Virtual Experiments Applied Physics

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EXPERIMENT 2 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND DENSITY

OBJECTIVE
Object dimensions are measured by using laboratory balance, a ruler, a Vernier caliper, and a Micrometer
screw gauge. Using measurements with these instruments, objects volume and density are calculated.
Experimental densities will then be compared to accepted values of density for the purpose of
determining the possible material compositions of the objects. Propagation of errors are analyzed.
THEORY AND PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Measuring Instruments
Length is generally measured by using meter ruler and the least count (or the smallest measurement) of
the meter ruler is one millimeter (1.0 mm). Therefore, meter rulers are only useful to measure length
segments larger than one millimeter. There are two specific instruments that are used to measure length
segments smaller than one millimeter, namely Vernier caliper and Micrometer screw gauge.
Vernier Caliper
Figure 1 shows a picture of Vernier caliper. There are two scales in the caliper. One is the main scale with
the least count of one millimeter and the other is the Vernier scale which is the moving scale and the
value of the one segment of the Vernier scale is the least count of the instrument.
To find the least count of the instrument, first close the jaws completely which means the external jaws
should be touching each other. Then it should show zeros of both main and Vernier scales have aligned
each other and read the main scale value in millimeters which aligned with last segment line of the
Vernier scale.

Figure 1 Vernier Caliper (Picture credit: https://amrita.olabs.edu)

Least count of Vernier caliper = One main scale division – main scale reading
) (1)
( number of division in vernier scale
(2)
values of smallest segment of main scale
Least count of Vernier caliper = number of division in vernier scale

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Virtual Experiments Applied Physics
If a Vernier caliper has 10 segments in the Vernier scale, the least count is 0.1 mm and if the Vernier scale
consists of 20 segments then the least is 0.05 mm.
In general, instrumental uncertainty (error of a measurement) for analogue type instruments,

Instrument uncertainty = least count

2 (3)
Therefore, uncertainty of Vernier caliper with 0.1mm least count is 0.05 mm.

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Micrometer Screw Gauge
Figure 2 shows a picture of a Micrometer screw gauge. There are two scales in the micrometer. One is the
main scale with the least count of one millimeter (or some Micrometers with half a millimeter) and the
other is circular scale which is the moving scale and the value of the one segment of the circular scale is
the least count of the instrument.
To find the least count of the instrument, thimble should rotate one complete circle and find out how far
the circular scale moves horizontally in terms of segments in the main scale. Usually when the thimble
rotates one circle then the circular scale moves one segment (about 0.5 mm) of the main scale.

Figure 2 Micrometer Screw Gauge (Picture credit, https://amrita.olabs.edu)

values of smallest segment of main scale (4)

Least count of Micrometer = number of division in circular scale

If a circular scale has 100 segments, least count of the Micrometer is 0.01 mm. Therefore, the uncertainty
of Micrometer is 0.005 mm.
In general, Micrometers are more accurate than the Vernier calipers. It is also important to note that data
recording should indicate the uncertainty of the instruments. A measurement from the Vernier caliper of
least count of 0.1mm should be recorded with two decimal places in which the second decimal place
indicates the uncertainty of the instrument. Similarly, a measurement with a Micrometer of at least count
0.01mm should be recorded with three decimal places to properly indicate the instrument uncertainty.
Since Micrometer has circular scale which is a barrel moving on top of main scale it is very important to
check the zero error. To check for zero error, first rotate the circular scale by using a ratchet till the screw
touches the stud. When the screw and stud touch each other, the zero of the main scale should align with
zero of circular scale. This is very important test that must be done before use of any Micrometer.
Figure 3 shows the two possible scenarios of zero errors. When two zeros are coincided then there is no
zero error. If the circular scale zero is below the main scale horizontal line, then it is called negative zero
error otherwise it is called positive zero error.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3 Zero-error of Micrometer Screw Gauge (Picture credit, https://amrita.olabs.edu)
Figure 3(a) two zeros are coincided therefore no zero error. In figure 3(b) circular scale zero is below the
main scale zero and the number of segments from circular scale zero line to main scale horizontal line
indicate the negative zero error. In figure 3(c) circular scale zero is above the main scale zero and the
number of segments from circular scale zero line to main scale horizontal line indicate the positive zero
error.
Mass, Volume and Density
The mass 𝑀 of an object is a measure of how much matter or how much material an object contains. Mass
can be found using a laboratory balance which can be either mechanical or electronic. The volume 𝑉 of an
object is a measure of the three-dimensional space of the object. The density 𝜌 of an object describes the
compactness of matter inside the object or alternately describes how much matter is inside the three-
dimensional space of the object. Density can be determined from the ratio of an object's mass to its
volume 𝑉 and is given by
𝑀
𝜌= (5)
𝑉
The SI units for density are kg/m3 but g/cm3 are commonly used for smaller values of density. Calculating
the density of an object can help one to determine its material composition.
Volumes of a Plate, Cylinder, Sphere, and Irregularly Shaped Object
The volume of an object can be calculated in different ways, depending on the shape of the object.
The volume of a regularly shaped object can be determined from dimensional measurements. The
volume of an irregularly shaped solid object can be determined by immersing it in a graduated cylinder
with water. The displacement of the water level before and after the object is submerged reveals the
volume of the object.
The volume 𝑉 of a rectangular plate can be found from measurements of length �, width � and thickness
� and is given by
𝑉 =�×�×� (6)

The volume 𝑉 of a solid cylinder or rod can be found by multiplying its circular cross-sectional area 𝐴 by
its measured length �. The cross-sectional area 𝐴 depends on the measured diameter � and is given by
�
𝐴 = �2 (7)
4
Then the volume of a solid cylinder is

(8)
 The volume of a sphere can be determined by just a measurement of its diameter � and is given by
�
𝑉 = �3 (9)
6
Volume of an irregular shape object can be measured by using Archimedes principle. When an object is
submerged into a water container, fluid volume displaced by the object is the same as the volume of the
object.

Usually, fluid volume is measured in units of milliliters. Which must be converted into SI units of
volume of cubic meters m3.
1.0 mL = 1.0 cm3 = 1.0*10-6 m3 = 1.0 L = 10-3 m3 (10)
Propagation of Error and Uncertainty of Density Calculations
Recall from Experiment-01: Data and Error Analysis that the uncertainty of a quantity 𝑄 calculated with a
mathematical form dependant on multiplication, division and/or powers of the measured quantities �, �
and � such as
� �
𝑄=�� (11)
��

and where each measured quantity has its own individual uncertainty, is given by

If multiple measurements of �, � and � were made, then ∆�, ∆� and ∆� can be the mean absolute
deviations or standard deviations of those respective measurements. Also �, �, � and 𝑄 in these
equations can be replaced by average values. The final calculated value for the calculated quantity 𝑄
would then be reported as

where Q́ is an average value of 𝑄 calculated from the mean values �̅ , �̅ and �̅.
 APPARATUS
AND PROCEDURE
Part A: Volume of an object by using Vernier caliper
● This part of the experiment is done with following simulation:
https://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=16&cnt=4
● This simulation works fine with any web browser.
● A very detail video tutorial with data collection from simulator and data analysis with excel can be
found here: https://youtu.be/i0F-28SU8K4

Figure 4 Vernier Caliper (Picture credit: https://amrita.olabs.edu)

● Click on the object to measure the dimension.

● Object appears on the vernier and the right outer jaw moves far right side.
● Click on the right outer jaw and drag it till it touches the object.
● When it is ready for reading then a zoomed in picture appears on top right side as shown in the figure.
● Read the measurement and record it in the data table.
● Repeat the above procedure as needed to measure dimensions of selected objects.

Part B: Volume of an object by using Micrometer Screw Gauge

● This part of the experiment is done with following simulation:
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=5&sim=156&cnt=4
● This simulation works fine with any web browser.
● A very detail video tutorial with data collection from simulator and data analysis with excel can be
found here: https://youtu.be/i0F-28SU8K4

Figure 5 Micrometer Screw Gauge (Picture credit: http://amrita.olabs.edu.in)

● Zero error check must be done before use of micrometers.
● Click on the up arrow on the rachet end till the screw touches the stud.
● When screw and stud touch each other a zoomed in picture appears bottom right as shown in the
figure.
● Check the zoomed in picture for possible zero error of the micrometer and record it.
● Click on the object to measure the dimension.
● Object appears on the micrometer and the screw moves far right side.
● Click on the black arrow on the rachet to move the screw till it touches the object.
● When it is ready for reading then a zoomed in picture appears on top right side as shown in the figure.
● Read the measurement and record it in the data table. Make sure to do any zero error correction to
reading.
● Repeat the above procedure as needed to measure dimensions of selected objects.

Part C: Density of an object

● This part of the experiment is done with following simulation:
http://amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=1&brch=1&sim=2&cnt=4
● This simulation works fine with any web browser.
● A very detail video tutorial with data collection from simulator and data analysis with excel can be
found here: https://youtu.be/i0F-28SU8K4

Figure 6 Micrometer Screw Gauge (Picture credit: http://amrita.olabs.edu.in)

● Mass of the object can be measured by using spring scale balance.

● It is important to check the least count of the balance, which can be done with the picture on the right
side. There are two scales on the balance, Newton units on the right side and the kilogram units on the
left side.
● Least count on the kilogram units of the balance is 5.0 grams. Therefore, uncertainty of the instrument
is 2.5 grams.
● Click on the selected object on the bottom of the simulator.
● The object hangs on the scale and zoomed in picture on right can be used to read the mass of the
object.
● To measure the volume of the object, reset the simulator by clicking the “reset” button on the bottom
left side of the simulator.
● Select “find column” on the selection panel “select type of test” on the top left side of the simulator.
● A water cylinder appears. It is very important to check the least count of the water cylinder. Which is
5.0 mL. Therefore, the uncertainty of the instrument is 2.5 mL. Make sure to convert all the volume
measurements to cubic centimeters or SI units of cubic meters.
● Repeat the measurement of mass and volume of any selected objects.
PRE LAB QUESTIONS
1) Describe two scales in Vernier Caliper?

2) Describe two scales in Micrometer screw gauge?

3) Describe a method to measure the thickness of a printing paper?

4) How do you measure the density of an irregular shape object?

5) Do you think the densities would change if measured at different temperatures?

Table 1 Standard Density Values of Selected Materials

Name Density Name Density

[g/cm³] [g/cm³]

Aluminum 2.70 Calcite 2.72

Brass 8.44 Diamond 3.52

Copper 8.95 Feldspar 2.57

Iron 7.86 Halite 2.12

Lead 11.48 Magnetite 5.18

Nickel 8.80 Olivine 3.32

Silver 10.49 Cement 1.85

Tin 7.10 Chalk 1.90

Zinc 6.92 Clay 1.80

DATA ANALYSIS AND CALCULATIONS
Data tables and calculations must be done in excel. All the excel functions should be added below each table
in the lab report.
Least Count and Uncertainty of Instruments
Uncertainty of instrument = ½ * least count of instrument
Table 1 Uncertainty of Instruments

Uncertainty of
Least Count Least Count
Instrument instrument
in given units in SI units
in SI units
Meter Stick
Vernier Caliper
Micrometer Screw-Gauge
Spring Scale Balance
Water Cylinder

Vernier Caliper readings = Main scale reading + (Vernier scale reading x least count), should be in mm.
Micrometer readings = Main scale reading + (Micrometer scale reading x least count), should be in mm.
Part A: Volume of an object by using Vernier caliper
Table 2 Dimension measurement of objects by Vernier

Iron Block
Dimension Main scale Vernier Scale Final Reading
[ ] [ ] [ ]

Length
Width
Thickness
Metal Cylinder
Dimension Main scale Vernier Scale Final Reading
[ ] [ ] [ ]
Length
Diameter
 Table 3 Object volume and uncertainty by Vernier

Volume Uncertainty of
calculated Uncertainty of volume Volume
Object Volume equation
V equation 𝛿𝑉
[ ] [ ]
Iron
Block

Cylinder
Volume calculated without rounding Volume calculated with rounding and in
and in SI units scientific notation and SI units
𝑉 ± 𝛿𝑉 𝑉 ± 𝛿𝑉
[ ] [ ]
Iron
Block

Cylinder

Part B: Volume of an object by using Micrometer Screw Gauge

Table 4 Dimension measurement of objects by Micrometer

Lead Shot

Dimension Main scale Circular Scale Final Reading

[ ] [ ] [ ]

Diameter

Thin Wire

Dimension Main scale Circular Scale Final Reading

[ ] [ ] [ ]
Length

Diameter
 Table 5 Object volume and uncertainty by Micrometer

Volume Uncertainty of
Object Volume equation calculated Uncertainty of volume Volume
V [ ] equation 𝛿𝑉 [ ]
Lead shot
Thin wire
Volume calculated without Volume calculated with rounding and in
rounding and in SI units scientific notation and SI units
𝑉 ± 𝛿𝑉 𝑉 ± 𝛿𝑉
[ ] [ ]
Lead shot

Thin wire

Part C: Density of an object

Table 6 Mass and volume measurements

Mass Uncertainty Uncertainty

of Mass Volume
M of Volume
V [ ]
[ ] M  𝛿𝑉 [ ]
[ ]
Cylinder
Lock
Stone
Uncertainty of Density
Density
𝜌
 𝛿𝑉

[ ] M 𝑉
M [ ]

Cylinder
Lock
Stone
Density with Expected
calculated Predicted Value of Percent
uncertainty Material Density in SI Error (PE)
  (in SI units) unit
Cylinder
Lock
Stone
Virtual Experiments Physics I
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