Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Chemical–mineralogical characterisation of coarse recycled

concrete aggregate
a,*
M.C. Limbachiya , E. Marrocchino b, A. Koulouris a

a
Faculty of Engineering, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, Kingston upon Thames, KT1 2EE, UK
b
Department of Earth Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Saragat 1, 44 100, Ferrara, Italy

Accepted 11 January 2006

Available online 29 March 2006

Abstract

The construction industry is now putting greater emphasis than ever before on increasing recycling and promoting more sustainable
waste management practices. In keeping with this approach, many sectors of the industry have actively sought to encourage the use of
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) as an alternative to primary aggregates in concrete production. The results of a laboratory experi-
mental programme aimed at establishing chemical and mineralogical characteristics of coarse RCA and its likely influence on concrete
performance are reported in this paper. Commercially produced coarse RCA and natural aggregates (16–4 mm size fraction) were tested.
Results of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses showed that original source of RCA had a negligible effect on the major elements and a
comparable chemical composition between recycled and natural aggregates. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses results indicated the pres-
ence of calcite, portlandite and minor peaks of muscovite/illite in recycled aggregates, although they were directly proportioned to their
original composition. The influence of 30%, 50%, and 100% coarse RCA on the chemical composition of equal design strength concrete
has been established, and its suitability for use in a concrete application has been assessed. In this work, coarse RCA was used as a direct
replacement for natural gravel in concrete production. Test results indicated that up to 30% coarse RCA had no effect on the main three
oxides (SiO2, Al2O3 and CaO) of concrete, but thereafter there was a marginal decrease in SiO2 and increase in Al2O3 and CaO contents
with increase in RCA content in the mix, reflecting the original constituent’s composition.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction offers an environmentally responsible and economically

viable route to convert this material into a valuable
With the introduction of waste legislation in the form of resource (Dhir et al., 1999; Poon et al., 2002; Sagoe-Crent-
regulations and directives in many parts of world, a signif- sil et al., 2001). In fact, suitability of coarse recycled aggre-
icant move towards the sustainable management of con- gates for use in normal grade concretes meeting
struction and demolition (C&D) waste is becoming a requirements for a range of applications has been proven
legal requirement. In response, different sectors of the con- in a number of studies (Limbachiya, 2004; Meinhold
struction industry are undertaking various initiatives to et al., 2001). (Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is defined
minimise waste generation and improve the management as a minimum of 95% crushed concrete, and recycled
of C&D waste to maximise economic and environmental aggregate (RA) is defined as maximum of 100% crushed
benefits, generally by placing emphasis on increasing recy- masonry (BS 8500, 2002).) As a direct result of these stud-
cling for reuse. ies, the technical and application aspects of using recycled
Indeed, it is now widely accepted that recycling of C&D aggregates in concrete are now reasonably well understood.
wastes for reuse as aggregate in new concrete production With a better understanding of the chemical–mineralogical
characteristics of RCA and its influence on concrete perfor-
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 208 547 2000; fax: +44 208 547 7971. mance, this material can be used confidently in different
E-mail address: m.limbachiya@kingston.ac.uk (M.C. Limbachiya). value-added concrete outlets.

0956-053X/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2006.01.005
202 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208

Against this background, the study was undertaken to Table 2

investigate the chemical and mineralogical composition of Constituent materials of coarse RCAs (sources 1, 2 & 3) used in the study
according to BS 8500-2
coarse (16–4 mm size fraction) recycled concrete and natu-
ral aggregates (16–4 mm size fraction), and natural sand Constituents present Proportions % (m/m) BS 8500 limits
(<4 mm), which included the examination of the likely Test sample (particle fraction
influence on engineering properties and durability perfor- 16–4 mm)
mance of concrete. RCA 1 RCA 2 RCA 3
Concrete 92.4 92.1 85.5 –
2. Experimental details Masonry 1.9 1.6 5.3 5.0
Asphalt 4.9 1.4 3.3 5.0
Lightweight material 0.0 0.6 0.5 0.5
To ensure that the study covered a range of potential (q <1000 kg/m3)
material supply, C&D debris obtained from three different Fines 0.2 3.4 4.4 –
construction sites, within the Greater London area, were Foreign materialsa 0.5 0.9 1.0 1.0
used to produce coarse RCA. The C&D debris selected a
Glass, timber, plastic, metal etc.
were clean and free from detrimental levels of chemical
impurities and harmful constituents. An existing commer- ment and other metals were cleared using an electromagnet
cial recycling plant for the production of quality recycled belt. The larger material was then passed through a second-
aggregates, comprised of primary jaw and secondary cone ary cone crusher in order to reduce the size to 16 mm max-
crushers, electromagnetic and air separation systems and imum and screened into 16–8 and 8–4 mm size fractions, to
screens, was used. In essence, large pieces of C&D debris give clean coarse RCAs with grading corresponding to
arrived from various sites and they were reduced to 0.4 m those for crushed rock to BS 882. In general, the RCA used
maximum size, and the reinforcement was cut by hydraulic was found to be coarser, porous and rougher but equidi-
shears where required. During this stage, large pieces of mensional to that of natural gravel. Portland cement
wood, steel, plastics etc. (foreign materials) were removed (PC) of Grade 42.5 N conforming to BS EN 197-1, used
by manually. Thereafter, material was crushed in a primary for concrete production, was also tested.
crusher and the debris was reduced to 75 mm maximum RCA samples were delivered to Kingston University
size. The products from the primary crusher were then laboratory in batches of 10 tonnes per delivery. Thereafter,
screened on a deck typically consisting of a 10 mm scalping in order to obtain a homogeneous and representative sam-
screen. At this stage, fine materials were discharged by an ple of the aggregate population, a quartering method was
air blower to eliminate dirt, soil and gypsum and reinforce- used as suggested by Goodsall and Mathews (1970). In this
study, the samples of 80 kg of each type of aggregate
Table 1 (coarse and fine NA, coarse RCAs) were reduced to
XRF chemical composition of the main concrete constituents used in the 10 kg samples and 42.5 N PC to 5 kg using this method.
study Aggregate samples were further reduced to 5 kg and PC
Main constituents to 2 kg. Samples were then powdered using an agate mill,
PC Coarse aggregates Natural
sand
Natural RCA 1 RCA 2 RCA 3
gravel
SiO2 (wt%)
SiO2 20.60 97.03 65.37 68.43 63.61 88.54
NA coarse
TiO2 0.22 0.01 0.22 0.39 0.17 0.05
NA Sand
Al2O3 5.47 0.34 5.33 5.49 3.57 1.21
Fe2O3 3.31 0.10 2.16 2.40 2.03 0.76
RCA 2
MnO 0.06 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.02
MgO 2.26 0.65 1.91 2.84 2.62 0.42 RCA 1
RCA 3
CaO 62.50 0.26 13.93 11.19 16.86 5.33
Na2O 0.65 0.16 1.19 0.94 0.87 0.33
K2O 1.71 0.01 0.61 0.62 0.51 0.31
P2O5 0.21 0.02 0.11 0.10 0.49 0.08
LOI 1.64 1.41 9.12 7.56 9.19 2.95
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100
Pba 19 – 50 47 30 6
Zna 53 – 31 29 37 4
Ni 21 – – 9 10 2
Co – 418 55 111 – –
Total Cr 42 8 21 29 52 5
V 134 5 42 62 47 15 Al2 O3
Th – 2 2 1 1 2 CaO
(wt%) (wt%)
S 59,690 – 2879 1698 2964 360
Major oxides expressed in wt%, trace elements expressed in ppm. Fig. 1. Position of the NA and RCA on the CaO–SiO2–Al2O3 ternary
a
Semi-quantitative analysis. diagram.
 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208 203

reducing to 10 g samples suitable for the chemical–mineral- (XRD) techniques to establish the chemical, as well as min-
ogical analysis. eralogical, composition of 42.5 N PC used in concrete pro-
RCA composition was determined in accordance with duction. For these tests, test samples were prepared by
BS 8500; Part 2 and results obtained were found to be well grinding and obtaining grading suitable for XRD and
within the standard specified limits, Table 1. The natural XRF analysis.
aggregates (NA) used were Thames Valley gravel of Major elements (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO,
16 mm maximum size and sand (<4 mm size medium grad- CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, in % weight) and Pb, Zn, Ni, Co,
ing ‘‘MP’’) to EN 12620. In the first part of the study, RCA Cr, V (in ppm) were determined by XRF on pressed pow-
and NA size fractions were examined through X-ray flores- der pellets using an ARL Advant-XP spectrometer, follow-
cence (XRF) spectrometry and X-ray diffractometry ing the full matrix correction method proposed by

7000
S
RCA 1
6000 RCA 2
RCA 3

5000
Mu/Il=Muscovite/Illite
Fd=Feldspar
4000 S=SiO
2
C=CaCO
Counts

3000

2000 Fd
S
C
S S
Mu/Il S S S S
1000 Mu/Il S S

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
a 2 (angle)

4
2 10
S

RCA 1
NA Sand
NA Coarse
4
1.5 10

S=SiO
2
C=CaCO
3
Fd=Feldspar
4
1 10
Counts

Fd
5000 S

S
S
S S
C S S S

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
b 2 (angle)

Fig. 2. (a). XRD patterns of RCA samples (RCA1, RCA2 and RCA3). (b) XRD patterns for recycled coarse aggregates RCA1 and natural aggregates
(coarse and fine) used in the study.
204 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208

Lachance and Traill (1966). Volatiles were determined as ing the presence of low content in bricks/ceramics bearing
loss on ignition (LOI) at 1000 °C. The XRD analysis on phyllosilicate phases. This is related to the recycling process
the same samples was performed using a Phillips at the stage of removal of bricks and other ceramics present
PW1860/00 diffractometer, with graphite-filtered Cu Ka in the C&D waste. This is confirmed by the results of RCA
radiation (1.54 Å), allowing determination of the mineral- constituents shown in Table 2 obtained according to BS
ogical phases within the constituents. Diffraction patterns 8500, were the content of masonry (bricks/ceramics) is
were collected in the 2h angular range 5–50°, with a 5 s/step 4–5 times higher for RCA3 when compared to RCA1
(0.02° 2h). and RCA2 samples.
The NA concrete mixes were proportioned following a It was decided to compare the mineralogical composi-
conventional BRE mix design method (Teychenne et al., tion of RCA 1 and natural coarse and fine aggregates
1998). These mixes were designed for 75 mm nominal (Fig. 2b) in order to better define their similarities and dis-
slump and 20 N/mm2 compressive cube strength at 28- similarities. XRD analyses have shown a clear accordance
day, meeting BS EN 206-1 and BS 8500 requirements for between the coarse and fine aggregate patterns, and in turn
GEN3 designated concrete suitable for blinding, mass fill, compared to RCA 1 pattern it was identified an overall
foundations and general applications. RCA concrete mixes accordance except for the peaks of feldspar and CaCO3.
were proportioned using NA and RCA blends with up to It could be hypothesised that the presence of feldspar
100% coarse RCA, used as direct replacement of coarse may be related to the brick/ceramic content, where this alu-
NA. ICP-AES (inductively coupled plasma-atomic emis- mino-silicate phase is usually used, or to sands containing
sion spectrometry) analysis of the leachate of concrete sam- feldspar and used in the original concrete. CaCO3 presence
ples and their constituent materials was carried out at may directly be related to the original cement paste
Kingston University using a Jobih-Yvoh Horiba Ultima adhered on the surface of RCA particles (Dhir et al.,
2c, to determine the release of the most representative sol- 1999) or due to the carbonation process during service life
uble ions concerning aggregates and cementitious materials within the original concrete.
in accordance with UNI 11087. This required preparation Having characterised the chemical–mineralogical fea-
of 2 g of powder and dilution in 100 ml of distilled water, tures of the main concrete constituents, it was decided to
followed by storage in sealed beaker and continued agita- produce concrete specimens to undergo the same XRF
tion for 1 h. Thereafter, the test solution was left to rest chemical analysis. Concrete was produced, according to
for 24 h and then filtered using medium grade paper before EN 206 using these aggregates and complying with BS
conducting ICP-AES analysis to assess composition of the 8500; Part 1 requirement for RCA. In order to assess the
leachate. effect of coarse RCA on chemical composition of
20 N/mm2 concrete, specimens were produced blending
3. Results and discussion 30%, 50% and 100% coarse RCA, as a direct replacement
for natural gravel. For these mixes, relationships between
The chemical composition obtained using XRF analysis 28-day strength and water/cement ratio were used to estab-
for PC, RCA obtained from three different sources and lish the adjustment necessary to w/c ratio to take account
natural aggregates are given in Table 1. Table 2 gives pro- of the effect of RCA content, as described previously (Lim-
portions of different materials present in the coarse RCA bachiya et al., 2000). The w/c ratio of these mixes was
selected in this study. Data obtained for natural and recy- reduced, via increase in cement content, to achieve equal
cled concrete aggregates are shown plotted as the ternary 28-day strength. In order to ensure that representative sam-
phase diagram for the system CaO–Al2O3–SiO2 in Fig. 1. ples are being analysed, dust samples taken, by means of
Coarse NA was found to be at the top of the triangle,
revealing an almost pure SiO2 composition. In comparison,
100
fine NA (natural sand) shows a richer composition in CaO. 28-day design strength = 20 N/mm2
90
It also shows a comparable composition with coarse RCA
obtained from three different C&D sources of RCA, with a 80
richer composition in Al and Ca oxides when compared to 70 SiO2
Wt (%)

coarse and fine NAs. However, it is important to note sim- 60 0-5 mm

5-10 mm
ilar compositions for all of the RCA, showing negligible 50
10-15 mm
influence of original source. 40 15-20 mm

Chemical analysis of the data obtained for RCA pat- 30

terns (Fig. 2a) shows a predominance of SiO2 peaks, fol- 20 CaO
lowed by minor feldspar and CaCO3 peaks. Although the 10
Al2O3
XRD technique provides a qualitative analysis, the rela- 0
tively low height of feldspar and CaCO3 peaks (compared 0 30 50 100
to SiO2 major peaks) suggests their low contents. The only % Coarse RCA
mineralogical distinction between RCA samples was iden- Fig. 3. Effect of coarse RCA content on major oxides within the concrete
tified in RCA3, as minor peaks of muscovite/illite, indicat- at different depths from the finished surface.
 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208 205

0-5 mm 5-10 mm
19.5 21
18.5 19
17.5
CaO (%)

CaO (%)
17
16.5
15.5 15
14.5 13
R2 = 0.48 R2 = 0.99
13.5 11
12.5
9
11.5
10.5 7
9.5 5
64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86
SiO2 (%) SiO2 (%)

10-15 mm 15-20 mm
21 23

19 21
19
17
CaO (%)

CaO (%)
17
15
15
13 R2 = 0.98
R2 = 0.99 13
11
11
9 9
7 7
5 5
65 70 75 80 85 90 65 70 75 80 85 90

SiO2 (%) SiO2 (%)

0-5 mm 5-10 mm
19.5 21.5
18.5
17.5 19.5
16.5 R2 = 0.58
CaO (%)

CaO (%)

17.5 R2 = 0.91
15.5
14.5 15.5
13.5
12.5 13.5
11.5 11.5
10.5
9.5 9.5
1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 3.3 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Al2O3 (%) Al2O3 (%)

10-15 mm 15-20 mm
21.5 26.5
19.5
21.5
17.5
CaO (%)

CaO (%)

R2 = 0.99 16.5
15.5
R2 = 0.82
13.5 11.5
11.5
6.5
9. 5
7. 5 1.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Al2O3 (%) Al2O3 (%)
R2 = Coefficient of correlation
Fig. 4. Correlations between CaO, Al2O3, SiO2 contents in concrete samples at different depths.

drilling, from three locations and at four different depths SiO2, content was observed, coupled with a slight increase
(0–5, 5–10, 10–15 and 15–20 mm) were selected from each in Al2O3, CaO contents. This behaviour is related to the
concrete type. proportions of the cement constituent used to prepare the
Further analysis of results obtained was focused on the concrete specimen. Observations based on Fig. 3 are fur-
three main oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, CaO), Fig. 3. It was clear ther investigated by establishing the correlation between
that the use of up to 30% coarse RCA, as currently permit- the behaviour of the contents of the three major oxides.
ted within the BS8500, has a negligible effect on SiO2, Results (Fig. 4) revealed that a clear relationship exists
Al2O3, CaO contents, regardless of depth. Increasing the between some of the major oxides contents, highlighting
RCA content to 50% and 100%, a marginal decrease in a negative correlation between Al2O3–SiO2 and SiO2–
206 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208

Concrete 20 N/mm2

Constituent materials: NA Coarse

RCA
100
(a) (d) 1.6
NA Sand
1.4
80
X PC
1.2

MgO %
SiO2 %

60 1.0

0.8
40
0.6

0.4
20
0.2

0 0.0
5.0 9000

8000
(b)
4.0 (e) 7000

Sr (ppm)
6000
Al2O3 %

3.0 5000

4000
2.0
3000

2000
1.0
1000

0.0 0
25 400
350
20 (c) (f)
300

Sr (ppm)
CaO %

250
15
200
10 150
100
5
50
0 0
0 30 50 100 0 30 50 100
% Coarse RCA % Coarse RCA

Fig. 5. Mass balance analysis, referred to 15–20 mm depth samples, for selected major oxide and trace element components.

Table 3
CaO, as well as a positive correlation between Al2O3–CaO.
Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES)
The high correlation factors ranged from 0.82 to 0.99 for water soluble elemental contents (mg/l)
depths greater than 5 mm, providing confidence to the
Main constituents (mg/l)
results. However, at a depth of 0–5 mm, results produced
PC Coarse aggregates Natural
overall low correlation factors, which can be related to
sand
the non uniform surface finishes of concrete. Natural gravel RCA 1 RCA 2 RCA 3
On the whole, XRF results showed that for powder sam- Si 1.01 44.5 16.7 16.6 9.95 9.15
ples obtained from different depths, there was no signifi- Ti 0.01 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03
Al 0.34 0.39 0.33 0.36 0.3 0.63
cant variation in oxide contents. Given this, further
Fe 0.01 0.45 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.75
detailed analysis was undertaken on results of test samples Mn – 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02
obtained from a depth of 15–20 mm. In order to establish Mg 0.08 4.38 0.95 0.75 0.81 1.36
the relationship between the bulk composition of concrete Ca 542 7.64 22.6 14.3 25.7 23.2
and proportions of constituents, a mass balance calculation Na 15.7 0.74 2.54 1.56 2.56 2.1
Pb 0.04 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.12
approach was then adopted (Fig. 5). Fig. 5a considers the
Zn – 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
various elements in question as the content of the concrete Ni 0.01 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.04
sample. The behaviour of the SiO2 content of concrete Co 0.01 0.14 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02
(Fig. 5a) shows a decreasing pattern directly related to Cra 0.22 0.05 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.04
the increase of RCA content. On the other hand, Al2O3, V – 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.02
S 56.8 0.45 7.08 4.81 8.90 1.24
CaO, MgO, Sr, S patterns (Fig. 5b–f) show an increase
Cu 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.04
directly related to the increase of the coarse RCA/NA Sr 2.63 0.03 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.12
ratio, due to the RCA’s richer composition in these oxides. Zr 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
As for PC and natural sand, it is clear that they do not Cement limitation for Cr(VI) content is 0.0002% (2 ppm) when hydrated
influence the content of the elements (SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, according to Directive (2003/53/EC).
a
MgO, S, and Sr). Total chromium content detected.
 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208 207

To consider the environmental impact related to ions It is important to note that the Cr listed in Table 3 is
leaching from cement-based products, ICP-AES analysis the total chromium content detected. Given the limit on
of leaching solutions was performed on all of the main con- Chrome VI in cement within the draft new EU legisla-
stituents and the concrete samples tested. The pH of the tion, the amount of RCA allowed for use in concrete pro-
leachates ranged between 10.4 and 11.2, remaining alkaline duction may be restricted in the future based on this. In
throughout the testing. In comparison of coarse NA and order to assess the leachability of the elements in solid
RCAs results (Table 3), it was clearly identified that the form, the content of selected elements in the solid
higher Ca release of the RCAs was attributed to portlan- (XRF results) were compared with contents of the same
dite content, and therefore to a greater content of soluble elements in the eluates (Fig. 6). The results highlight that
Ca, associated to the cement paste present. As for the finer ion leachability is related to the chemical composition of
fraction aggregate (natural sand), the high content of solu- the solid as shown from the positive correlations
ble Ca is related to the presence of Ca carbonate minerals. discussed.

4.0 4.5
4.0
3.5
3.5

Al2O3 (%)
3.0 3.0
Al2O3 (%)

2.5
2.5 R2 = 0.8699
R2 = 0.802
2.0
2.0 1.5
1.0
1.5
0.5
1.0 0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Al (ppm) Al (ppm)

4500 5000
4500
4000
4000
S (ppm)

3500 3500
S (ppm)

R2 = 0.9857 3000
3000 R2 = 0.9742
2500
2500
2000
2000 1500
1500 1000
4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0

S (ppm) S (ppm)

20 21
19 19
18
17
CaO (%)

CaO (%)

17
16 15
15 13 R2 = 0.5696
14 R2 = 0.7559
11
13
9
12
11 7
10 5
50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Ca (ppm) Ca (ppm)

90 90

85
85
80
SiO2 (%)

SiO2 (%)

R2 =0.9495
80
75 R2 = 0.9843
75
70

65 70

60 65
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Si (ppm) Si (ppm)

Fig. 6. Correlations of selected elements in solid samples (Y axis) obtained through XRF analysis and ion concentration in the eluates (X axis) obtained
using ICP-AES technique.
208 M.C. Limbachiya et al. / Waste Management 27 (2007) 201–208

Although XRF and ICP-AES techniques are well estab- chemical and ICP-AE analysis of eluates of concrete sam-
lished and valid methods in the study of earth materials, ples revealed a direct correlation between chemical compo-
their use in the characterisation of concrete constituents sition of solids and ion leachability. This highlights the
has not been fully exploited yet. The results of this investi- importance of a correct characterisation of leaching behav-
gation and reported correlations clearly suggest that the iours of these new materials.
reported methodologies are useful in characterising con-
crete and its constituents, and can provide much needed Acknowledgements
technical information in predicting its likely performance.
Moreover, such data can help in determining water soluble The authors acknowledge the Day Group Ltd. for par-
contents of various chemical elements of concrete constitu- tial funding the work reported and supplying recycled
ents and prove that their contributions are within the rec- aggregates. The technical advice and support received from
ommended limits set by the British, European and many Dr. Renzo Tassinari (for XRF/XRD analysis) at the Earth
other concrete standards. Sciences Department of Ferrara University and Mr. Simon
DeMars (for ICP- AES analysis) at the Faculty of Science
4. Conclusions and practical implications of Kingston University is gratefully acknowledged.

This study shows that commercially produced coarse

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