Stabilisation Measures

Johnny Cheuk

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering

 Different stabilisation measures

1. Trim (cut) back the slope

- simplest solution
- particularly economical for new slopes

2. Retaining structures
- retaining walls

3. Reinforcing structures
- soil nails
- geogrids and geotextiles
- piles

4. Provision of drainage systems

- drainage pipes
- drainage tunnels

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 Working principles of soil nails

Soil nailing is a technique that GEO TGN 21

involves inclusion of an
unstressed reinforcement to
improve the behavioural
properties of an in-situ soil
mass. In Hong Kong, the
most common reinforcement
is high yield steel bar, and the
principal action of soil nails is
in tension.

The actual distribution of nail

forces is governed by relative
movement between soil and
nail.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 3

 Features of soil nailing

Merits and advantages:

1. Suitable for sites with difficult access because of the relatively mobile
drilling rig
2. Suitable for complex ground conditions
3. Minimal environmental impact
4. The ductile behaviour of soil nails gives warning prior to failure

Limitations and disadvantages:

1. Not suitable if many underground utilities are present
2. Subjected to spatial constraints; installation of long nails needs approval
from the owner of the adjacent lot
3. Not suitable for aggressive ground conditions
4. Construction problems may be encountered if groundwater level is high
5. Not suitable for sites with highly fractured ground conditions due to
potential grouting problem

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 Failure mechanisms of soil nailed slopes

External failure modes: Pun & Shiu (2007)

The checking of these three modes is similar to that for a retaining structure.
The commonly adopted factors of safety are 2, 1.5 and 3 for overturning,
sliding and bearing failure, respectively (first edition of GeoGuide1).

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 Failure mechanisms of soil nailed slopes

Internal local failures:

The above failure modes can be avoided by: (i) providing soil nail heads (ii)
check against bearing failure at nail heads, and (iii) provision of slope
protection surface

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 6

 Failure mechanisms of soil nailed slopes

Internal failure modes of the nails:

These failure modes can be checked analytically. Sufficient safety margin

should be provided against failure of (i) steel bar, (ii) soil-grout interface, and
(iii) nail-grout interface

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 7

 Design procedures

The design of soil nails involve the following steps:

1. Identify a number of critical slip surfaces (using limit equilibrium methods

or other methods)
- be aware that the location of the critical slip surface may change after
applying external stabilising forces

2. Assume nail inclination and spacings

- typical inclinations are 10º, 15º, 20º
- typical spacing is 1.5-2m

3. Calculate the required external force to achieve the target FoS

- nail forces are modelled by line forces in LE calculations
- nail forces can be assumed to be evenly distributed among the nails
- although the actual load distribution is different, the assumption gives
satisfactory design result (TGN 23)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 8

 Design procedures

Example of nail force calculations in slope/w

1.640
natrual slope with dens e vegetation
22

Perched Water Table

20

COLL
18 RS

21kN
16
Elevation (m P.D.)

Groundwater Table
CDG
21kN 10m
14
Mas onry wall
21kN
10m
12
21kN 1

HDG 10m
10 21kN FILL

10m
8

10m

6 10m

4
Section 1-1

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 9

 Design procedures

4. Check the tensile capacity of the steel bar

- assume allowable tensile stress of steel is 0.67 times the yield stress
- allow a 2mm sacrificial layer

5. Check pull-out resistance along soil-grout interface

- use a FoS of 2 for bond strength
GWT

lD ´ [cp + 2s v¢ tan f ]
Ht1 Ht2

Ts = l1 Ht3
2
- f should include dilatancy l2
lr
component
- any views on this equation? ROCK

6. Check pull-out resistance along steel-grout interface

- assume bond strength (fbu) = 0.5 × (grout compressive strength)0.5

( )
- assume a FoS of 2 for bond strength
lp d - 4 f bu
- assume a 2mm sacrificial layer T =
g
2
CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 10
 Effect of overburden on pull-out resistance
Research has been conducted to examine the effective stress method for
estimating the pull-out resistance. This method implies that pull-out
resistance increases with overburden pressure, field test results, however,
show otherwise (Pun & Shiu, 2007).

Nevertheless, the comparison shows that the current design method is

rather conservative. This is a combined effect of FoS, suction, over-
break and many other factors. But the trend implied in the design
method is obviously not justified.
CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 11
 Prescriptive design

For old cut-slopes, GEO has

recommended a prescriptive
method which is derived based
on the experience from over
100 case histories. This is a
simple and suitably
conservative design approach
without the need to carry out
detailed ground investigations,
laboratory testing and stability
analyses.

Wong et al. (1999)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 12

 Prescriptive design

Wong et al. (1999)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 13

 Role of soil nail head

Research has shown that soil nail heads can effectively avoid active failure
(Shiu & Chang, 2005). The presence of nail heads pushes the maximum
mobilised tensile force further down the length of the nails, giving a higher
chance of passing through the potential failure surface.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 14

 Soil nail head design
The size of the soil nail head is governed by bearing capacity, which can be
determined by one of the following methods (given in TGN21):
1. Design table derived from numerical analysis (Shiu & Chang, 2005)
2. Lower bound solution proposed by UK Department of Transport (1994)
3. Prescriptive design approach

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 15

 Nail inclinations
Steeply-inclined nails may be constructed
in congested sites. The behaviour of a
nailed structure changes with the nail
inclinations, which is demonstrated by the
numerical study conducted by Shiu &
Chang (2005) [cited in Pun & Shiu, 2007].
Conventional limit equilibrium methods
may not be applicable, finite element or
difference methods may be used instead.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 16

 Nail inclinations

Jewell & Worth. (1987)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 17

 Nail inclinations

Jewell & Worth. (1987)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 18

 Different types of retaining wall

(a) Gravity retaining wall (b) Cantilever concrete wall

(c) Embedded wall

(d) Supported embedded wall
(diaphragm wall)
(sheet pile wall)
(or bored pile wall)
(or soldier pile wall)
(or secant pile wall)

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 19

 Failure modes of retaining walls

(a) Sliding (b) Over-turning

(c) Bearing failure (d) Slope failure

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 20

 Earth pressure at rest

The vertical effective stress of a soil element at a particular depth can be easily
calculated if the effective unit weight of the soil is known. However, the effective
horizontal stress is dependent on the stress history. If the soil has not undergone lateral
movement, the coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest (K0) can be predicted
empirically from f and OCR
s h¢
K0 =
s v¢
z s'v Horizontal effective stress: s h¢ = K 0s v¢

s'h K0 is the coefficient lateral earth

pressure at rest

Vertical effective stress: K 0 = (1 - sin f )OCR sin f

s v¢ = g s¢ z f is the angle of friction of the
soil, and OCR is the over-
consolidation ratio

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 21

 Rankine theory of active pressure

Assumptions: t
1. Soil is homogenous and f
isotropic
2. Failure surface is a plane c
3. Plane strain conditions
4. Back of the wall is frictionless s'h=K0s'v s'v s'
5. Ground surface is level

s'v Initially, the Mohr circle at any depth behind

the retaining wall should be at at-rest
s'h conditions (i.e. K0). The stress state lies
below the failure criterion . As the wall
starts to move away, the lateral stress
reduces. Eventually, the soil will reach
shear failure (active mode). This
corresponds to the lowest lateral stress that
the soil will exert on the wall.
CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 22
 Rankine theory of active pressure
A
t sin f =
f B+C

c s v¢ - s h¢ c s v¢ + s h¢
f A A= B= C=
s' 2 tan f 2
B C

If we define
1 - sin f æ fö
Ka = = tan 2 ç 45 o - ÷
1 + sin f è 2ø
s v¢ - s h¢ æ c s ¢ + s h¢ ö
= sinf çç + v ÷÷
è tanf
2 2 ø
s h¢ = -2c K a + K as v¢
s v¢ - s h¢ = 2c cosf + sinf (s v¢ + s h¢ )

s v¢ (1 - sinf ) = 2c cosf + s h¢ (1 + sinf ) If c = 0

- 2c cosf æ 1 - sinf ö s h¢
s h¢ = + s v¢ çç ÷÷ Ka =
1 + sinf è 1 + sinf ø s v¢

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 23

 Rankine theory of passive pressure

Assumptions:
1. Soil is homogenous and isotropic t
2. Failure surface is a plane f
3. Plane strain conditions
4. Back of the wall is frictionless c
5. Ground surface is level
s'v s'
s'h=K0s'v

If we define
s'v
1 + sin f æ f ö
K = = tan 2 ç 45 o + ÷
1 - sin f
p
s'h è 2ø

If c = 0
s h¢ = 2c K p + K ps v¢ s h¢
Kp =
s v¢

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 24

 Rankine’s theory
Assumptions:
1. Soil is homogenous and isotropic Active failure:
2. Failure surface is a plane
3. Plane strain conditions pa = K as v¢
4. Back of the wall is frictionless
5. Ground surface is level cos b - cos 2 b - cos 2 f
5. Ground surface is inclined at Ka =
angle b to the horizontal cos b + cos 2 b - cos 2 f
6. c = 0
b
Passive failure:
s'v p p = K ps v¢
pa or pp
cos b + cos 2 b - cos 2 f
Kp =
cos b - cos 2 b - cos 2 f
s v¢ = g ¢z cos b
Criag’s soil mechanics: p.170-172
CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 25
 Coulomb’s theory

The Rankine theory can be regarded as a safe solution. In contrast, the

Coulomb’s method gives an unsafe (upper bound) solution. Optimisation is
needed to find the best (least unsafe) solution.
Assumptions:
1. Soil is homogenous and
isotropic
2. Failure surface is a plane
3. Plane strain conditions
4. Back of the wall is frictionless
5. Ground surface is level

Many of these assumptions

can be relaxed in the
Coulomb’s method

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 26

 Coulomb’s theory

The two unknowns can be solved by the two equations of force equilibrium.
Considering equilibrium in the direction perpendicular to R:

Pa sin(q + f ) = W cos(q + f ) 1
W = gz 2 tan q
2
1 2 tan q This is the relationship between Pa and f
Pa = gz
2 tan (q + f ) for any given q. Optimisation is carried
out to find the largest Pa.

¶Pa 1 2 tan (q + f ) / cos 2 q - tan q / cos 2 (q + f )

= gz =0
¶q 2 tan (q + f )
2

æp f ö 1 2 2æ p fö
q = tan ç - ÷ Pa = gz tan ç - ÷
è 4 2ø 2 è 4 2ø
This solution is identical to the Rankine’s one (for c=0) and is
therefore “exact”. The same can be repeated for the passive case.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 27

 Coulomb’s method (trial wedge)

For a simple case, the unknown earth pressure can be solved analytically.
For more complex geometry or force conditions, the graphical method,
sometimes referred to as Coulomb’s wedge method, can be used.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 28

 Reading assignment

1. Buildings Department. PNAP284 – Quality supervision of soil nailing

works
2. GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 9 (TGN 9) – Updating of GEO report
no. 56 – application of prescriptive measures to slopes and retaining
walls (2nd ed.)
3. GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 17 (TGN 17) – Prescriptive soil nail
design for concrete and masonry retaining walls
4. GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 19 (TGN 19) – Installations of soil
nails and control of grouting.
5. GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 21 (TGN 21) – Design of soil nail
heads
6. GEO Technical Guidance Note No. 23 (TGN 23) – Good practice in
design of steel soil nails for soil cut slopes
7. Pun, W.K. & Shiu Y.K. (2007). Design practice and technical
developments of soil nailing in Hong Kong. Proceedings of HKIE
Geotechnical Division Annual Seminar 2007 – Geotechnical
Advancements in Hong Kong since 1970s, p.197-212

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 29

 Reading assignment

8. Shiu, Y.K. & Chang, G.W.K. (2005). Soil nail head review. GEO report
no.175. Geotechnical Engineering Office.
9. Shiu, Y.K. & Chang, G.W.K. (2005). Effect of inclination, length pattern
and bending stiffness of soil nails on behaviour of nailed structures. GEO
report no.197. Geotechnical Engineering Office.
10. Wong, H.N., Pang, L.S., Wong, A.C.W., Pun, W.K. & Yu, Y.F. (1999).
Application of prescriptive measures to slopes and retaining walls. GEO
report no. 56. (2nd edition). Geotechnical Engineering Office.

CIVL6079 – Slope Engineering 30