HP-I, Chapter - Five, Conveyance Structures

Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering
HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING-I
HWRE3171
NATNAEL SITOTA
WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING
Chapter five
5. Water Conveyance Structures
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Chapter five
5. Water Conveyance Structures
Instructional objectives
On completion of this lesson, the students shall learn about:
5.1. Intake and Head Race
5.2. Water conveyance system (Canals and Tunnels)
5.3. Settling Basin
5.4. Water Hammer Analysis
5.5. Surge Tanks
5.6. Fore-bays
5.7. Penstocks
5.8. Penstocks Supports and Anchors
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5.1. Intake and head race
Water intake, inlet structures:
Intake structure is a structure constructed at the entrance of a power canal or tunnel or pipe
through which the flow is diverted from the source such as a river or reservoir into a conduit
leading to the power plant or water ways.
It is an essential component of hydropower schemes and provided as an integral part or in
isolation from the diversion, weir or dam.
Water intake must be able to divert the required amount of water into the power canal or into
the penstock without producing a negative impact on the local environment and with the
minimum possible head loss.
The intake serves as a transition between a stream that can vary from a trickle to a raging
torrent, and a controlled flow of water both in quality and quantity.
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Its design, based on geological, hydraulic, structural and economic considerations, requires special
care to avoid unnecessary maintenance and operational problems that cannot be easily remedied.
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 Water intake designer should take three criteria into consideration:
 Hydraulic and structural criteria common to all kind of intakes
 Operational criteria, e.g. percentage of diverted flow, trash handling, sediment
exclusion, etc- that vary from intake to intake
 Environmental criteria, fish diversion systems, fish passes- characteristics of each
project.
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Water intake, inlet structures: Functions of intake
To control flow of water in to the conveyance system. The control is achieved by a gate or a
valve.
To provide smooth, easy and vortex or turbulence free entry of water in the conveyance
system which is to minimize head loss. This can be achieved by providing bell-mouth
shaped entrance.
To prevent entry of coarse river born trash matter such as boulders, logs, tree branches etc.
Provision of trash racks at the entrance achieve this function.
To exclude heavy sediment load of the river from entering the conveyance system. Special
devices such as silt traps and silt excluders are used to control & trap the silt.
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Water intake, inlet structures: Types of intake
The intake supplies water directly to the Intakes are conveniently classified in to the
turbine via a penstock following types depending on the power plant
 Power intake or fore bay type and its layout.
The intake supplies water to other  Run - of - river intakes
waterways, power canal, flume, tunnel, etc-  Canal intakes
 That usually end in a power intake  Dam intakes
(conveyance intake)  Tower intakes
The scheme doesn't have any conventional  Shaft intakes
intake, but make use of other devices, like  Intakes of special type
siphon intakes.
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Run-of-river intake
 These intakes are provided for run-of-river plants and form an integral part of the
powerhouse.
 The component parts are:
 Bell mouth entrance guarded by R.C or steel grid forming the trash rack structure.
 Control gate situated immediately downstream of the bell mouth entry
 Upstream of the gate may be provided with stop-log groves for provision of access
to the gate for repair.
 Special de-silting arrangement may be provided in silt loaded rivers.
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Run-of-river intake
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Canal intake
 Canal intakes, like the run- of- river intakes are also low head intakes, but instead of
leading water directly to the turbines, here the intake admits water into the diversion
canals.
 Silt excluders or silt-traps are usually essential components of such intakes.
 The inlet invert level of the intake is raised to form a sill so as to prevent entry of
rolling bed load.
 A skimmer wall ( a diaphragm which extends below the water surface) abstracts the
floating material from entering in to the canal.
 Trash racks are also fitted at the entrance.
 Vertical lift gate with motorized operation are used to control the flow.
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Canal intake
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Dam intake
 For valley dam plants, the intake structure is provided usually in the body of the dam.
 The penstocks are embodied in the dam.
 The main features of such an intake are
 A trash rack structure in front of the dam.
 A bell mouth inlet horizontal or inclined alignment
 A control gate installed either at or after the bell mouth.
Cage-shaped intakes resting against the face of the dam and supported on slab
cantilevered from the dam provide larger area of entry than the penstock intake area,
thus reducing entrance losses.
 Multi-level water are also some times used in dam intakes.
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Dam intake
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Tower intake
 Used when it is not convenient to provide the simple intake directly on the u/s face of the
dam.
 Also used when there are wide fluctuations in water level.
 The tower intakes are normally on hill sides, not far off from the dam
 Tower may be connected with main dam through a bridge when the tower is near the
dam
 Flow in to the tower is controlled by a number of gates to close or open the ports at
various levels.
 Flow through the pressure conduit is controlled by vertical uplift gates.
 The structure should be strong enough to withstand hydrodynamic, earthquake, wind,
etc.
 15
Tower intake
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Shaft intake
 The water is abstracted through access shaft.
 This is a vertical shaft that carries water to the penstock tunnel.
 It consists of the following.
 The entrance structure with trash rack and rounded inlet.
 The vertical shaft followed by an elbow and transition connecting the shaft with the
tunnel.
 The intake gate (cylindrical) and sometimes a stop-log closure.
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Shaft intake
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 Figure: Arrangement of trash rack bars in drop intakes
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Water intake, inlet structures: Design criteria
Effectiveness of HP plant is directly dependent on location, orientation and water level at
the inlet structure.
Factors which have to be considered in designing inlet location are:
 Water level - should be designed function at different level
 Placement distance - between intake and PH influences loss and cost of conveyance
 Geological composition - bank stability, favorable condition
 Diverted flow
 Sediment - should be placed to minimize accumulation of fine materials
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Intake location
 Intakes from streams should be located, wherever possible on the concave side of the bend.
 The effectiveness of the intake in preventing sediment entry increases with the sharpness of the
bend.
 Intakes from straight reaches can be made favorable by artificially forcing the water to follow a
curved path.
 The location of the intake depends on a number of factors, such as submergence, geotechnical
conditions, environmental considerations, especially those related to fish life, sediment
exclusion and ice formation where necessary.
 The orientation of the intake entrance to the flow is a crucial factor in minimizing debris
accumulation on the trash rack, a source of future maintenance problems and plant
stoppages.
 The best position of the intake is with the screen at right angles to the spillway so, that in flood
seasons the flow entrains the debris over its crest.
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Intake location
 If for any reason the intake entrance should be parallel to the spillway, it is preferable to
locate it close to the spillway so the operator can push the trash away to be carried away by
the spillway flow.
The water intake should be equipped with
A trash rack and Skimmers: to minimize the amount of debris and sediment carried by the
incoming water;
A settling basin where the flow velocity is reduced, to remove all particles over 0.2 mm;
A sluicing system to flush the deposited silt, sand, gravel and pebbles with a minimum of
water loss; and
A spillway to divert the excess water.
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Water intake, inlet structures: Trash racks and skimmers
Debris carried in the incoming water can have adverse impacts on a hydropower scheme in
that:
It can obstruct flow along the conveyance structures
It can cause rapid deterioration of the penstock or turbine or cause a catastrophic failure
Trash Racks:
Intercepts the entire flow and removes any large debris, whether it is floating, suspended, or
swept along the bottom.
Frequently, it is located in the intake structure to prevent debris from entering the water
conveyance system.
It can also be placed just before the inlet to the penstock to remove smaller debris as well as
other trashes which may have entered the water conveyance system downstream of the
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Trash Racks:
A trash rack is made up of one or more panels, each generally fabricated of a series of evenly
spaced parallel metal bars.
The approach velocity of flow should be kept within such limits that it will not cause damage
to the rack structure. A design approach velocity of 0.5 m/s is usually used.
If a trash rack is located immediately in front of the inlet to a penstock and the penstock
velocities are significantly higher than 0.5 m/s, the trash rack can be built in a circular area to
increase the area of the trash rack and correspondingly decreases velocity through it.
Cleaning of the trash racks can be performed either manually (for small schemes) using
manual rake or mechanically (for large schemes) using automatic cleaning machines.
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Skimmer walls:
A skimmer wall is an obstruction placed at the water surface, usually at an angle to the stream
flow which skims floating debris from the passing water.
If the water level changes markedly as, for example, at the intake of stream, the skimmer can
be a floating piece of timber secured at both ends. If changes in water level are small, a fixed
skimmer can be used.
Because some debris usually passes under the skimmer, a trash rack is still necessary.
However, a skimmer reduces the frequency with which the trash rack has to be cleaned.
Skimmer walls are made, for the most part, of reinforced concrete with a service bridge on top.
They are designed usually for a horizontal pressure of 1000 kg/m2 acting on the submerged
surface.
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Skimmer walls:
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Water intake, inlet structures: Losses in intakes
The intake losses include entrance loss, trash rack loss and head gate loss.
Entrance Losses:
 These comprises of:
 Loss due to change in direction is given by:
V2 Vf 2
∆he = − c
2g 2g
Where; V is velocity in the diversion canal

Vf is velocity of flow in the main river
C is a constant which depends on the off-take angle of the diversion canal.
According to Mossonyi, C is equal to 0.8 for 30º offtake angle and 0.4 for 90º off-take
angle.
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Entrance Losses:
 These comprises of:
 The losses due to sudden contraction of the area at the inlet section is given by:
V2
∆hc = k
2g
Where; k is a constant, which depends on the shape of the entry.
k = 0.03 for bell-mouthed entry
K=1.3 for sharp cornered entry.
In case of the inlet having a sill constructed with
Curved abutments and piers, the head loss
V2
∆he = 0.3 2g
V2 𝑉𝑓 2
Therefore, maximum total entrance loss = 1.3 2g −𝐶 2g
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Trash rack Losses:
 There are numerous expressions available for predicting head loss across trash racks. One
such expression (after Kirschmer’s) is:
4
𝑡 3 𝑉𝑎 2
∆hr = 𝑘𝑡 sin ∅
𝑏 2g
Where; kt is trash rack loss coefficient (a function of bar shape).
t is bar thickness
b is spacing between bars,
Va is approach velocity,
∅ is angle of inclination of
bars with the horizontal
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 after Creager:
2
𝑉𝑛 2 𝑎 𝑎𝑛
∆hr Loss = 𝑘𝑡 , 𝑊𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘𝑡 = 1.45 − 0.45 𝑛 −
2g 𝑎𝑔 𝑎𝑔
Where; kt is trash rack loss coefficient.
an is the net area through the rack bars
ag is gross area of the racks and supports,
Vn is the velocity through the net trashrack area,
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 If the grill is not perpendicular but makes an angle β with the water flow (β will have a
maximum value of 90º for a grill located in the sidewall of a canal), there will be an extra
head loss, as by the equation.
𝑉𝑎 2
∆h𝛽 = sin 𝛽
2g
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Gate Losses:
 Head loss due to gates (at part gate opening) is given by:.
1 𝑄 2
∆hg =
2𝑔 𝐶𝑑 𝐴
Where; Q is flow in the canal or conduit.

A is area of gate opening.
Cd is discharge coefficient which varies between 0.62 and 0.83
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Water intake, inlet structures: Velocity through trash racks;
Velocity should be sufficiently low to avoid high head loss and should be sufficiently high to
avoid large intake and trash rack cross section.
The following are suggested limiting entrance velocities:
 Justin and Creager formula:
𝑉 ≤ 0.12 2𝑔𝑕
 Mossonyi‘s formula to eliminate eddies and vortices:
𝑉 ≤ 0.075 2𝑔𝑕
h =head from center line of gate to normal water surface
 U.S.B.R's criterion: permissible velocity in the range of 0.6 to 1.5 m/s. The trash rack is
designed so the approach velocity (Va) remains between 0.60 m/s and 1.50 m/s.
1 𝑡+𝑏 𝑄
𝑆=
𝑘1 𝑏 𝑉𝑎 sin ∅
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Water intake, inlet structures: Air entrainment and vortex formation at intakes;
At intake entrances, air entrainment is due to the development of vortices and also due to
partial gate opening that facilitates hydraulic jump formation which, becomes a source of
trouble.
The air may exist in the form of bubbles. The effects of air in a conduit are:
 Additional head loss,
 Reduction in discharge
 Drop in turbine efficiency and output.
It has been observed that the flow into the conduit may be reduced by 5 to 10% because of
presence of air.
Also due to partial gate opening that facilitates hydraulic jump formation.
For the condition of no vortices at the intake, the intake entrance must be fully submerged.
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Aeration at dam intakes: Intakes normally have a bulk-head gate at the front and a control
gate inside them. An air vent (aeration pipe) is provided just downstream of the control
gate to perform the following functions:
 Admission of air to nullify the vacuum effect which would be created when the water in
the penstock drains after closure of the intake gate.
 The intake gates operate under the conditions of balanced pressures on both sides.
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A vortex which forms at the inlet to power conduit occasionally can cause troubles by itself.
 It can induce loss of turbine efficiency,
 Possible cavitation
 Surging caused by the formation and dissipation of vortices,
 Flow reduction as air replaces part of the water through the inlet.
 It can also draw floating debris into the conduit.
Vortices are formed due to the following factors:
 Hydraulic jump formation
 Velocities at intakes
 Submergence at intakes
 Geometry of approaching flow at intakes
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Designing for a low velocity into the conduit and increasing submergence of the inlet can
help prevent the formation of vortices.
Flow approaching the intake asymmetrically is more prone to vortex formation than
symmetrical flow.
It is therefore important that flows upstream of the inlet area be as straight and uniform as
possible.
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For the condition of no vortices at intakes, the following empirical relations may be used
(after J. B. Gardon):
𝑌𝑠 > 0.545𝑉 𝐷 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑕
𝑌𝑠 > 0.725𝑉 𝐷 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐𝑕
Where: Ys is necessary submergence depth
V is velocity at inlet to the canal
D is diameter of the conduit
Another remedy to vortex formation is provision of a floating raft or baffle which disrupts
the angular momentum of the water near the surface.
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Water intake, inlet structures: Inlet aeration;
Intakes normally have a bulk head gate at the front and a control gate inside on the d/s side.
An air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate.
The functions are:
 To nullify vacuum effect, which could
be created when the penstock is drained
after control gate closure.
 Intake gates operate under conditions of
balanced pressure on both sides of the gate.
Thus the conduit is required to be filled with water through a by-pass pipe. The entrapped
air is therefore driven out through the air vent.
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Water intake, inlet structures: Inlet aeration;
Size of the air vent:
 There are several recommendations
1. 𝑄𝑎 = 400𝐶𝑎 𝑃
Where Qa = Discharge of air in cumecs
a = Area of vent pipe in m2 C = Constant ~0.7
P = Pressure difference between the atmosphere and
pressure in the penstock in kg/cm2
2. 4th Congress on Large Dams (ICOLD)
Area of air vent =10% of control gate area
3. USBR design guide:
Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge
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5.2. Water conveyance system
After flowing through the intake structure, the water must pass through the water conveyance
system may be either of:
Closed conduit type (tunnel off-taking from upstream of the river diversion)
Open-channels
Therefore, head race may be a power canal, a pressure tunnel, or a pipe, which in most cases
conveying water from intake structure to surge tank, Forebay or pressure shaft, depending on the
arrangement of the scheme.
High pressure intakes, for example as in the entry to penstocks would be either:
Reinforced concrete lined or
Steel lined.
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Open channels:
Canals are appropriate choice when the general topography of the terrain is moderate with
gentle slopes.
These are usually lined canals to reduce water loss through seepage as well as to minimize
friction loss.
A power canal that off takes from a diversion structure has to flow along the hill. Based on the
topographic conditions, a canal may be constructed through cuts, over fills and cuts and fills.
Cross section of a power Cross section of a power canal in Cross section of a power
canal in cutting partly cutting and partly filling canal in filling
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Open channels:
However, when the ground is very steep and rugged, it
becomes uneconomical to construct canals as it follows
longer distances and/or needs provision of cross-
drainage works and deep cuts and fills at a number of
appropriate locations.
In such cases, it is advisable to go for tunnels or pipes.
The choice, in fact, has to be made based on economic
analysis.
Where the topography of the region presents special
formations, the alternating use of open-canal and open-
surface tunnel sections may ensure the most economical
development.
The tracing of a power canal should closely follow the
contour lines of the terrain.
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Open channels:
A power canal ends at a forebay, which is broadened to
act as a small reservoir.
From the forebay, intakes direct the water into the
penstocks.
There usually is a bye-pass channel which acts as a
spillway to pass on excess water in case of a valve
closure in the turbine of the hydropower generating unit.
If such an escape channel is not provided, there are
chances that under sudden closure of the valves of the
turbines, surge waves move up the power canal.
Hence, sufficient free board has to be provided for the
canals.
The design of power canal follow the same rules as for
rigid bed irrigation canal.
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Open channels: Design;
Canals design involves determination of the following
 Carrying capacity, velocity of water in the canal and roughness coefficient of the canal surface.
 Canal slopes
 Cross-sectional profile of the canal
Carrying capacity and velocity:
 The discharge is computed from continuity equation as 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐴
 The roughness coefficient is specified from the bed material type.
Chezy’s equation: V= 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 0.5
To determine the value of C we can use

1
 Manings formula: C= 𝑛−1 𝑅6 , Where n is manning’s roughness coefficient.
1 2 1 2 1
 The chezy-manning equation: V= 𝑛
𝑅3 𝑆 2 = 𝑀𝑅 𝑆
3 2
 Kutter formulla oand the Agroskin formula
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Apart from the hydraulic computations, the flow velocities in the canal or other water conduits
in general are determined according to economic point of views. (investment, head losses,
wear and tear of material, danger of erosion and silting).
The velocity must be high enough to prevent bed erosion for unlined and wear by abrasion fro
lined-canal
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Lowering the velocity keeps the head loss over the length of the canal to a minimum; however,
it increases the cost necessary to construct the canal as the cross-sectional area increases when
the velocity lowers.
In unlined canals flow velocities are limited by the resistance of the bed material to erosion. In
unlined canals flow velocities are limited by resistance against wear.
Maximum velocity:
 Critical bottom velocity (w.r.t. erosion) is given by:
 Stenberg: 𝑉𝑏 = 𝜁 2𝑑 for d is particles size in meters 𝜁= 4.43
 Maximum permissible mean velocity according to Bogardi and Yen is given by:
4
V= 22.9𝑑𝑚 𝑆𝑠 − 1
9
Where, dm is mean particle size and Ss is specific gravity of particles.
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Minimum velocity:
 There are various recommendation for non silting velocity:
 According to Ludin:
 If 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 > 0.3𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 , there will be no silting (for silty sediments)
 If 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 > 0.3 𝑡𝑜 0.5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 , there will be no silting (for sandy sediments)
 According to R.C. Kennedy:
 Non-scouring and non silting velocity is given by: V= 𝐶 𝑕 0.64
Where, h is depth of water in meters and C is coefficient varying from 0.54 to 0.7,
depending on silt load.
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Roughness coefficient:
 As water flows in canal, it losses energy in the process of sliding past the walls and bed material.
The rougher the material, the more frictional loss and the greater the head drop or slope needed
fro a given velocity. The roughness coefficient, n, for various canal materials can be found in the
standard open channel books.
Power canal slopes:
 In plain areas use slope between 5 to 20cm/km. in mountainous area slopes are as steep as 1 to
2m/km. the canal bed slope can be estimated using the manning's equation.
𝑛2 𝑉 2
S= 4
𝑅3
 The slope found from the above equation should nearly coincide with the available natural
topography. Otherwise, a different slope should be computed by choosing other values for the
velocity within the permissible limit until a satisfactory result is obtained.
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Cross-sectional profile:
 The cross sectional profile is generally governed by the material in which the canal
is constructed.
 Rectangular cross-section
 Is often most appropriate when excavation is undertaken in firm rock.
 Is also commonly used when the canal incorporates properly constructed masonry walls.
 Use of a rectangular canal reduces the excavation required.
 Most efficient rectangular cross-section, the width of the canal is twice the depth of
the wetted area and, like a trapezoidal section, is a section in which a semi-circle can be inscribed.
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 Trapezoidal cross-section:
 Is the most widely used profile for both lined and unlined canals excavated in earth.
 The magnitude of the side slope of a lined trapezoidal canal depends on the nature of the
material on which the lining will rest, but usually steeper than unlined canals.
 In general, it should be nearly equal to the angle of repose of the natural soil so that no
earth pressure is exerted on the back of the lining.
 The banks of a lined canal resting on almost any free-draining material requires slopes
not steeper than 1:1.
 For a trapezoidal canal with a given side slope, the most efficient cross-section is one in
which a semi-circle can be inscribed in the wetted area. For this section, it can be shown
that the length of either sloping side of the wetted area is half its top width.
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 Semi-circular cross-section:
 Is the most hydraulic efficient profile because, for a given canal slope and cross-sectional
area, it conveys the maximum flow.
 However, this form is impractical to excavate.
 It is therefore used primarily with materials which lend themselves to this shape.
Examples are prefabricated concrete, sheet metal, and wood-stave sections.
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Freeboard allowance:
 Is the most hydraulic efficient profile because, for a given canal slope and cross-sectional
 For earth canal the lower limit is 35cm and the upper limit is 140cm.
 Generally free board = [0.35+0.25h], Where; h is depth of flow. Allowances should be made
for bank settlement.
 For lined canals, the top of the lining is not usually extended for the full height of the free
board. Usually it is extended to 15cm to 70cm above the design water level.
 Water loss in power canals
 Water losses are due to
 Seepage
 Evaporation
 Leakage at gates Are generally of minor importance.
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Tunnels:
Tunnels are underground conveyance structures
constructed by special tunneling methods without
disturbing the natural surface of the ground.
In many modern high head plants, tunnels form
an important engineering feature.
Tunneling is always much more expensive than
canals and decision should be carefully analyzed.
The initial portion of the tunnel from the intake

up to the Surge Tank is termed as the Head Race
Tunnel (HRT) and beyond that it houses the
penstock or steel-conduits, which sustains a larger
pressure than the HRT.
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Tunnels:
The surge tank is provided to absorb any surge of water that could be generated during a
sudden closure of valve at the turbine end.
In the headrace of water conveyance system, tunneling is popular because of the following
reasons:
 It provides a direct and short route for the water passage thus resulting in
considerable saving in cost
 Tunneling work can be started simultaneously at many points thus leading to quicker
completion
 Natural landscape is not disturbed
 Tunneling work has become easier with development in techniques of drilling and
blasting and new mechanical equipment (Tunnel Boring Machines)
 Development of rock mechanics and experimental stress analysis has given greater
confidence to engineers regarding stability of tunnels.
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Tunnels:
In general for a tunnel to be economical the designer must establish that;
 The geologic formation through which the tunnel will pass is stable,
 The tunnel would be much shorter than alternative canal,
 The construction of a canal would be prohibitively expensive because of nearly vertical
canyon walls, unstable soils, or other natural barriers.
At high-head installations of low capacity, utilizing small discharge, water is sometimes
conveyed from the dam to the powerhouse through a steel pipeline running under the
separating mountain ridge in a tunnel.
In the tunnel one or more penstocks may be supported on cradles and a free passageway
should also be provided at least at one side of the pipeline.
The shape as well as dimensions of the tunnel should be selected to make the penstocks readily
accessible from every direction for control, maintenance, and repair.
56
Tunnels: Classification;
Tunnels may be classified according to their function, shapes, design aspects etc
 Classification based on function
 Tunnels of hydropower projects fall into two categories:
• Service tunnels.
• Water carrying tunnels
 Service tunnels: These may be:
• Cable tunnels: to carry cables from underground power house to the switch yard
• Ventilation tunnels: fitted with fans at the open end to supply fresh air to the underground
• Access or approach tunnels: this is a passage tunnel from surface to underground power house.
 Water carrying tunnels : These include
• Headrace or power tunnels, •Diversion tunnels.
• Tailrace tunnels
57
Classification based on function
Flows in water tunnels are usually under pressure (pipe flow), but sometimes free-flow (open
channel flow) can be experienced, especially, in tailrace tunnels.
The design of free-flow tunnels follow the same principles as used in the design of open
canals.
Head race tunnels: are tunnels that convey water to the surge tank. These are pressure tunnels
Tail race tunnels: could be free flowing or pressure tunnels depending on the relative position
of turbine setting and tail water level.
Diversion tunnels: are constructed for the purpose of diverting the stream flow during
construction period. Normally they are not of high pressure but should have sufficient flood
carrying capacity. Such tunnels either plugged with concrete or converted in to some use such
as spillway tunnel at the completion of the project.
58
Classification on the basis of shape, alignment and design aspects
Shape: Tunnels are either circular or non-circular in shape.
 Circular tunnels: are most suitable structurally. They are more stable when the internal
pressure is very high.
 Non-circular tunnels: have a flat floor, nearly vertical or gently flaring walls and an
arching roofs. The horse-shoe shape is the most popular and convenient from the point of
view of construction.
Commonly adopted shapes:
59
Classification on the basis of shape, alignment and design aspects
Alignment:
 Tunnels are aligned nearly horizontal or shaft tunnel (vertical alignment or inclined shaft when
it is steeply inclined to the horizontal)
Design aspect: Aspects of lining, pressure condition, etc.,
Lining:
 Lining is a protective layer that is applied on the inner surface of tunnels and it is an important
aspect in classification of tunnels.
 On basis of lining, tunnels are can be classified as:
 Lined,
 Unlined or Partially lined.
 Materials that are commonly used for lining include plain concrete, R.C, fiber RC, and steel.
60
Classification on the basis of Pressure head
Pressure tunnels are classified according to pressure head above the soffit of the tunnel;
 Low-pressure tunnels,
 With H less than about 10m (H < 10 m);
 Medium-pressure tunnels,
 With H approximately10 to 100 m (10 m < H < 100 m).
 High-head tunnels,
 With H higher than about 100 m (H > 100 m).
61
Tunnels: Lining;
The HRT may either be unlined (in case of quite good quality rocks) or may be lined with
concrete.
Lining of tunnels is required:
 For structural reasons to resist external forces particularly when the tunnel is empty
and when the strata is of very low strength.
 When the internal pressure is high, i.e. above 100m.
 When reduction in frictional resistance and therefore the head loss decreases and
discharge capacity increases.
 For prevention or reduction of seepage losses
 For protection of rock against aggressive water
62
Tunnels: Lining;
In the case of low-pressure tunnels (H < 10m)
 The tunnel surface may frequently be left unlined, the trimmed rock surface may be
sufficient by only sealing visible fissures with concrete or cement mortar or granite layer.
 Full lining may be warranted only if external rock load or aggressiveness of water, or head
loss reduction justify it.
In the case of medium tunnels (10 m < H < 100 m)
 A watertight lining concrete is almost always needed since seepage is more likely to occur
under increasing head.
Seepage is more likely to occur as the head increases, water may leak through the smallest
fissures and cracks.
Moreover, under high-pressure it may penetrate the otherwise watertight rock and render it
permeable.
63
Tunnels: Lining;
In the case of high head pressure tunnels (H > 100m)
 Usually steel lining is used (R.C. Concrete lining not satisfactory )
 The steel lining is embedded in concrete filling the annular space b/n the steel lining & the
rock. In order to provide proper contact b/n rock and concrete and b/n steel lining &
concrete, all voids are filled by grouting with cement mortar.
 The profile of the pressure tunnel should be
such that the roof should always be at least 1 to 2m
below the hydraulic grade line
 Saddles should be provided with dewatering provisions
and summits should be provided with outlets or shafts.
 To reduce construction costs, relatively high velocities (higher than in open channels) are
permitted in tunnels.
64
Tunnels: Lining;
If the lining is only for water sealing purposes, and no load is carried by it, the permissible
internal water pressure head is determined by the depth of overburden and the quality of the
rock.
Let hr = depth of overburden rock
γr = specific weight of the rock (2.4-3.2t/m3)
γw = specific weight of water (9800N/m3)
H = Permissible internal pressure head of water
Internal water pressure is 𝛾𝑤 𝐻
Overburden pressure is 𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟
𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟
Then for equilibrium: 𝛾𝑤 𝐻 ≤ 𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟 , 𝐻 =  Recommended factor of safety η = 4 to 6.
𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟  Using lower η values for good quality
Using a factor of safety of 𝜂, 𝐻 = rock, one gets H = (0.4 to 0.8) hr
𝜂𝛾𝑤
65
Tunnels: Lining;
Another design criterion for establishing the safe overburden is based on the constraint that the
internal water pressure shall nowhere exceed the minor principal stress in the surrounding
rock.
The requirements for constructing medium-head or high-head unlined tunnels or shafts are:
 Extremely low permeability of rock materials and of the joints and fissures. The desirable
imperviousness may be limited approximately at 10-8 m/sec.
 High rock stresses to the extent that the internal water pressure cannot cause opening of the
joints and fractures (hydraulic splitting). Hard and stable rock masses and sufficient
overburden are the relevant conditions.
 Foreseeable durability of the rock masses for life time of the project.
66
Tunnels: Tunnel Design Features;
The following features are most important in the design of tunnel:
 Alignment
 Geometric shape
 Longitudinal slope,
 Flow velocity
 Head loss
 Rock cover (overburden)
 Lining requirements and
 Economic x-section
67
Alignment:
 A name tunnel indicates a very small bottom slopes, i.e. tunnels are aligned nearly
horizontal.
 Shaft is a tunnel with vertical alignment or inclined shaft when it is steeply inclined to the
horizontal
 In aligning water tunnels, the following points should be taken in to account:
• Length of the tunnel: as much as possible short route should be followed
• Location of surge tanks & adits: the alignment should provide convenient points for surge tanks &
adits.
• Rock cover (overburden): sufficient rock cover should be available along the alignment
• Discontinuities: the alignment should, if possible, avoid crossing of weakness zones, joint planes, etc.
If crossing of these features is unavoidable, suitable direction of crossing should be considered.
• Rock quality: good quality of rock mass should be sought in aligning the tunnel.
68
Geometrical shape:
 The choice of the cross-sectional profile of a tunnel depends on:
 Hydraulic considerations: Circular is preferable
 Stability considerations: Circular is preferable
 Convenience for construction: Horseshoe is preferable
 Available tunneling equipment
69
Longitudinal slope:
 The minimum slope for a pressure tunnel is limited on the basis of dewatering requirements.
 The longitudinal profile of the tunnel should be such that the roof remains below the
hydraulic pressure line by 1 to 2 m.
 The tunneling method and the equipment employed for transportation of the excavated
material (rail or wheel transport) can limit the maximum slope possible to provide.
 The usual practice is to keep the slope of power tunnel gentle till the surge tank and then
steeper (even vertical) for the pressure shaft.
70
Flow velocity:
 The allowable velocities in tunnels depend upon whether it is lined or unlined.
 It also depends on the sediment load carried by the water in the tunnel,
 In unlined tunnels, a velocity of 2 to 2.5 m/s is the upper limit, while
 In concrete lined tunnels 4 to 5 m/s is often employed.
 The velocities for the pressure shafts, which are generally steel lined, are usually higher than
that in the power tunnel.
 The normal range of velocities is between 5 to 8 m/s.
71
 Rock cover (overburden): 𝛾𝑟 𝐿 cos 𝛽 > 𝛾𝑤 𝑕𝑤
 For pressure tunnels, it is obvious that the
overburden on the roof of the tunnel serves to
balance the effect of upward force due to internal
pressure.
 The required depth of overburden may vary for lined
and unlined tunnels.
 In the case of unlined tunnels, the entire internal
water pressure is resisted by the overburden rock
pressure.
 Where a steep valley side constitutes the overburden
𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟 1 𝛾𝑟
above the tunnel, the rule of thumb equation, H= 𝐻= H= 𝐿 cos 𝛽
𝜂𝛾𝑤 𝜂 𝛾𝑤
(0.4 to 0.8)hr has to be modified and given by:
72
 Rock cover (overburden): 𝛾𝑟 𝐿 cos 𝛽 > 𝛾𝑤 𝑕𝑤
 Where; L is the shortest distance between the ground
surface and the studied point of the tunnel (or shaft)
β is the average inclination of the valley side
with the horizontal. For horizontal terrain, L = hr and
cos β = 1.
 In the case of concrete or steel lined tunnels, the
linings are usually designed to carry part or full load
of the internal water pressure, and the above
equations, given for unlined tunnels, are modified
accordingly in determining the required overburden
𝛾𝑟 𝑕𝑟 1 𝛾𝑟
depth. 𝐻= H= 𝐿 cos 𝛽
𝜂𝛾𝑤 𝜂 𝛾𝑤
73
In deep tunnels, where under the thick rock cover stress conditions approach hydrostatic stress
distribution, the condition is less severe.
Theoretically the stability of the rock is not endangered while the internal load remains below
the rock pressure: P ≤ Pv.
74
Tunnels: Tunnel Design Features;  Where:
Head loss:  hf is head loss due to friction
 To define the size of turbines and evaluate energy  L is tunnel length
production, head loss due to friction and singularities  V is mean velocity of flow
 R is hydraulic radius
along the canal route can be computed using;
 Deq is equivalent diameter
 Friction losses in tunnels
Manning formula: 𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 4𝐴
𝜋
𝑙𝑉 2
𝑕𝑓 = 𝑛2 4  A is area of the tunnel x-section
𝑅3  n is Manning‘s roughness
Darcy-Weisbach formula: coefficient
𝑙𝑉 2
𝑕𝑓 = 𝜆 2𝑔𝐷  λ is Darcy-Weisbach friction
𝑒𝑞 factor
Hazen-Williams formula (rarely used):  C is Hazen-Williams roughness
𝑙𝑉 1.85 coefficient
𝑕𝑓 = 6.84
𝐶 1.85 𝐷𝑒𝑞 1.17
75
Head loss:
𝑉𝑛 2  C is the coefficient of discharge; for
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐿𝑖, 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 𝑘𝑒 2 1.25 partially rounded entrance,
𝑘 𝑅
 Where L is the total length of the tunnel  The coefficient 𝐾𝑒 is from 0.4(max)
 V is flow velocity in the pipe to 0.15(min)
 K is strickler coefficient (usually lies between 70  Bend losses: After USBR-DSD
and 80) and R is hydraulic radius. 𝑉𝑛 2
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑏 2𝑔 ,
 Herein below the method of evaluating the
Where, 𝐾𝑏 is given by a graph as the
losses in the different waterways section and 𝑅
particular points is discussed. function of a ratio 𝑏 ( the ratio of bend
𝐷
 Entrance losses: After USBR-DSD radius and the pipe diameter).
𝑉𝑛 2 1
𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑒 2𝑔 , 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝐾𝑒 = −1
𝐶2
76
Optimum X-section:
 The optimum x-section of a tunnel or a shaft
is one for which the sum of tunnel
construction cost and the economic loss due
to head loss is minimum.
 However, for a quick initial estimate of the
diameter of pressure tunnels, the empirical
formula suggested by Fahlbusch can be
used:
 For concrete-lined tunnels: 𝐷 = 0.62𝑄 0.48
𝑄0.45
 For steel-lined tunnels: 𝐷 = 1.12 0.12
𝐻
77
Tunnels: Stress analysis of lined tunnels;
Lining designed to resist the full internal pressure without support from the surrounding rock,
i.e., no load sharing.
The internal water pressure corresponding to a head of H meters causes in a circular pipe
lining. Of: 'δ ' cm wall thickness and having a diameter D cm, a circumferential stress amounting to:
𝑃𝐷 𝛾𝐻𝐷
𝜍= =
2𝛿 2𝛿
Based on the allowable stress in the lining, the necessary wall thickness could be calculated
from the above equation. Then if ζa is allowable stress in the lining, then
𝑃𝐷
𝛿 ≥ 2𝜍
𝑎
For R.C. lining;

𝑃𝐷
2𝜍𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝐷; 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐴𝑠𝑡 ≥ ∗ 100 Where Ast is in cm2/m
2𝜍𝑎𝑠𝑡
P and ζast are given in units of kg/cm2, D is given in cm.
78
If no reinforcement, since the tensile stress in homogeneous concrete is usually limited to 10
kg/cm2
𝐾𝑔 𝑃𝐷
𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑛 = ≤ 10 𝐾𝑔 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝛿 is the thickness of reinforced concrete lining in cm
2𝛿
Stress analysis of linings relying for support on the surrounding rock The steel lining carries
part of P by developing tangential stresses, while the remaining part P1 is transmitted to the
concrete fill and there from to the surrounding rock. The load distribution factor related to the
steel lining can be introduced as 'ε = P1/P ' and can be computed from the deformation of the
entire interacting system as shown in the figure.
79
Schematic sketch of lining and
displacement
Radial displacement in steel (Δst)

(𝑃 − 𝑃1 )𝑟 2
∆𝑠𝑡 =
𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡
Displacement in concrete (Δc): The radially fissured annular concrete layer is subject to an
internal pressure P1 and to an external pressure P2, the relative magnitudes of which are given
by P1 r1 = P2 r2 On the basis of theoretical considerations corroborated experimentally, the
radial compression of the embedding concrete is expressed by
80
𝑃1 𝑟
∆𝑐 = 𝑟1 ln( 2) Ec - modulus of elasticity of concrete
𝐸𝑐 𝑟
Radial displacement of rock (Δr): Omitting the theoretical derivation, the radius of the cross-
section excavated in rock expands under the pressure P2 by
1 𝑚+1 1 𝑚+1
∆𝑟 = 𝑟𝑃 = 𝑟𝑃
𝐸𝑟 𝑚 2 2 𝐸𝑟 𝑚 1 1
Where Er is the modulus of elasticity of rock, and m is the reciprocal of the possions
ratio for the rock i.e (m = 1/v)
All the three radial dimensions and displacements are correlated by the expression:
𝛿 + ∆1 + 𝑏 + ∆2 + ∆𝑟 = ∆𝑠𝑡 + 𝛿 + 𝑏 − ∆𝑐
Which after simplification, can be rewritten as;
∆1 + ∆2 + ∆𝑐 + ∆𝑟 = ∆𝑠𝑡
𝑃1 𝑟2 1 𝑚+1 (𝑃−𝑃1 )𝑟 2
∆1 + ∆2 + 𝑟 ln( )+ 𝑟𝑃=
𝐸𝑐 1 𝑟 𝐸𝑟 𝑚 1 1 𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡
81
Introducing the load distributing factor ε = P1/ P, we obtain;
𝑟1 𝑟2 1 𝑚+1 𝑃𝑟 2 𝜀𝑃𝑟 2
∆1 + ∆2 + 𝜀𝑃( ln( )+ 𝑟 )= −
𝐸𝑐 𝑟 𝐸𝑟 𝑚 1 𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡
Where from;
𝑃𝑟 2
− (∆1 + ∆2 )
𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡
𝜀=
𝑃𝑟 2 𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑚+1
+ 𝑃[ 1 ln 2 + 𝑟]
𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑐 𝑟 𝐸𝑟 𝑚 1
Rearranging and reducing, we obtain the final expression for load distribution factor as:
𝛿𝐸 (∆ + ∆ )
1 − 𝑃𝑟𝑠𝑡 1 𝑟 2
𝜀=
𝛿𝐸 𝑟2 𝛿𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝑚 + 1
1 + 𝐸 𝑠𝑡 ln +𝐸 𝑟 𝑚
𝑐 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
82
This equation is suitable for checking purposes and for designing by trial-and-error method.
The thickness of the steel lining is assumed, the load distribution factor computed and the load
to be carried by the steel lining, i.e. P - P1 = P - εP = (1-ε)P is obtained. If the steel stress
corresponding to this pressure does not exceed the allowable steel strength, the next step is to
investigate whether P1 can be safely transmitted to the rock or not.
For design purposes, the following expression for the radial stress of steel is inserted in the
original radial displacement equation
𝜍 𝑟
∆𝑠𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡
𝐸𝑠𝑡
To obtain;
𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑚+1 𝜍𝑠𝑡 𝑟
∆1 + ∆2 + 𝜀𝑃(𝐸1 ln( 𝑟2)+𝐸 𝑟1 )=
𝑐 𝑟 𝑚 𝐸𝑠𝑡
83
Resorting to the approximation r = r1 used previously and replacing the steel stress by the
allowable value and rearranging, the following expression results for the load distribution
factor:
𝜍𝑠𝑡𝑎 − 𝐸 ∆1+∆2
1 𝑠𝑡 𝑟
𝜀=
𝑃 𝐸𝑠𝑡 ln 𝑟2 + 𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝑚 + 1
𝐸𝑐 𝑟 𝐸𝑟 𝑚
After determining ε for the allowable steel stress, the shell thickness is thereafter determined
from
(1 − 𝜖)𝑃𝑟 1 − 𝜖 𝑃𝐷
𝛿= =
𝜍𝑠𝑡𝑎 2𝜍𝑠𝑡𝑎
As a final step the load-bearing capacity of rock should again be checked.
84
Tunnel cross section:
 The cross-section of tunnels cannot be reduced arbitrarily; requirements of pass ability set
definite limits minimum size in this respect.
 The minimum size of tunnels of circular cross-section is at about 1.8 m diameter,
 While rectangular cross-sections should not be smaller than 2.0 x 1.6 m.
 In case of lined tunnels the computed cross-section should be increased by the thickness of
the tunnel lining.
 The slope of pressure tunnels is generally very flat, not steeper than necessary for dewatering
during construction and latter repairs.
85
Example
1. Determine the plate thickness required for the steel lining, embedded in to 30cm concrete,
of a pressure tunnel of 300cm inner diameter. The constants involved have been
determined as: 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 2.1 ∗ 106 𝐾𝑔 𝑠𝑞.𝑐𝑚 ; 𝐸𝑐 = 2.1 ∗ 105 𝐾𝑔 𝑠𝑞.𝑐𝑚 𝜍𝑠𝑡𝑎 = 120 𝐾𝑔 𝑐𝑚2 ;
𝑚 = 6. The rock is crystallized schist of mediocre quality with 𝐸𝑟 = 6 ∗ 104 𝐾𝑔 𝑠𝑞.𝑐𝑚.
The internal design pressure head is 250m of water. Assume ∆1 + ∆1 = 0.5𝑚𝑚.
2. Calculate the stresses in the steel lining for example 1 for the case of perfect contact
between individual elements, i.e. for ∆= 0.
86
Example
Solution;
87
Example
Solution;
88
Example
Solution;
89
5.3. Settling basin
Reading assignment;
90
5.4. Water hammer analysis
Sudden shutdown of hydroelectric plants or changes in water flow through hydroelectric
turbines may cause problem of rupture of penstocks due to water hammer to runner speed
changes that cause the line current of the generators to vary from the desired frequency.
Regulating the water flow and coping with sudden closure of gates and valves require special
equipment's such as, governs, pressure relief valves and surge tanks.
Solving the problems of pressure control and speed regulation requires a thorough understanding
of the basic theory of water hammer.
Let us consider a simple case of fluid flowing with a certain velocity and brought to rest by
closing a valve at the downstream end.
If the fluid is entirely incompressible and the wall of the pipe is perfectly rigid, then all the fluid
particles would have come to rest instantaneously.
91
However, fluids are compressible to a certain extent, thus particles will not decelerate uniformly.
Only those particles adjacent to the valve would stop instantaneously; Other particles will come to
rest later.
𝑑𝑣
Recall Newton's second law: 𝐹 = 𝑚 ; the more rapid the deceleration the greater would be the
𝑑𝑡
force.
Water hammer is a phenomenon of pressure change in closed pipes caused when flowing water
in a pipeline is decelerated by closing or opening a valve or changing the velocity of water rapidly
in some manner.
The phenomenon is accompanied by a series of positive and negative pressure waves which
travel back and forth in the pipe system until they are damped out by friction.
When a valve in a pipe or penstock carrying water is closed, the pressure head immediately
upstream of the valve is increased, and a pulse of high pressure is propagated upstream to the
nearest open water surface.
92
On the downstream side of the valve a lowered pressure moves in a downstream direction to
the nearest open water surface.
Flow is changing from one steady-state to another over a very, very short time.
Causes of rapid changes in flow (acceleration/deceleration):
 Sudden opening or closing of control valves.
 Starting or stopping of pumps.
 Rejecting or accepting load by hydraulic turbine.
Rapid change in velocity results in change in momentum causing pressure fluctuations (waves) –
Water Hammer
93
 There are two approaches to the water hammer Steady state prior to valve closure
problem:
 The rigid water column
theory(RWC),
 The elastic water column
theory(EWC).
 When the time it takes a valve to close is long
compared to the propagation time for a pressure
wave to travel the length of the pipe, then the
rigid column theory is appropriate.
 Otherwise, considering elastic water column
theory is necessary. Rapid valve closure followed by pressure
increase, pipe walls expand, liquid compression
and transient condition propagate upstream
94
 The maximum water hammer pressure:
 Conservation of linear momentum;
 The total pressure at the valve(point B)
immediately after closure is
𝑃𝐵 = 𝛾 𝐻𝑜 + ∆𝐻 and at Point A is
𝑃𝐴 = 𝛾𝐻𝑜
 The pressure pulse or wave moves at a
velocity, c, which is essentially the velocity
of sound in water.
 If the length of the pipe is L, the pressure
wave travels from valve to reservoir (open
water surface) in time.
𝐿
𝑡=
𝑐
95
 The maximum water hammer pressure: −𝑉𝑜
𝛾𝐻𝑤 𝑑𝐴 − 𝛾𝐻𝑜 𝑑𝐴 − 𝛾∆𝐻𝑑𝐴 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴 𝐿( )
 Conservation of linear momentum; 𝑡
𝐿 𝑉𝑜
∆𝐻 = ( )
𝑔 𝑡
𝐿 𝑉𝑜
∆𝐻 = ( )
𝑔 𝐿
𝑐
𝑉𝑜 𝑐
∆𝐻 =
𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑔
𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑀
𝑡
0 − 𝑉𝑜
𝛾𝐻𝑜 𝑑𝐴 − 𝛾𝑑𝐴 𝐻𝑜 + ∆𝐻 = 𝜌𝑑𝐴 𝐿( )
𝑡
96
Elastic water column (EWC) theory;
 This considers the effect of compressibility of
the water column in the pipe and the dilation of
the pipe under high pressure.
 Thus, for sudden valve closure, it is assumed
that all the kinetic energy of the water is
converted to the strain (elastic) energy of the
water (compression) and strain (elastic) energy
of the pipe (tensile) change in pipe volume due  In the next time frame the element dE2
to added lateral stress. is stopped and compressed too.
 When a valve in a pipeline is suddenly closed,  The water upstream of dE2 continues to
the element of water, dE1 nearest to the valve move at the original velocity and
is compressed by the water flowing towards it successive elements of water are
and the pipe is stretched by the action. compressed.
97
 The action of compression moves upstream as
a wave until it reaches the open water surface
and the last element dEn is compressed and the
entire conduit of water has no movement thus
under the increased pressure head, Ho + ΔH.
98
 At the open water surface the last element, dEn expands
to its original state, followed by other elements, causing
a reverse or negative pressure wave.
 As this wave travels downstream, conditions change
from zero velocity to a negative velocity and from the
increased water pressure head, Ho + ΔH, back to the
normal pressure head, Ho.
 When the pressure wave reaches the valve, the pressure
in the pipeline has returned to normal and a time t =
2L/c has elapsed.
 The water moving away from the valve now causes a
reduction in pressure in the pipe and a negative pressure
wave moves upstream to the open water surface.
99
Propagation of pressure wave due to valve closure
a. Steady state prior to valve closure.
b. Rapid valve closure: pressure increase,

pipe walls expand,
liquid compression;
transient conditions
propagate upstream.
100
c. End of step 1 transient process @ L/c .
d. Pipe pressure > tank/reservoir.

pressure water flows from
pipe to tank/resv. Relieving pressure in pipe
101
e. Process starts at tank and
continues up to valve at
time t = L/c, at this moment
total time = 2L/c → water hammer period.
f. Wave of backwater cannot

go past the valve, starts
wave of negative pressure toward tank
102
g & h. Pressure difference causes
water to flow toward valve
i. One full cycle, 4L/c
103
Pressure variation at valve: velocity head and friction losses neglected
104
 This periodic fluctuation at the reservoir water
level look like figure A, if the water did not
have friction acting.
 In reality, friction does act within the water and
at the boundaries so that the pulses of pressure
change have a decreasing amplitude as shown
in Figure B.
105
Let Δh = increase in head relative to original head (assume frictionless flow).
Assume Vo is the actual velocity in pipe based on friction, steady state prior to valve closure.
Increase in pressure due to water hammer must be added to the steady-state pressure prevailing
just before valve closure.
When the increased pressure stretches the pipe, more space is available to store the
accumulated net inflow
The pipe may stretch both circumferentially and longitudinally, so we must consider both
contributions to the change in pipe volume.
If material is strained in one direction by an amount ε1 then a strain ε2 will occur in the
perpendicular direction (provided the material is free to strain without developing a stress in
that direction) according to ε2 = με1 where μ I Poisson's ratio.
If there is a restriction to free strain in either direction caused either by restraint or applied
stress the relation is more complicated.
106
To find c (speed of pressure wave) need to relate the volume of water entering the pipe to the
increased pipe volume due to pipe expansion and the reduced volume of water because of
compression.
 Here 𝜍1 and 𝜀1 are the stress and strain, respectively in the direction along the pipe axis,
 𝜍2 and 𝜀2 are the values in the circumferential direction, and
 E is the modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall material.
𝜍2 𝜀1 +𝜇𝜀2 𝜍1 −𝜇𝜍2
Lateral strain: Hooke’s Law 𝐸 = 𝜍1 = 𝐸 or 𝜀1 =
𝜀2 1−𝜇2 𝐸
𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 𝜀 +𝜇𝜀 𝜍 −𝜇𝜍
𝜀2 = 𝜍2 = 2 21 𝐸 or 𝜀2 = 2 1
2𝑡𝐸 1−𝜇 𝐸
∆𝐷
𝜀2 = implies ∆𝐷 = 𝜀2 𝐷 and the elongated diameter,
𝐷
𝐷 ′ = 𝐷 + 𝜖2 𝐷
𝜋 2 𝜋
Pipe area increase ∆A = 𝐷 + 𝜀2 𝐷 − 𝐷 2 = 𝜀𝐷 2 = 2𝐴𝜀2
4 2
107
Change in pipe volume due to added lateral stress
∆𝑃𝐷 𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 𝑃𝑟
𝜍2 = = 𝜍2 =
2𝑡 2𝑡 𝑡
The change in volume caused by circumferential stretching is
𝜋 2
𝐿𝐴𝛾∆𝑕𝐷
∆V = 𝜖2 𝐷 𝐿 = 2𝐿𝐴𝜀2 =
2 𝑡𝐸
The change in volume caused by longitudinal stretching is
𝜋 𝜋
∆V = 𝐷 2 ∆𝐿 = 𝜀1 𝐷 2 𝐿
4 4
The total volume change due to pipe stretching as
𝜋 𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 𝜀2 +𝜇𝜀1
∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐷 2 𝐿 2𝜀2 + 𝜀1 𝜍2 = = 𝐸
4 2𝑡 1−𝜇2
108
While the relation between circumferential stress and pressure is valid for all types of restraint,
the relation between longitudinal stress and strain varies with restraint type:
Pipe support conditions
1. Case (a) Pipe supported at one (u/s) end, pipe is allowed to move and pressure increase
generates both axial and lateral stress.
2. Case (b) Pipe anchorage against axial movement throughout, no axial movement but
axial stress still generated. (full pipe restraint from axial movement)
3. Case (c) No axial movement plus expansion joints at regular intervals, axial stress is
taken up by play in joints. (longitudinal expansion joints along the pipeline)
In practical sense the actual pipe restraint situation probably will not conform precisely to any
of these cases but lies somewhere in this range of possibilities.
Because buried pipelines are relatively common and might be expected to be fully restrained
axially by soil friction and anchor blocks, we will examine case (b).
109
Wave speed solution for case (b) restraint
𝜇𝜀2
For this restraint choice 𝜀1 = 0 and 𝜍1 = 𝐸 or 𝜍1 = 𝜇𝜍2
1−𝜇2
𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 𝜀
And 𝜍2 = = 22𝐸
2𝑡 1−𝜇
Substituting this equation into the total volume equation in place of 𝜀2
𝜋 𝜋 𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 1 − 𝜇2
∆𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐷2 𝐿 2𝜀2 + 𝜀1 = 𝐷2 𝐿
4 4 2𝑡 𝐸
Reduction in the volume of water within the pipe is based on compressibility of water
𝑑𝑃 ∆𝑃 𝛾∆𝑕
𝐾= =− =− Defined in terms of relative decrease in volume
𝑑𝜌 𝜌 ∆𝑉 𝑉 ∆𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝛾∆𝑕 𝐴𝐿𝛾∆𝑕
∆𝑉 = = , Here K is the bulk modulus of elasticity of water and P and V
𝐾 𝐾
are the pressure and volume of water, respectively.
110
∆𝑉 is the change in water volume in the control volume resulting from the pressure change ∆𝑃
Thus the overall volume change due to change in pipe volume and reduction in the volume of
water within the pipe is given by:
Volume of water added = increase in pipe volume + increase in volume due to compression
𝜋 2 𝛾∆𝑕𝐷 1−𝜇2 𝐴𝐿𝛾∆𝑕
𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑑𝑡 = 𝐷 𝐿 +
4 2𝑡 𝐸 𝐾 𝐾
𝐷 1−𝜇2 1 𝑉𝑜 𝐶 𝜌
𝑉𝑜 𝐴𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉𝛾∆𝑕 + but 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 and ∆𝑕 = 𝐶=
𝐶 𝑔
𝑡 𝐸 𝐾 𝐾𝐷
𝐷 1−𝜇2 1 1+ (𝑐)
1= 2
𝜌𝐶 𝑡 𝐸 + 𝐸𝑡
𝐾
Or, in the conventional form for wave speed, Where: c is pipe suport
𝐾
𝜌 wylie and streeter (1993) show that the For case (a) restraint 𝑐 = (5 4 − 𝜇)
𝐶= equation for wave speed can be conveniently For case (b) restraint 𝑐 = (1 − 𝜇2 )
𝐾𝐷
1+ 𝐸𝑡 (1−𝜇2 )
expresses in the general form For case (c) restraint 𝑐 = 1
111
Moduli of Elasticity and Poisson Ratios for common pipe materials
Moduli of Elasticity and Poisson's ratios
112
According to Parmakian (1955), the velocity of the pressure wave, c, in a pipe is given by the
following formula:
1 𝐶1 𝑑 0.5
𝐶= 𝜌 +
𝐾 𝑡𝐸
Where ρ = density of the water; K = volume modulus of water; d = diameter of pipe; t =
thickness of pipe; E = pipe’s Young's modulus of elasticity; C1 = factor for anchorage and
support of pip
 C1= 0.95 for pipe anchored at upper end and without expansion joints
 C1 = 0.91 for pipe anchored against longitudinal movement
 C1 = 0.85 for pipe with expansion joints.
The maximum water hammer head is computed (Allievi) as:
𝑉𝑜 𝐶
𝑕𝑤𝑚 =
𝑔
113
Example
1. How long does it take for a pressure wave to travel 500 m after a rapid valve closure in a 1
m diameter pipe without expansion joint, 1 cm wall thickness, steel pipeline? The initial
flow velocity was 5 m/s. E for steel is 200 Gpa. K is 2.2 Gpa. What is the increase in
pressure?
114
Rigid water column (RWC) theory;
Reading assignment:
115
5.5. Surge tanks
116
5.5. Surge tanks
117
5.5. Surge tanks
Another way of pressure control can be accomplished with surge tanks.
Surge tanks are vertical standpipes that act as a Forebay and shorten the distance for relief from
the pressure wave of water hammer.
A surge tank (or surge chamber or expansion chamber) is a device introduced within a hydropower
water conveyance system having a rather long pressure conduit to absorb the excess pressure rise
in case of a sudden valve closure.
Their primary purpose is the protection of the long pressure tunnel in medium- and high-head
plants against high water hammer pressures caused by sudden rejection or acceptance of load.
The surge tank converts these fast (water hammer) pressure oscillations (high frequency) into
much slower – and lower – pressure fluctuations due to mass oscillation (low frewuency) in the
surge chamber.
It also acts as a small storage from which water may be supplied in case of a sudden valve opening
of the turbine.
118
5.5. Surge tanks
If there is no surge tank, in case of a sudden opening of turbine valve, there are chances of
penstock collapse due to a negative pressure generation.
The three-fold purposes served by surge tanks may be summarized as:
 Flow stabilization to the turbine.
 It supplies the additional water required by the turbine during load demand (and during starting
up) until the conduit velocity has accelerated to the final steady state level.
 It stores water during load rejection i.e closure until the conduit velocity has decelerated too the
new steady state condition.
 Water hammer relief or pressure regulation.
 It provides a free reservoir surface close to the discharge regulation mechanism. This will cut
short & limit the conduit length liable to water hammer.
 Storage function.
 It ensures that the water level oscillation following small and large load changes are dissipated
rapidly.
119
5.5. Surge tanks
The surge tanks is located between the almost horizontal or slightly inclined conduit and steeply
sloping penstock and is designed a chamber excavated in the mountain.
The surge chamber dividing the pressure tunnel into a short high-pressure penstock downstream
and a long low-pressure tunnel upstream.
It quickly establishes the equilibrium of the flow conditions, which greatly assists the speed
regulation of the turbine.
The surge tank protects the low-pressure conduit/tunnel system from high internal pressures.
In a practical sense, a rule of thumb that might be applied to determine whether a surge tank or a
relief valve may be needed is that, extra caution should be exercised to evaluate pressure rise or
decrease in systems where the water conduit total length equals or exceeds the head by a factor of
3.
Surge tanks are usually not economical unless most of the drop in elevation in the penstock occurs
near the turbine.
120
5.5. Surge tanks
Types: Simple surge tank;
 The simple surge tank is of uniform cross-section and is open to
the atmosphere, acting as a reservoir.
 Is vertical stand pipe directly connected to the penstock with an
opening large enough (not less than the area of HRT) so that
water flows in and out with small head losses when load variations
occur.
 It is usually large in size with expensive proportions and sluggish
in responding to damping surges and unstable.
 These are very rarely used in modern practice except in
installations where load changes are either small or very gradual.
 This is the most efficient surge tank to provide a ready water
supply to the turbine when it is being accelerated, and especially
when the initial loading is being applied. However, it is the most
hydraulically unstable.
121
5.5. Surge tanks
Types: Throttled(restricted orifice) surge tank;
 It is a simple surge tank in which the inlet is throttled the
restricted entry to the surge tank creates retardation and
acceleration conditions of flow in the tunnel upstream of it,
thus reducing the storage requirement and minimizing
the maximum up and down surges.
 This improves the stability damping quality of the surge tank
oscillations.
 A restricted opening b/n the tank and the penstock/HRT
develops appreciable head loss in the water that flows into or
out of the tank. It is more hydraulically stable.
 Although this type of surge tank is economical (because of
its smaller size) compared with the simple tank section, the
rapid creation of retarding and accelerating heads complicates
the governing mechanism, requiring additional inertia in the
turbo-generator units
122
5.5. Surge tanks
Types: The differential surge tank;
 Is a combination of a simple tank and a restricted-orifice tank
 This type (also known as Johnson’s differential tank) consists
of an internal narrow riser shaft with an orifice entry to the
larger outer shaft at the bottom.
 As the central riser is narrow it responds instantaneously during
the upward phase; at the same time the maximum amplitude is
restricted to its top level, any excess water spilling back into the
outer chamber.
 Similarly, during the downward phase water spills into the
narrow riser while the riser itself responds quickly to
maintaining the desired level.
 The differential tank with an extended penstock, which acts as a
central riser, is shown in.
123
5.5. Surge tanks
Types: Surge tank with expansion chamber;
 This type of surge tank consists of a narrow riser
(main surge shaft); attached to it at either end are
large expansion chambers.
 The narrow riser reacts quickly, creating
accelerating or decelerating heads, and at the same
time the expansion chambers minimize the
maximum up- and down surge levels, thus limiting
the range of surge levels (i.e. easier governing).
 In order to reduce the costs of the structure, spilling
arrangements may sometimes be provided either to
wastage (if water is not scarce) or back to the
penstock.
124
5.5. Surge tanks
Types: Surge tank with expansion chamber;
 Surge tanks may be classified according to :
 Material of construction:
 Concrete
 Steel
 Location relative to terrain:
 Recessed (Excavated) (underground)
 Free-standing (exposed) (over ground)
 Location in the hydraulic system:
 U/s (u/s to power house) on the head
race tunnel
 D/s surge tank on the tail race tunnel
125
126
5.5. Surge tanks
Hydraulic design of simple surge tank;
The hydraulic design of surge tank concerns with two main aspects:
 Height
 Cross sectional area.
These aspects are decided up on with the view to fulfilling the following criteria:
 The surge tank must be locates so that the positive & negative water hammer pressures are kept
within acceptable limits.
 The tank must be stable i.e. water surface oscillation must be naturally damped out and must not
under any condition be continued or amplified.
 The chamber must be of such size and so proportioned that will accommodate maximum
upsurge & lowest down surge unless spillway is provided.
 The lowest down surge will not allow air to be drawn into the tunnel.
 The range of surges must not be great enough to clause undesirably heavy governor movement
or difficulty in startup load.
127
5.5. Surge tanks
It is usually consider full-load rejection (the maximum upsurge and down surge are compute)
under two extreme conditions:
 With the reservoir at it maximum level, in which case the maximum upsurge level will govern the top
level of the chamber
 With the reservoir at its lowest drawdown, in which case the first down surge level may control the
bottom level of the chamber if air drawing is to be avoided.
Height
 The total height of the surge tank should be such that both the maximum upsurge and down-surge is
contained within the surge tank height.
 Worst conditions should be considered to determine the height.
 For up-surge, the worst conditions are:  For down-surge, the worst conditions are:
 Instantaneous total closure  Instantaneous total opening
 Reservoir level at its maximum  Reservoir level at its minimum
128
5.5. Surge tanks
Instantaneous 100% demand conditions result in too large a maximum down-surge, as the
normal practice is to allow for 0–10% of full load demand quickly but, thereafter, the unit is
brought to full load only gradually.
Maximum down-surges are normally calculated against 75–100% of full load and, once
again, the bottom level of the chamber is controlled by the reservoir at its lowest drawdown
level condition.
This condition is invariably more critical than the one governed by the maximum down-surge
after a load rejection.
Excessive surges may occur if several quick load variations are imposed on the unit
(overlapping surges).
These may create additional governing difficulties and the top and bottom levels of the surge
chamber may have to be modified to accommodate these excessive surges.
129
5.5. Surge tanks
In order to achieve conservative designs of the surge chamber it is usual to assume
 A lower conduit friction factor than average for calculating the maximum upsurge,
 A higher friction factor for the maximum down surge.
In all cases due consideration of the effect of ageing of the tunnel must be given.
Head losses of all types are assumed to be proportional to V2.
130
5.5. Surge tanks
Height
 In order to determine the surge height and thus necessary tank height, etc., it is necessary to
carry out water hammer analysis and determine corresponding surge heights under various
closure and opening (load rejection and acceptance) conditions.
 Applying continuity equation:
𝑑
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑠 𝑧 + 𝑄1 , 𝑄 = 𝑉𝑡 𝐴𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 𝐴 𝑉 𝑄
= 𝑡 𝑡− 1 −−−− −𝟏
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑠
Where At & As are the x-sectional area of the
tunnel and surge tank.
131
5.5. Surge tanks
Hydraulic design of simple surge tank; 𝐿 𝑑𝑣
+ 𝑍 − 𝐹𝑡 𝑉 2 = 0 −− −𝟐
𝑔 𝑑𝑡
Height
 If surge tank throttle loss is considered:
 Momentum equation: 𝐿 𝑑𝑣
𝐿 𝑑𝑣 + 𝑍 − 𝐹𝑡 𝑉 2 − 𝐹𝑠 𝑉𝑠 2 = 0
− 𝑍 ± 𝑍𝑜 = 0, 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
𝑔 𝑑𝑡  From Eq. 1 if 𝑄1 is zero:
+ve and –ve sign in the equation is used 𝑑𝑧 𝐴𝑡 𝑉𝑡 𝑑𝑧 2 𝐴 𝑑𝑣𝑡
depending on the flow direction in the tunnel. For = = = ( 𝑡) −− −𝟑
𝑑𝑡 𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑠 𝑑𝑡
flow from reservoir +ve sing is used. At steady  For simplest case of full closure and negligible
state the water level in the surge −𝑍 = 𝑍𝑜 friction the solution to Eq. 2 has the following
𝐿𝑉 2
𝑍𝑜 = 𝑓 2𝑔𝐷 from:
𝑡 𝐴𝑡 𝐿
Let 𝑍 = 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin ; 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡 ;
𝐿 𝑇 𝐴𝑠 𝑔
𝐹𝑡 = 𝑓
2𝑔𝐷
𝐴𝑡 𝐿
Then during flow from penstock to surge tank 𝑇=
𝐴𝑠 𝑔
132
5.5. Surge tanks
Height
 Where Zmax is the maximum up surge or down  However; Jaeger has recommended use
surge: of the following approximate formula
 The last two equations can be useful for for the calculation of upsurge in cases
preliminary analysis and in cases where the where friction is taken in to account:
magnitude of hydraulic losses is small in the pipe  Zmax is the maximum up surge
extending upstream from the surge tank. neglecting friction
 In actual installations, frictional effects are not  Zup is the maximum up surge with
negligible. friction in to account.
 Since the velocity is changing its sign after every
half cycle, there is no general solution for the
differential equation(Eq.2) usually a numerical
solution is adopted.
133
5.5. Surge tanks
Height
 For sudden 100% load rejection, maximum  Calame and Gaden have given the
upsurge and down surge for Ko<0.7 will be: following approximate formula suitable
𝑍𝑢𝑝 2 𝐾𝑜 2 𝐹𝑡 𝑉 2 for computation of the lowest water
= 1 − 𝐾𝑜 + ; 𝐾𝑜 =
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 3 9 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 reached after the first up ward swing.
𝑍𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝐴𝑡 𝐿 = −1 + 2𝐾𝑜
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑡
𝐴𝑠 𝑔
𝑍𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 −1  Where Zup and Zdown are maximum
= 7
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 1+3𝐾𝑜 and minimum water level in the surge
 For sudden 100% load demand, for Ko<0.8: chamber.
𝑍𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
= −1 − 0.125𝐾𝑜
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
134
5.5. Surge tanks
Height
 Where P0 is given by the following relation
𝑕𝑓𝑜
𝐾𝑜 =
𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
 The friction head loss in the steady state condition, m
𝑓𝐿𝑡 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑕𝑓𝑜 =
2𝑔𝐷
 The maximum upsurge and down surge should be contained within the surge chamber.
135
5.5. Surge tanks
Cross-sectional area(stability consideration)
 Characteristic oscillation in the surge tank damped by hydraulic friction in the conduits.
 The required cross-sectional area of a surge tank is determined based on stability
considerations for the surge oscillations in the tank.
 Stability conditions of the surge system were established by Thoma.
 He stated that in order to prevent the development of unstable oscillations the cross section
of the surge tank should exceed a certain critical magnitude.
136
5.5. Surge tanks
 According to Thoma, the limiting x-sectional area for small oscillation is given by:
𝑉𝑡 2 𝐴𝑡 𝐿𝑡
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ; 𝑚2 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑕𝑓 head loss up to surge tank
2𝑔 𝑕𝑓 𝐻𝑛
𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻 − 𝑕𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
4 10
2
𝑚 𝑅3𝐴 2
𝑚 𝐷3
𝑡
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = =
2𝑔𝐻𝑛 160𝐻𝑛
1
𝑚= n = Manning’s coefficient R = Tunnel Hydraulic Radius
𝑛
10
for m = 85; n=0.0118; 𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 45𝐷 3
𝐴𝑠 = (1.5 𝑡𝑜 1.8)𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 ---- For tank stability
137
5.5. Surge tanks
 For large amplitude of oscillation, the Thoma formula was modified by Ch Jaeger as:
∗
𝐴𝑡 L
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜂
2gβ𝐻𝑛
4
2 3
𝑚 𝑅 𝐴𝑡 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 𝜂∗ ; 𝑚2 𝑤𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜂 ∗ non constant factor of safety = 1+1.0482
2g𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛
1
𝛽= 4
𝑚2 𝑅 3
or
4
2
𝑚 𝐷3 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑠 = 𝜂∗ = 170.482
160𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛
138
5.7. Penstocks
139
5.7. Penstocks
A penstocks are closed conduit or pipes of large diameter, usually of steel or concrete, used for
conveying water from the supply source (reservoir, forebay or canal) to the power house.
 They are usually high-pressure pipelines designed to withstand stresses developed because of
static and water hammer pressures created by sudden changes in power demands.
 The provision of such a high-pressure line is very uneconomical if it is too long, in which case it
can be divided into two parts,
A long low-pressure conveyance (tunnel) followed by short high-pressure pipeline (penstock)
close to the turbine unit, separated by a surge chamber which absorbs the water hammer
pressure rises.
140
5.7. Penstocks
Penstocks can be classified based on operational type, type of construction, material of
construction, method of support, rigidity of connection and support, number of penstock.
 Penstocks classified based operation conditions:
 Pressure penstock:
 Requires that the water discharging to the turbine always be under a positive pressure (greater than
atmospheric pressure).
 Siphon penstock:
 Is constructed in such a way that at points in the
penstock the pressure may be less than atmospheric
pressure and sections of the conduit act as a siphon.
 This requires that a vacuum pump or some other
means for initiating the siphon action must be
used to fill the conduit with water and to evacuate
the air in the conduit.
141
5.7. Penstocks
 Penstocks classified based on type of construction:
Steel penstocks: the most common type of installation, due to simplicity in fabrication,
strength, and assurance that they will perform in a wide variety of circumstances. Normal
practice is to use welded steel pipe sections.
Cast-in-place or precast reinforced concrete pipe: Very large diameters are somewhat
impractical.
 Cast-in-place concrete pipes are usually limited to heads of less than 35 m.
 According to Creager and Justin (1950), these penstocks can be used up to 4m in diameter
and under heads up to 185 m by using a welded steel shell embedded in the reinforced
concrete.
Fiberglass and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic pipe: A penstock at the Niagara Mohawk
plant uses a fiberglass pipe 3 m in diameter.
Wood stave pipes have been used in diameters ranging from 15 cm up to 6 m and utilized at
heads up to 185 m with proper design.
142
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock:
For purposes of engineering feasibility and preliminary design, there are three major
considerations that need engineering attention:
 The head loss through the penstock,
 The safe thickness of the penstock shell,
 The economical size of the penstock.
Another consideration might be the routing of the penstock.
Various experience curves and empirical equations have been developed for determining the
economical size of penstocks.
143
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Safe penstock thickness
The thickness of the pipe shell (s) for penstocks should be determined by:
𝑃𝐷
𝑆= , Where, S = penstock shell thickness;
2𝜂𝜍
P = internal pressure;
D = pipe diameter;
η = joint efficiency of welded or riveted joint;
ζ = allowable unit stress of hoop tension
The allowable equivalent unit stress for hoop tension will vary with the type of steel used in
the penstock.
Minimum thickness (in inches), based on need for stiffness, corrosion protection, and strength
requirements, is indicated by the U.S. Department of the Interior (1967) to be:
𝐷 + 20
𝑆𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
400
144
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Size selection of penstock;
Various experience curves and empirical equations have been developed for determining the
economical size of penstocks.
Economical size varies with type of installation and materials, as well as whether it is used
above ground or buried.
Gordon and Penman (1979) give a very simple equation for determining steel penstock
diameter for small hydropower installations:
𝐷𝑝 = 0.72𝑄 0.25
Sarkaria (1979) developed an empirical approach for determining steel penstock diameter by
using data from large hydro projects with heads varying from 57 m to 313 m and power
capacities ranging from 154 MW to 730 MW.
He reported that the economical diameter of the penstock is given by the equation:
145
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Size selection of penstock;
0.62𝑃0.35
𝐷=
𝑕0.65
Where: D = Economical penstock diameter, m
p = Rated turbine capacity, hp
h = Maximum net head at the end of the penstock, m.
146
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Optimization of penstock diameter;
Differentiating the total cost with respect to D and
setting the result equal to zero will give us the
economic diameter.
𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶2 𝑑 𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶2

> 0; <0 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = + =0
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
𝑃𝐷 𝑔𝜌𝑕𝐷
Thickness of steel pipe: 𝑆 = =
2𝜂𝜍 2𝜍
147
5.7. Penstocks
Weight of steel pipe: 3 𝑕𝐷2 𝐿
𝐺 = 1187 ∗ 10 [𝐾𝑁]
𝐺 = g𝜌𝑠 𝜋𝐷𝑆𝐿, 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 𝜍
2
𝑕𝐷 𝐿  The cost of energy lost corresponds to the
𝐺= 𝑔2 𝜌𝑠 𝜌π power calculated by considering head losses,
2𝜍
Where ρs – density of steel … 7850 kg/m3 where hl stands for losses, is:
ρ - density of water …. 1000 kg/m3 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 9.81 ∗ 𝜂 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑕𝑙
h - head acting on the penstock, Taking efficiency of say, 77% (this value can
ζ - allowable strength of steel
be adjusted for particular cases)
L - length of penstock
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 9.81 ∗ 0.77 ∗ 𝑄 ∗ 𝑕𝑙 = 7.55𝑄𝑕𝑙
Substituting the values:
𝑕𝐷2 𝐿  Major head loss in the penstock is given as:
𝐺= 9.812 ∗ 7850 ∗ 1000 ∗ 3.14 ∗ 0.5 ∗ 𝐿𝑉 2 𝐿 16𝑄2 𝐿𝑄2
𝜍 𝑕𝑓 = 𝑓 = 𝑓 2 4 ≈ 𝑓
6 𝑕𝐷2 𝐿 2𝑔𝐷 𝐷 𝜋 𝐷 2𝑔 12𝐷5
𝐺 = 1187 ∗ 10 𝜍 𝑁
Where f is the friction coefficient for the pipe.
148
5.7. Penstocks
For a given load factor of say λ given in 𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶
+ 2=0
𝑑𝐷 𝑑𝐷
decimal number, the total operation hours in a
𝑕 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ 𝐶𝑜
year would be = 8760 x λ. 3
2848 ∗ 10 ∗ ∗ 𝐷 + 0.63 ∗ −5
Therefore, the annual energy generation 𝜍
𝑓 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑄3
would amount to: ∗ ∗ 8760 ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒
𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 = 7.55𝑄𝑕𝑙 ∗ 8760 ∗ 𝜆 𝐷6
Taking the cost of energy per kWh at the 𝑕 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ 𝐶𝑜
existing tariff to be Ce 2848 ∗ 103 ∗ ∗𝐷
𝜍
7.55𝑄 3 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑓
𝐶2 = ∗ 8760 ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒 𝑓 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑄3
12 ∗ 𝐷5 = 27594 ∗ ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒
𝑄3 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑓 𝐷6
= 0.63 ∗ 5
∗ 8760 ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒
𝐷
 Now applying the differentiation:
149
5.7. Penstocks
1 Ce – electric energy tariff in USD per kWh
3 7
𝑓∗𝑄 ∗𝜍
𝐷 = ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒 = Q – discharge in m3/s;
103.2 ∗ 𝑕 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ 𝐶𝑜 λ – load factor;
1
3 7
𝑓∗𝑄 ∗𝜍
= 0.0097 ∗ 𝜆 ∗ 𝐶𝑒
𝑕 ∗ 𝛼 ∗ 𝐶𝑜
Where, D – Optimum diameter of penstock(m);
f – friction coefficient in pipe;
ζ – allowable strength of steel (N/m2)
α – annual operating charges on the
penstock including depreciation;
C0 – unit cost of steel for finished
penstock in USD per KN;
150
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Number of penstock;
A hydropower scheme having a battery of
turbines, has the following alternatives:
 To provide a single penstock for the
complete power house. In such a case
the penstock will have a manifold at its
end with as many branches as the
number of turbines.
 To provide as many penstock as the
number of turbines.
 To provide multiple penstocks but each
penstock supplying at least two
turbines.
151
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Number of penstock;
The main considerations which lead to the best choice include:
 Economy: Cost /alternative penstock design/
 Operational safeguard: in such case, a single penstock option is ruled out, as any
damage to it will necessitate the total shut down of all the turbine
 Transportation facilities: the penstock are shop welded in short section and then
transported to the sites. The decision regarding the number of penstock automatically
would influence the diameter of the penstock. It, therefore, has to be seen whether there
are adequate facilities for the transportation of a given size of penstock.
152
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Penstock joint;
The following factors should be considered when choosing the best jointing system.
 Relative costs
 Ease of installation
 Suitability pipe material
 Degree of joint flexibility
Methods of pipe jointing:
 Flanged joints
 Spigot and socket joints
 Mechanical joints
 Welded joints
153
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Flanged joint;
Flanges are fitted to each end of individual pipes during manufacture, and each flange is then
bolted to the next during installation.
Flange jointed pipes are easy to install, but flanges can add to the cost of the pipe.
Flange joints do not allow any flexibility.
They are generally used to join steel pipes.
154
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Spigot and socket joints;
Spigot and socket joints are made by increasing the diameter during manufacture of one end of
each pipe.
The plain end of each pipe can be pushed into the collar or ‘socket’ in the next.
Spigot and socket joints are generally used to join ductile iron, PVC, concrete and asbestos
cement pipes.
155
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Mechanical joints;
Mechanical joints are rarely used on penstocks because of their cost.
One important application of it is for joining pipes of different material or where a slight
deflection in the penstock is required that does not need installing a bend.
156
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Welded joints;
Welded joints are used on penstocks made of steel.
 Steel pipes are brought to the site in standard lengths, and then welded together on site.
One advantage of welding on site is that changes in the direction of the pipe can be
accommodated without preparation of a special bend section.
 It is relatively cheap method, but has the drawback of needing skilled site personnel.
157
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Penstock support and anchors;
Slide blocks, anchors, and thrust blocks all serve the same basic function – to limit movement of
the penstock.
Slide Blocks:
 A slide block, also called supporting pier, carries the weight of pipe and water, and prevent
the pipe from upward and sideway movements, but allows it to move longitudinally.
 Forces act on slide blocks include:
 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water: As slide blocks do not resist longitudinal forces,
only the component of the weight perpendicular to the pipe will be considered.
 Friction forces on the blocks: This is due to the longitudinal movement of the pipe over the
blocks caused by thermal expansion and contraction.
 Weight of the block itself.
158
5.7. Penstocks
Anchor Blocks
 An anchor block consists of a mass of reinforced concrete keyed to the penstock so that the
penstock cannot move in any direction relative to the block.
 It is designed to withstand any load of the penstock may exert on it.
 Anchors are often used at bends (horizontal and vertical).
 They can also be used along long straight sections of penstock, each one next to expansion
joint.
159
5.7. Penstocks
Anchor Blocks:
 The major forces which act on anchor blocks are the following:
 Weight of the pipe and enclosed water
 Hydrostatic force on a bend
 Friction forces on slide blocks located between the anchor and expansion joint
 Thermally induced stresses, when expansion joints are not incorporated
 The weight of the anchor block itself.
160
5.7. Penstocks
Thrust Blocks:
 Thrust Blocks are a special form of anchor whose only purpose is to transmit forces
primarily caused by hydrostatic pressures at horizontal bends along a buried penstock to
undisturbed soil.
 However, if the bend is vertical,
an anchor block is still used.
161
5.7. Penstocks
For any penstock support or anchor to be stable and fulfill its intended purpose.
The structure should be safe against sliding. 𝐻 < 𝜇 𝑉
Where, μ is the coefficient of friction between the structure and the ground
often assumed as 0.5.
The structure should be safe against overturning.
For this condition to be fulfilled, the resultant force should act within the middle third of the
𝐿
base.𝑒 = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 .
6
Where, e is eccentricity of loading and Lbase is length of the structure base
The pressure transmitted to the foundation must be within the safe bearing capacity of the
foundation material.
162
5.7. Penstocks
This can be expressed as:
𝑉 6𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1+
𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐿𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
< 𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙
163
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Penstock valve;
Valves are the part used to control the flow through the penstock and usually installed at two
places.
The first valve is provided at the upstream end of the penstock, i.e., at the forebay or
immediately after the surge tank, and is called penstock inlet valve,
While the second is provided at the downstream end of the conduit/penstock, immediately a
head of the turbine, and is named as turbine inlet valve.
The main purpose of penstock inlet valve is for dewatering of the penstock in case maintenance
of the penstock is required.
164
5.7. Penstocks
Design of penstock: Penstock valve;
The main purpose of turbine inlet valve is to close the penstock while the turbine is inoperative.
It can also act as an emergency shut-off device.
The number of turbine inlet valves required at a power station is governed by the number of
turbine units installed, but not by the number of penstocks, as a single penstock can serve a
number of units through a manifold at the end.
There are varies types of valves: Gate valves, Butterfly valves, Spherical valves, Needle valves.
165
Examples
1. In a hydropower project, water is delivered from an impound reservoir through a low-pressure
tunnel and four high-pressure penstock to the four turbine units. The elevation of the reservoir
water level is 1500m a.m.s.l, and the elevation of the tail water is 1200m a.m.s.l the maximum
reservoir storage which can be utilized continuously for a period of 48 hours is 15*106m3.
The low-pressure tunnel is constructed as follows:
 Length, Lt = 4km
 Diameter, Dt = 8m
 Friction factor, f = 0.028
 The high-pressure penstock (4 in no.) are constructed as follows:
 Length of each penstock, Lp = 500m
 Diameter of each penstock, Dp = 2.0m
 Friction facto, f = 0.016
 Turbine efficiency, ηt = 90% and Generator efficiency, ηt = 90%
166
Examples
1) Determine the maximum power output from the installation.
2) If a simple surge tank 6m in diameter is provided at the end of the low-pressure tunnel,
estimate
a) The maximum upsurge and down surge in the surge tank for a sudden rejection of
one unit,
b) The maximum down surge for a sudden demand of one unit.
167
Examples
168
Examples
169
Examples
1. Given data:
Normal pool level of reservoir = 1376.00.
Maximum reservoir level = 1381.00.
Minimum reservoir level = 1351.00.
Dead storage level = 1343.00.
Tail water level = 1233.00.
Average discharge from demand curve = 34.5 m3/sec.
Load factor of the plant (non industrialized area) = 0.5.
The proposed length of headrace tunnel depending upon the existence of overburden rock =
2800 m.
The longitudinal slope of the head race tunnel based on the permissible velocity = 0.008
170
Examples
1. Given data:
The overburden at the end of the headrace tunnel is sufficient for the provision of
underground surge tank.
Total head loss at intake = 0.183 m and overall efficiency = 85%.
Total head loss in the penstock = 2.25 m.
Due to the existence of good sound rock, the head race tunnel is unlined (take 2.5 m/sec for
this case).
The shape of the tunnel is circular.
171
Examples
1. Given data:
Determine:-
 Determine the design discharge for the conveyance structures.
 Design the cross section of the tunnel.
 Calculate the net head of the plant. (Take Darcy Weisbach friction factor as 0.018 for
unlined tunnel).
 Design the cross sectional area and diameter of the surge tank.
 Design the height of the surge tank (Take a height of 3 m to prevent vortex formation).
 Check and verify the location of the intake structure at the proper elevation. (It should be
below the minimum water level and above the dead storage level.)
172
Exercise
2. A power station is fed through a 10,000m long concrete lined tunnel of 5.0 m diameter
operating under a gross head of 200 m. The discharge through the tunnel is 30m3/s. A surge tank
of 300 m2area has been provided at the end of the tunnel. Calculate:
The maximum upsurge in the tank,
The minimum down surge in the tank.
Assume a friction factor f for the concrete lined tunnel as 0.016.
173
Thank you
174

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Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

Where; V is velocity in the diversion canal

Where; Q is flow in the canal or conduit.

To determine the value of C we can use

 Kutter formulla oand the Agroskin formula

Where, dm is mean particle size and Ss is specific gravity of particles.

The initial portion of the tunnel from the intake

For R.C. lining;

P and ζast are given in units of kg/cm2, D is given in cm.

Radial displacement in steel (Δst)

b. Rapid valve closure: pressure increase,

d. Pipe pressure > tank/reservoir.

f. Wave of backwater cannot

i. One full cycle, 4L/c

𝐴𝑠 = (1.5 𝑡𝑜 1.8)𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑛 ---- For tank stability

𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶2 𝑑 𝑑𝐶1 𝑑𝐶2

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