when applied over a substrate, and
its suitability for a specified use. Dimensional
TABLE II. Details of heat-setting process. stability was tested according to the DIN 53377
standard. The samples are cut into square form of 10
Distance
Duration of Temperature x10 cm and are placed in an oven maintained at 90°C
between the Stretching
Nr. heat-setting of heat-
needle bars (cm) for 1h. The dimensional stability value was
(min) setting (0 C)
(mm) calculated according to the Eq. (1):
1 12.5 - - 60
2 12.5 3 180 110 (l O − l F ) (1)
Dimensional stability (%) = x100
3 12.5 1.8 180 110 lO
4 12.5 1.8 180 160
5 12.5 1.8 150 110 where lo: The original dimensions of the specimen
6 15 - - 60
lF: The dimensions of the specimen after
treatment
7 15 3 150 160
8 15 3 150 110
The compression set is the difference between the
9 15 3 180 160 initial thickness and the final thickness of a test piece
10 15 1.8 150 160 of the material after compression for a given time at a
given temperature and after a given recovery time
Fabric Tests and is determined according to TS 2013 EN ISO
Mass per unit area values were measured according 1856 standard. The samples (50x50x25 mm) are
to the TS EN 12127 standard. compressed at a rate of 75% and are placed in an
oven maintained at 70°C for 22h. The compression
Air permeability is the rate of air flow passing set value was calculated according to the Eq. (2):
perpendicularly through a known area under a
prescribed air pressure differential between the two (d O − d r ) (2)
Compression set (%) = x100
surfaces of a material. Air permeability values were dO
obtained by using Textest FX 3300 instrument
according to TS 391 EN ISO 9237. Its principle where do: The original thickness of the specimen
depends in the measurement of air flow passing dr: The thickness value of the specimen
through the fabric at certain pressure gradient Δp. waited for ½ h after experiment
The results of the measurements are averages from
the values of 10 readings. As statistical evaluation ANOVA and Duncan
multiple comparison tests were applied (p=0.05).
Compression stress or compressibility can be defined
as a decrease of initial thickness that occurs with an RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
appropriate increase of compressive force. Initial The performance characteristics of the samples are
thickness is considered as the thickness without given in Table III. The statistical analysis of the
applied force on the fabric surface [20]. samples’ characteristics (Mass per unit area, air
Compressibility tests were carried out by Zwick Z010 permeability, compressibility) showed that, there is a
Instrument based on the ISO 3386 standard. The significant difference (p=.000) between the samples
instrument is composed of a rectangular presser foot for all groups (Table IV). In Table III, the mean
with a contact area of 40x40 cm2, which moves values are marked with the letters ‘a’, ‘b’ and ‘c’ (‘a’
vertically at a speed of 100 mm/min. 2.5 kN was shows the lowest value and ‘c’ shows the highest
applied to the samples and the set compression rate is value). Any levels marked by the same letter showed
40%. The results are averages of 3 readings in kPa. that they were not significantly different.

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
 TABLE III. Performance characteristics of the samples.

Distance
between the Mass per unit Thickness Air Perm. Compressibility Dim. stability Comp. set
Heat-setting conditions SD* SD* SD* SD*
needle beds area (g/m2 ) (mm) (lt/m2s) (kPa) % (% )
(mm)

Unset 1409.86(b) 14.26 11.43 0.077 1462(a) 82.92 4.31(a) 0.276 -1 39.73
Duration (min)

12.5 1.8 711.58(a) 14.46 11.14 0.045 5859(b) 115.45 16.45(b) 0.829 -3 25.52
3 685.6(a) 28.42 11.16 0.049 5994(b) 127.76 17.49(b) 0.434 -3 28.51
Unset 1512.61(b) 28.47 12.35 0.045 1548(a) 54 0.15(a) 0.16 -2 37.3
15
1.8 588.83(a) 6.35 12.76 0.073 6614(b) 106.79 8.74(b) 0.11 -3 33.4
3 578.85(a) 8.72 12.74 0.037 6739(b) 219.88 9.95(b) 0.073 -3 35.98
Unset 1409.86(c) 14.26 11.43 0.077 1462(a) 82.92 4.31(a) 0.276 -1 39.73
Stretching (cm)

12.5 110 711.58(b) 14.46 11.14 0.045 5859(b) 115.45 16.45(c) 0.829 -3 25.52
160 515.26(a) 11.54 10.67 0.07 6807(c) 137.19 11.96(b) 0.166 -3 27.56
Unset 1512.61(c) 28.47 12.35 0.045 1548(a) 54 0.15(a) 0.16 -2 37.3
15 110 731.04(b) 27.47 12.63 0.005 5644(b) 93.081 12.45(c) 0.475 -3 34.47
160 578.85(a) 8.72 12.74 0.037 6739(c) 219.88 9.95(b) 0.073 -3 35.98
Unset 1409.86(b) 14.26 11.43 0.077 1462(a) 82.92 4.31(a) 0.276 -1 39.73
Temperature ( C)

12.5 150 721.89(a) 9.79 11.41 0.056 5587(b) 90.01 13.71(b) 0.136 -3 28.02
0

180 711.58(a) 14.46 11.14 0.045 5859(c) 115.45 16.45(c) 0.829 -3 25.52
Unset 1512.61(b) 28.47 12.35 0.045 1548(a) 54 0.15(a) 0.16 -2 37.3
15 150 578.85(a) 8.72 12.74 0.037 6739(b) 219.88 9.95(b) 0.073 -3 35.98
180 553.28(a) 5.46 12.56 0.014 7009(c) 127.39 8.69(b) 0.139 -3 34.18
* Standard Deviation

TABLE IV. Statistical evaluation (p values) of the samples’ characteristics.

Duration (min) Stretching (cm) Temperature (0 C)

Unset – 1.8 – 3 Unset – 110 – 160 Unset – 150 – 180

Distance between the needle bars (mm) 12.5 15 12.5 15 12.5 15

Mass per unit area 0 0 0 0 0 0
Air permeability 0 0 0 0 0 0

Compressibility 0 0 0 0 0 .054*

*This p value is not statistically significant for α=0.05

The mean values of the mass per unit area showed knitting, the spacer yarns tended to relax into bended
that (Table III), unset fabrics have higher mass per forms. The bending of the spacer yarns resulted in the
unit area values and these values significantly decreasing of the fabric thickness.
decreased after heat-setting process. Statistical
From Figure 2, it can be seen that, heavier unset
evaluation revealed that, heat-setting temperature and
fabrics have lower air permeability values than heat-
duration of heat-setting parameters didn’t have any
set samples. Heat-setting process influences
significant effect on this parameter, on the other hand
statistically the air permeability values of the samples
the tension applied to the samples during heat-setting
significant, as shown in Table IV. While duration of
determined the surface structure and mass per unit
heat-setting doesn’t affect this parameter, heat-setting
area characteristics of the samples. The greater the
temperature and the tension or stretching creates
tension, the higher is the final width of the samples.
differences between air permeability values of the
Consequently, the holes became on fabric surface and
samples. With the increase of the final width of the
the amount of yarn per unit area is decreased.
samples, the size of holes on fabric surface and air
permeability of the samples increases also. The
It was found that the thicknesses of all fabrics were
bigger pores on the surface layer after stretching lead
smaller than the distance set (12.5 and 15 mm)
to passing of the air easily through the fabric
between the two needle bars of the machine. This is
surfaces. Additionally, the air permeability values of
an expected situation because during knitting process,
the fabrics increase as the heat-setting temperature
the spacer yarns were under tensioned states. After

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
increases as well. It seems possible that these results
are due to decrease of mass per unit area and
thickness. As the fabrics get lighter and thinner, the
amount of air passed through the fabric increases.

FIGURE 3.Compressibility values of the samples.

The dimensional stability characteristics of the

fabrics were measured in both directions: wale-wise
and course-wise. Figure 4 illustrated the dimensional
FIGURE 2. Air permeability values of the samples. stability values in course-wise. According to DIN 53
377, the acceptable limit value of dimensional
Compressibility characteristic of fabrics, along with stability for both directions is ± 3%. The results
the bending, tensile, shear, and surface characteristics indicated that, 3% shrinkage occurred in course
are closely related to fabric handle, drape, and direction after heat-setting, whereas there was no
sewability properties. A fabric that compresses easily dimensional change in wale direction for all fabrics.
is likely to be judged as soft, possessing a low Unset fabrics had lower dimensional change than
compression modulus or high compression [20]. The heat-set fabrics. It could be seen from Figure 4 and
force necessary to compress a fabric has to overcome Table III; heat-setting conditions didn’t have any
the internal stresses of the fibres and the inter-fibre effect on the dimensional stability attributes of the
frictional force [21]. According to Figure 3, the samples.
lowest compressibility values were obtained from
unset fabrics. Also the results indicated that, the
compressibility characteristics decreased as the
thickness values increased. There is statistically
significant difference between the unset and heat-set
samples, as illustrated in Table IV. The parameters of
heat-setting temperature and stretching have
statistically effect on this parameter, whereas it has
not been affected by the duration of heat-setting. With
the increase of the final width of the samples, the
compressibility behaviours decreased. This situation
can be explained by higher mass per unit area values
of the fabrics stretched to 110 cm. When comparing
the effect of heat-setting temperature on this FIGURE 4.Dimensional stability values of the samples.
parameter, as the temperature increased, the
compressibility values increased for the fabrics Compression set value known as aging test is one of
whose distance between the needle beds arranged at the important factors determining the durability and
12.5 mm. Statistical analysis showed that (Table IV) lifetime of spacer fabrics. There is an inverse
there isn’t any significant difference for the fabrics relationship between the durability and compression
their thicknesses arranged at 15 mm. set characteristic of the fabrics. The higher the

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Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016
compression set, the lower is the durability of the this study, only the stretching parameter affected the
fabrics. It can be seen from Figure5 that, thinner mass per unit area values significantly. The higher
fabrics have lower compression set values, especially the stretching, the lower is the mass per unit area
after heat-setting process. Unset fabrics with higher values of the fabrics.
compression set values offer a shorter lifetime of the  Heat-setting temperature and the tension or
fabrics. Heat-setting process has a significant effect stretching parameters create differences between air
for decreasing the compression set characteristic and permeability and compressibility values of the
consequently increasing the durability of the samples. samples while these parameters are not affected by
Additionally, the compression set values of the the duration of heat-setting. With the increase of the
samples increase as the parameters of duration of final width of the samples and the heat-setting
heat-setting and the stretching increase, whereas the temperature, the air permeability of the samples
increase of the heat-setting temperature leads to increased also. On the other hand the compressibility
decrease in compression set values of the samples. property has an inverse relationship with the final
With the increase in the duration of heat-setting, the width of the fabrics.
fabrics are exposed to longer periods of heat which  3% shrinkage occurred in course-wise for all
can reduce the durability of the materials. samples after the heat-setting process.
Additionally when the tension applied to the samples  The most important parameter, affected the
during heat-setting increases, the compression set compression set and compressibility characteristics is
values of the fabrics increase as well due to the thickness of the samples. Thinner fabrics have lower
decrease of fibre content per unit area. The effect of compression set values, resulting higher durability
the heat-setting temperature on the compression set and long lifetime. Heat-setting process has a
characteristic can be explained with the increase of significant effect for decreasing the compression set
crystalline structures in the yarn. characteristic and consequently increasing the
durability of the samples. Additionally, the
compression set values of the samples increase as the
parameters of duration of heat-setting and the
stretching increase, whereas the increase of the heat-
setting temperature leads to decrease in compression
set values of the samples.
 Due to the heat-setting process, spacer fabrics’
characteristics like compressibility, compression set
and breathability could be enhanced.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to thank Ames Tekstil A.Ş. and
Ekoten Tekstil A.Ş. for the supports of production
FIGURE 5. Compression set values of the samples. and heat-setting process and to Ege University
Scientific Research Project Office for the financial
CONCLUSION support of project (No. 12-MUH-050) and to Prof.
This study performs an investigation of the effect of Dr. Kerim Duran for his valuable contributions.
heat-setting conditions on the performance
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Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics 71 http://www.jeffjournal.org

Volume 11, Issue 3 – 2016